a2 - black nihilism - luv, nikki

7/24/2019 A2 - Black Nihilism - Luv, Nikki

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Black Culture TurnTheir claims about the absolute destruction of African culture

are factually incorrect, contemporary African-American culture

can be traced back to Central African Bantu survivals that were

retained during slavery.Holloway !!"[Joseph E., Professor of Pan-African Studies at CSU Northridge, The Origins of African-Aerican Cu!ture,"Africanisms in American Cultureed. #$ Joseph E. %o!!o&a$ p. '()

*an$ other ens!a+ed Africans &ere ep!o$ed as e!d s!a+es. This occupation, in fact, &as engaged in #$ the

aorit$ of Africans, suggesting thatit &as aong the e!d s!a+es that uch of African-Aerican cu!ture and !anguage e+o!+ed. These e!d s!a+es &ere ain!$ Centra!Africans &ho, un!ie the Senega#ians,#rought a hoogenous cu!ture identia#!e as/antu. The cu!tura! hoogeneit$ of the /antu is indicated #$ a coon !anguage. Once the /antureached Aerica the$ &ere a#!e to retain uch of their cu!tura! identit$. Enforcediso!ation of these Africans #$ p!antation o&ners a!!o&ed the to retain their re!igion,phi!osoph$, cu!ture, fo!!ore, fo!&a$s, fo! #e!iefs, fo! ta!es, stor$te!!ing, naing

practices, hoe econoics, arts, inship, and usic. These Africaniss &ere sharedand adopted #$ the +arious African ethnic groups of the e!d s!a+e counit$, andthe$ gradua!!$ de+e!oped into African-Aerican cooing 0sou! food1,usic0a22, #!ues,spiritua!s, gospe!s1, !anguage, re!igion, phi!osoph$, custos, and arts.

Their assertion of the anthropological o#-the-mapness of black

sub$ectivity mirrors white racist anthropologists and linguists

who defended the idea that slavery represented an absolute

break with African culture.

Asante !!"[*o!e 3ete, Professor and Chair of the 4epartent of African-Aerican Studies at Tep!eUni+ersit$, African E!eents in African-Aerican Eng!ish,"Africanisms in American Cultureed. #$ Joseph E.

%o!!o&a$ p. '5-67)

A considera#!e inte!!ectua! eanness had to #e co#ated #$ the initia! cadre ofcounicationists &ho e8ained the continuit$ of #!ac !anguage #eha+iors froAfrica to Aerica. The racist assuption that #!ac pidgin re9ected innate ina#i!it$of Africans to !earn Eng!ish &as current at one tie. :n fact, as %erso+its pointed out, the!inguists &ho studied pidgin often had no no&!edge of African !anguages and therefore cou!d not ae infored

interpretations. ;oren2o Turner augented this position #$ e8posing inaccuracies in the &or of!inguists&ho&ere on2a!es, !ie an$ &hite Aerican !inguists, isunderstood the >u!!ah !anguage and arri+ed at the &rongconc!usion. :n '566 he cited a !ist of &ords that &ere purported to #e of African origin. *ost of the &ords are either

Eng!ish &ords isspe!!ed or African &ords interpreted as Eng!ish &ords that #!acs cou!d not pronounce. >on2a!es&as thorough!$ confused a#out &hat he &as stud$ing, as Turner pointed out? *an$ other &ords in >on2a!es@g!ossar$ &hich, #ecause of his !ac of acu!!ah &ords &hich he or other Aerican &riters ha+einterpreted as Eng!ish, #ut &hich are African, are the *ende suwangc, to #e proud 0e8p!ained #$ >on2a!es as acorruption of the Eng!ish s&agger1? the =o!of lir, sa!! 0taen #$ >on2a!es to #e an a##re+iated for of the Eng!ish!itt!e, in spite of the fact that the >u!!ah a!so uses !itt!e &hen he &ishes to1? the =o!of benj, tooth 0e8p!ained #$ theAericans as a corruption of #one1? The T&i fa, to tae 0e8p!ained #$ Aericans as a corruption of the Eng!ish for1

. The point ade #$ Turner is that &hite Aerican !inguists refused to consider thepossi#i!it$ that #!acs used African &ords in their +oca#u!aries . :n fact, the e+idence


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deonstrates that &hites unfai!iar &ith either African !anguages or >u!!ah adee8pansi+e genera!i2ations that tended to support their preconcei+ed otions a#out#!ac speech ha#its. =riting in theAmerican Mercuryin '56B,>eorge 3rapp said that it isreasona#!$ safe to sa$ that not a sing!e detai! of Negro pronunciation or Negros$nta8 can #e pro+ed to ha+e other than Eng!ish origins." Other &riters &ho +oiced

near!$ the sae udgent regarding the presence of African sur+i+a!s in #!acAerican speech supported the notion of an a#so!ute #rea &ith African cu!ture. :t&as inconcei+a#!e to the that either phono!ogica!, orpho!ogica!, or seanticinterference cou!d ha+e e8isted &here Africans retained their !anguage #eha+ior inconnection &ith Eng!ish.

The survival of African religion also disproves the idea that

black culture has no ontological reach since it was a key

element of slave uprisings and revolts.

%ulira !!"[Jessie >aston, Associate Professor of %istor$ and Ethnic Studies at CSU Sacraento,peaches, The Case of oodoo in Ne& Or!eans,"Africanisms in American Cultureed. #$ Joseph E. %o!!o&a$ p. D()

:t is ore dicu!t to easure and e+a!uate the persistence of African cu!ture e!se&here, especia!!$ in the UnitedStates, outside the core areas of Ne& Or!eans and the Sea :s!ands. :n an$ pocet areas" in the southern states

and in cities and to&ns through the United States, renants of African cu!turea#ound? in !anguage patternsand +oca#u!ar$, in !iterature, in techni


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proised the gods@ support for an$ re#e!!ion the s!a+es decided to engage in. Theassurance of supernatura! supportto #oth !eaders and fo!!o&ers andthe priests@ proise that theancestors &ere aiding the strugg!e for freedo ga+e the s!a+es the necessar$inspiration, courage, and deterination. arious chars, gris-gris, potions, and sa!! parce!scontaining #its of paper, #ones, or potions hung around the necs of the ghting en pro+ided protection and good

!uc #$ &arding oH #u!!ets.The s!a+e insurrection in Ne& Ior in '('6 &as !ed #$ a conurer&ho con+inced the ghters the$ &ere in+u!nera#!e. A !eader in the '66 insurrection in NorthCaro!ina, >u!!ah Jac," a!so &as a conurerand root doctorK his chars, chie9$ of ania! c!a&s,&ere designed to ae the insurrectionists in+u!nera#!e. oodoo priests a!so he!ped suicide +ictis #$ te!!ing the&hat to do to ensure their return after death to their hoe!and in Africa.

Culture is an indispensable resource for collective struggle

against anti-black oppression that posits blackness as absent

of culture and identity. &dentifying a usable past is the raw

material for the creative self-making and in turn self-

determination of Afro-'iasporic peoples that e(ists as a

transnational architecture for e#ective combat against global

white supremacy. &denti)cation with African culture is the bestmeans of sca#olding rhetorical devices and points of a*nity

and solidarity that translate into actual social mobili+ation and

change.

ingh ""[Si#oonath, Assistant Professor of Socio!og$ at the Uni+ersit$ of *ichigan-4ear#orn, peaches,Fesistance, Essentia!is, and Epo&erent in /!ac Nationa!ist 4iscourse in the African 4iaspora? A Coparisonof the /ac to Africa, /!ac Po&er, and Fastafari *o+eents,"Journal of African American Studies, o!. , No. D)

The resurgence of #!ac consciousness and pride in the Cari##ean a !a the Fastafari and /!ac Po&er o+eents

i!!ustrates the po&er of acti+is to inspire indi+idua! and co!!ecti+e ethnic pride and consciousness.Theconstruction and reconstruction of histor$ and cu!ture to redene the eaning of

ethnicit$ is an iportant aspect of ethnic o+eents. A!! three o+eents initiateda cu!tura! reconstruction process #$ su#stituting doinant oppressi+e s$#o!s 0co!onia!is, doination, e8p!oitation, su#ugation, and European cu!tura! iperia!is and hegeon$1 for orepositi+e and !i#erating African s$#o!s. This cu!tura! in+ersion ared an iportantdeparture fro the accu!turation approach, in that #oth the Fastafari and the /!ac Po&erad+ocates attepted to re+erse the doinant structure that has characteri2ed the Cari##ean region--one #ased onco!onia! doinance and contro!, resistance to s!a+er$, indenture ship, and p!antation societ$--to an ephasis on thepositi+e and resi!ient character of the oppressed, i.e. the descendants of forer s!a+es, nae!$, Afro-Cari##eanpeop!es. The centra!it$ of #!ac diasporic cu!ture in a!! of the o+eents points to the re!e+ance of historica!strugg!es in shaping and reshaping identities. /!ac diasporic cu!ture, then, is concerned &ith strugg!es to #ediHerent. An a&areness of shared histories of ens!a+eent, racist su#ordination, cu!tura! sur+i+a!, resistance andpo!itica! re#e!!ion is the core of the #!ac 4iaspora 0C!iHord, '55B1. The ter 4iaspora encopasses not on!$ notionsof transnationa!it$ and o+eent, #ut po!itica! strugg!es aied at dening se!f and counit$ in historica!conte8ts of disp!aceent. 4iasporic cu!tures &ith their ephasis on disp!aceent and a desire to return to an

origina! hoe!and, #e it rea! or s$#o!ic, can #e p!aced in the conte8t of the Fastafari, /!ac Po&er, and /ac toAfrica o+eents. /$ recasting the cu!tura! ateria! of the past in inno+ati+e &a$s,ethnic o+eents reforge their o&n cu!ture and histor$ and, as a resu!t, rein+entthese!+es0Nage!, '55B1. :n constructing an ethnic identit$, a !oo #ac&ard in tie, or &hat 4ag /!anc0'551 ca!!s a Lusa#!e past,L acts as an essentia! ingredient in the identit$ creationprocess. Anthon$ Cohen 0'5M, p. 551 &rites, Lin constructing cu!ture the past is a resourceused#$ groups in the co!!ecti+e


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#e argued that ethnic o+eents are the e#odients of cu!tures of so!idarit$ #ecausethe$ cha!!enge negati+e hegeonic iages and institutions #$? 0i1 redening theeaning of ethnicit$ in appea!ing &a$sK and0ii1 using cu!tura! s$#o!s to eHecti+e!$draati2e grie+ances and deands0Nage!, '55B, p. '1. Ethnic groups engage in theconstruction of cu!ture #$ using particu!ar aspects of their cu!ture and histor$ in

order to create coon eanings, #ui!d so!idarit$ and u!tiate!$ !aunch socia!o+eents. Joane Nage!s 0'55B, p. 'B1 shopping cart etaphor to descri#e the d$naic character of ethniccu!ture is instructi+e here? L&e construct cu!ture #$ picing and choosing ites fro the she!+es of the past and

present.L Cu!ture and histor$, therefore, are essentia! aspects of ethnicit$, and in theconte8t of socia! o+eents the$ ha+e #een specica!!$ ep!o$ed as o#i!i2ationstrategies to redene and reconstruct identit$ and cu!ture. The Fastafari, /ac toAfrica, and /!ac Po&er o+eents used cu!ture and histor$ to dene a coonpurpose, create coon eanings, #ui!d ethnic so!idarit$, and !a$ c!ais to se!f-deterination. The anipu!ation of ethnic s$#o!s, cu!ture and histor$ in these o+eents supports the ideathat cu!ture, ethnic identit$ and custos are not L8ed.L :ndeed, the #!ac cu!tura! nationa!ists and /!ac Artsproponents, in conceding that #!acs &ere assii!ated enough to engage in acts of se!f-hatred, such as odif$ingtheir !oos to confor to &hite standards, &ere ip!icit!$ acno&!edging that #!ac cu!ture in the 4iaspora &asessentia!!$ h$#rid 0Fo#inson, 677'1. :n other &ords, the idea that identit$ and cu!ture are 8ed and natura!

phenoena is a roantic and essentia!ist conception. %$#ridit$, then, #ecoes a reed$ for essentia!istsu#ecti+it$ 0%a!!, '55B1. Cu!tura! rene&a! and transforations are, therefore, iportant aspects of ethnic

o+eents. Acti+ists use cu!tura!icons, iager$, s$#o!s and c!ais as part of theo#i!i2ation process0Nage!, '55B, p.'M1. 4a+id Sno& et a!. 0'51 contend that socia! o+eentacti+ists uti!i2e cu!turesuch as specic t$pes of rhetorica! de+ices, and cu!tura! thees and cu!tura!discourses as a &a$ of recruiting e#ers, gaining po!itica! currenc$ and achie+ingo+eent goa!s. Sii!ar!$ 0>ason, '51 i!!ustrates the re!ationship #et&een cu!ture and ethnico#i!i2ation #$ sho&ing ho& cu!tura! s$#o!s and thees are used to ser+e o+eent ends. Protest, therefore,#ecoes a cruci#!e of cu!ture. These o+eents created a Ne& =or!d nationa!ist consciousness in &hich notions ofLAfrica,L L#!ac ethnicit$,L L#!ac pride,L and L#!ac nationa!is,L insti!!ed a strong sense of deep cu!tura! resonanceaong diasporic Africans. /$ su#scri#ing to the idea!i2ation of Africa perspecti+e in &hich Africa represents as$#o! of identit$ and hoe, the Fastafari, >ar+e$, and /!ac Po&er o+eents represent a s$#o!icconfrontation of the status


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/0&nterpretation1 the a*rmative should win if the hypothetical

implementation of a topical plan is better than the status 2uo

or competitive policy options.

3refer our &nterpretation,

A. 3redictability 4 critical negation forces the a# to bring a

knife to a gun )ght 4 di#ering literature bases make for

unpredictable research burdens for the a# and avoids

literature clash

B. ground - Hypothetical implementation is key to a# ground

and o#ensive strategy their interp moots 5 mins of AC o#ense

4 we should get to weigh the a# against the alternative

C. 3olicy 6ducation 4 7sing state actors to mitigate the harms

of the s2uo is necessary to generate real world progress - thealternative fails by ceding the discussion of politics to the

elites

%ou#e !0Chanta! *ouHe is Professor of Po!itica! Theor$ at the Centre for theStud$ of 4eocrac$, Uni+ersit$ of =estinster, The :portance of Engaging theState", =hat is Fadica! Po!itics Toda$, Edited #$ Jonathan Pugh, pp. 6DD-(1

According to %ardt and Negri, and irno, radica! po!itics in the past &as doinated #$ the notion of Qthe [email protected] &as, according to the, a unit$, acting &ith one &i!!. And this unit$ is !ined to the e8istence of the state. The*u!titude, on the contrar$, shuns po!itica! unit$. :t is not representa#!e #ecause it is an acti+e se!f-organising agentthat can ne+er achie+e the status of a uridica! personage. :t can ne+er con+erge in a genera! &i!!, #ecause thepresent g!o#a!isation of capita! and &orers@ strugg!es &i!! not perit this. :t is anti-state and anti-popu!ar. %ardt

and Negri c!ai that the *u!titude cannot #e concei+ed an$ ore in ters of a so+ereign authorit$ that isrepresentati+e of the peop!e.The$ therefore argue that ne& fors of po!itics, &hich are non-representati+e, are needed. The$ ad+ocate a &ithdra&a! fro e8isting institutions.

This is soething &hich characterises uch of radica! po!itics toda$. The ephasisis not upon cha!!enging the state. Fadica! po!itics toda$ is often characterised #$ aood, a sense and a fee!ing, that the state itse!f is inherent!$ the pro#!e. Criti


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doinant order in a heterogeneous societ$ R it need not on!$ refer to the &orers@ strugg!es. : su#it that it isnecessar$ to introduce this hegeonic diension &hen one en+isages the transition fro Gordis to post-Gordis.This eans a#andoning the +ie& that a sing!e !ogic 0&orers@ strugg!es1 is at &or in the e+o!ution of the &orprocessK as &e!! as acno&!edging the pro-acti+e ro!e p!a$ed #$ capita!. :n order to do this &e can nd interesting

insights in the &or of ;uc /o!tansi andE+e Chiape!!o&ho, in their #oo The Ne& Spirit of Capita!is0677M1, #ring to !ight the &a$ in &hich capita!ists anage to use the deands forautono$ of the ne& o+eents that de+e!oped in the '57s, harnessing the inthe de+e!opent of the post-Gordist net&ored econo$ and transforing the

into ne& fors of contro!. The$ use the terQartistic criti2ue8 to refer to ho& the

strategies of the counter-cu!ture0the search for authenticit$, the idea! of se!fanageent and the anti-hierarchica! e8igenc$1 &ere used to proote the conditions rerasci ca!!ed Qhegeon$ through neutra!isation@ orQpassi+e re+o!ution@. This refers to a situation &here deands &hich cha!!enge the

hegeonic order are recuperated #$ the e8isting s$ste, &hich is achie+ed #$satisf$ing the in a &a$ that neutra!ises their su#+ersi+e potentia!. =hen &e apprehendthe transition fro Gordis to post- Gordis &ithin such a frae&or, &e can understand it as a hegeonic o+e#$ capita! to re-esta#!ish its !eading ro!e and restore its cha!!enged !egitiac$. =e did not &itness a re+o!ution, in*ar8@s sense of the ter. Father, there ha+e #een an$ diHerent inter+entions, cha!!enging doinant hegeonic

practices. :t is c!ear that, once &e en+isage socia! rea!it$ in ters of Qhegeonic@ and

Qcounter-hegeonic@ practices, radical politics is not about withdrawing

completely from e(isting institutions. Father, &e ha+e no other choice #ut to

engage &ith hegeonic practices, in order to cha!!enge the .This is crucia!Kother&ise &e &i!! #e faced &ith a chaotic situation . *oreo+er, if &e do not engage &ith

and cha!!enge the e8isting order, if &e instead choose to sip!$ escape the state cop!ete!$, we

leave the door open for others to take control of s$stes of authorit$ andregu!ation. :ndeed there are an$ historica!0and not so historica!1 e8ap!es of this. 0hen

the 9eft shows little interest, :ight-wing and authoritarian groups are

only too happy to take over the state . The strateg$ of e8odus cou!d #e seen as thereforu!ation of the idea of counis, as it &as found in *ar8. There are an$ points in coon #et&een thet&o perspecti+es. To #e sure, for %ardt and Negri it is no !onger the pro!etariat, #ut the *u!titude &hich is the

pri+i!eged po!itica! su#ect. /ut in #oth cases the stateis seen as a ono!ithic apparatus of doination thatcannot #e transfored. :t has to Q&ither a&a$@ in order to !ea+e roo for a reconci!edsociet$#e$ond !a&, po&er and so+ereignt$. :n rea!it$, as :@+e a!read$ noted, others are oftenperfect!$ &i!!ing to tae contro!. :f$ approach R supporting ne& socia! o+eents andcounterhegeonic practices R has #een ca!!ed Qpost-*ar8ist@#$ an$, it is precise!$

#ecause :ha+e

cha!!enged

the +er$ possi#i!it$ of such a reconci!ed societ$. Toacno&!edgethe e+er present possi#i!it$ of antagonisto the e8isting order ip!ies recognisingthat heterogeneit$ cannot #e e!iinated. As far as po!itics is concerned, this eans the need to en+isage it in ters of a hegeonic strugg!e #et&een con9icting hegeonicproects attepting to incarnate the uni+ersa! and to dene the s$#o!icparaeters of socia! !ife. A successfu! hegeon$ 8es the eaning of institutions and socia! practices anddenes the Qcoon sense@ through &hich a gi+en conception of rea!it$ is esta#!ished. %o&e+er, such a resu!t isa!&a$s contingent, precarious and suscepti#!e to #eing cha!!enged #$ counter-hegeonic inter+entions. Po!itics

a!&a$s taes p!ace in a e!d criss-crossed #$ antagoniss. A proper!$ po!itica! inter+ention is a!&a$s


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one that engages &itha certain aspect of the e8isting hegeon$. :t can ne+er #e ere!$oppositiona! or concei+ed as desertion, #ecause it ais to cha!!enge the e8istingorder, so that it a$ reidentif$ and fee! ore coforta#!e &ith that order. Anotheriportant aspectof a hegeonic po!itics !ies in esta#!ishing !inages #et&een +ariousdeands0such as en+ironenta!ists, feinists, anti-racist groups1, so as to transfor the into

c!ais that &i!! cha!!enge the e8isting structure of po&er re!ations. This is a further reason

&h$ criti


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preempting it, they have forged close relationships with corporations

honing surveillance and intelligence-gathering techni2ues for use against

Americans. /$ c!aiing that anyone who 2uestions authority or engages in

undesired political speech is a potential terrorist threat, this go+ernent-

corporate partnership aes a ocer$ of ci+i! !i#erties. The e8ap!es in these pages sho&ho& a free press, our !ega! s$ste, acti+ists, and other pi!!ars of a deocratic societ$and e+en chi!drensuHer as

a conse


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Alt. The alt doesn8t solve for < reasons

a. /irst they have no alternative to solve for their impacts,

their warren = card, 2uote >Thus we have no

alternative?.b. Their alternative is understanding the racial dichotomy

and analy+ing it, what e(actly does that do, there is no

call for action, nor is there a proposed plan to solve for

their counter hegemonic struggle.

c. Their last 0ilderson card provides some form of an

alternative that is $ust a re$ect the a*rmative alt.

@ague Alts is bad and a voting issue

a. %oving target- vagueness allows them to >clarify their

intent? once they have heard our arguments

b. round 4 the vague nature of the alt destroys a#

ground- we lose the ability to an concrete perms or

solvency indites because re-clari)cation could spike out

c. ills education- how can we learn about the when we

don8t know what it does

d. All of the above are voting issues to ensure competitive

e2uity and education and a reason to re$ect the team

d. This Alt still doesn8t solve for their impacts because even

re$ecting the A// still allows for the hegemonic structure of

the 7/ to e(ist.

6. Based on all their impacts the only real way to solve for

their impacts is to remove all hegemonic institutions in the

status 2uo, this would involve destroying anything related tothe 7/.


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&mpactsTotali+ing re$ection of the law sacri)ces the immediate needs

of those su#ering from violence. 7sing the law for its strategic

e#ects while recogni+ing its inherent limitations allows us to

have short-term legal strategies that are not mutuallye(clusive with the altmith, 7C :iverside media and cultural studies professor, "

0Andrea, The *ora! ;iits of the ;a&? Sett!er Co!onia!is and the Anti-io!ence*o+eent", Sett!er Co!onia! Studies, Ta$!or and Grancis1

At the sae tie, +io!ence against Nati+e &oen is at epideic rates. The '555 /ureau of Justice Statistics report, Aerican :ndians and Crie, nds that se8ua! assau!t aong Nati+eAericans is D.M ties higher than for a!! other races !i+ing in the US. Un!ie other racia! groupings, the aorit$ of se8ua! assau!ts coitted against Nati+e Aerican &oen are inter-racia!.D :n particu!ar, the aorit$ of peop!e &ho perpetrate se8ua! assau!t against Nati+e &oen are &hite. /ecause of the cop!e8 urisdictiona! issues in+o!+ing tri#a! !ands, theaorit$ of se8ua! assau!ts against Nati+e &oen are coitted &ith ipunit$. 4epending on the tri#e, non-Nati+e perpetrators of se8ua! assau!t on :ndian reser+ations a$ fa!! out ofstate, federa! and tri#a! urisdiction. And tri#es these!+es ha+e not de+e!oped eHecti+e eans for addressing +io!ence in their counities. The intersections of gender +io!ence andco!onia!is in Nati+e &oen@s !i+es force Nati+e anti-+io!ence ad+ocates to operate through nuerous contradictions. Girst, the$ ust &or &ithin a federa! ustice s$ste that ispreised on the continued co!onisation of Nati+e nations. Second, the$ ust &or &ith tri#a! go+ernents that often engage in gender oppressi+e practices. :n addition, as Nati+e

studies scho!ar Jennifer 4enetda!e argues, an$ tri#a! go+ernents act as neo-co!onia! forations that support tri#a! e!ites at the e8pense of the counit$.B Third, the$ ust a!soaddress &oen &ho need iediate ser+ices, e+en if those ser+ices a$ coe fro a co!onising federa! go+ernent or a tri#a! go+ernent that a$ perpetuate gender oppression.>i+en the !ogics of sett!er co!onia!is, it a$ see to #e a hope!ess contradiction to &or &ithin the US !ega! s$ste at a!!. :n fact, an$ socia! ustice ad+ocates esche& engaging in

!ega! refor for this reason. Conse


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insucient e+a!uation of the strategic eHects of !ega! strategies opposing gender +io!ence. %o&e+er, the &or of Nati+e anti-+io!ence scho!ar and acti+ist, Sarah 4eer, points to possi#!e ne& directions in engaging !ega! refor for the purpose of deco!onisation. 4eer notes that the issues of gender +io!encecannot #e separated fro the proect of deco!onisation. Gor instance, current!$, tri#a! go+ernents are restricted to sentencing tri#a! e#ers to three $ears in tri#a! prison for e+en aor cries such as rape. *uch of the f ocus of the anti-+io!ence o+eent has #een on increasing the nu#er of $ears tri#a!go+ernents can incarcerate e#ers. /ecause of this eHort, the Tri#a! ;a& and Order Act of 67'7 increased the !ength of sentences fro one to three $ears. %o&e+er, 4eer notes that prior to co!onisation, +io!ence against &oen &as +irtua!!$ unheard of, e+en though tri#es did not ha+e prisons.66 :nstead,tri#es uti!ised a nu#er of socia! echaniss to ensure safet$ for &oen and chi!dren, and none of these echaniss are prohi#ited #$ federa! !egis!ation. /ecause the federa! go+ernent restricts the aount of prison tie a!!o&ed for se8ua! oHenders, tri#es priari!$ ca!! on the federa! go+ernent toe8pand tri#es@ a#i!it$ to incarcerate. %o&e+er, as a +ariet$ of scho!ars ha+e noted, e8panded sentencing has not actua!!$ !ed to decreased +io!ence.6D Thus, rather than focusing their attention sip!$ on incarceration, 4eer suggests that tri#es !oo to pre-co!onia! easures for addressing +io!ence and #egin toadapt those for conteporar$ circustances.6B At the sae tie, 4eer notes that it is not necessari!$ a sip!e process to adapt pre-co!onia! easures for addressing + io!ence. Unfortunate!$, an$ of the a!ternati+es to incarceration that are prooted under the Qrestorati+e ustice ode!@ ha+e not de+e!opedsucient safet$ echaniss for sur+i+ors of doesticse8ua! +io!ence. QFestorati+e ustice@ is an u#re!!a ter that descri#es a & ide range of progras that attept to address crie fro a restorati+e and reconci!iator$ rather than a puniti+e frae&or. As restorati+e ustice frae&ors in+o!+e a!! parties0perpetrators, +ictis, and counit$ e#ers1 in deterining the appropriate response to a crie in an eHort to restore the counit$ to &ho!eness, restorati+e ustice is opposed to the US criina! ustice s$ste, &hich focuses so!e!$ on punishing the perpetrator and reo+ing hi 0or her1 fro societ$through incarceration. These ode!s are &e!! de+e!oped in an$ Nati+e counities, especia!!$ in Canada, &here the !ega! status of Nati+e nations a!!o&s an opportunit$ to de+e!op counit$-#ased ustice progras. :n one p rogra, for e8ap!e, &hen a crie is reported, the &oring tea that dea!s &ithse8ua!doestic +io!ence ta!s to the perpetrator and gi+es hi the option of participating in the progra. The perpetrator ust rst confess his gui!t and then fo!!o& a hea!ing contract, or go to ai!. The perpetrator is free to dec!ine to participate in the progra and go through the criina! ustice s$ste. :nthe restorati+e ustice ode!, e+er$one 0+icti, perpetrator, fai!$, friends, and the &oring tea1 is in+o!+ed in de+e!oping the hea!ing contract. E+er$one is a!so assigned an ad+ocate through the process. E+er$one is a!so responsi#!e for ho!ding the perpetrator accounta#!e to his contract. One T!ingit annoted that this approach &as often ore dicu!t than going to ai!? Girst one ust dea! &ith the shoc and then the disa$ on $our neigh#ors faces. One ust !i+e &ith the dai!$ hui!iation, and at the sae tie see forgi+eness not ust fro +ictis, #ut fro the counit$ as a &ho!e [). [A prisonsentence) reo+es the oHender fro the dai!$ accounta#i!it$, and a$ not do an$thing to&ards reha#i!itation, and for an$ a$ actua!!$ #e an easier disposition than sta$ing in the counit$.6M These ode!s ha+e greater potentia! for dea!ing &ith crie eHecti+e!$ #ecause, if &e &ant peop!e &hoperpetuate +io!ence to !i+e in societ$ peacea#!$, it aes sense to de+e!op ustice ode!s in &hich the c ounit$ is in+o!+ed in ho!ding hiher accounta#!e. Under the current incarceration ode!, perpetrators are taen a&a$ fro their counit$ and are further hindered fro de+e!oping ethica!re!ationships &ithin a counit$ conte8t. %o&e+er, the pro#!e & ith these ode!s is that the$ &or on!$ &hen the counit$ unites in ho!ding perpetrators accounta#!e. :n cases of se8ua! and doestic +io!ence, the counit$ often sides &ith the perpetrator rather than the +icti. As 4eer argues, in an$Nati+e counities, these ode!s are often pushed on doestic +io!ence sur+i+ors in order to pressure the to reconci!e &ith their fai!ies and Qrestore@ the counit$ & ithout sucient concern for their persona! safet$.6 :n addition, Nati+e ad+ocates ha+e soetie criti


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0Fanda!!, /!ac Aericas Proised ;and? =h$ : A Sti!! a Facia! Optiist",http?prospect.orgartic!e#!ac-aericas-proised-!and-&h$-i-a-sti!!-racia!-optiist1

/eneath the a!aise is a deep current of racia! pessiis that has a !ong histor$ in Aerican and African Aerican thought. Pessiists #e!ie+e that racia! haron$ predicated on fairness is not part of theAerican future. The$ posit that the United States &i!! not o+ercoe its tragic racia! past. The$aintain that #!acs are not and cannot #ecoe e#ers of the Aerican fai!$ 0e+en&ith a #!ac fai!$ occup$ing the =hite %ouse1.The$ #e!ie+e that the United States is a &hite nation that &i!!a!&a$s #e go+erned on #eha!f of &hite fo!. Gor pessiists , the O#aa presidenc$ is no sign of racia! transcendenceK to thecontrar$, it is a deonstration of the intracta#i!it$ of Aerican pi gentocrac$. Gor the, the O#aa ascendanc$ sho&s that in order to rise to the top of Aerican po!itics, a #!ac po!itician ust #e &i!!ing to forgo su#stanti+e!$cha!!enging the racia! status ar+e$, *uhaad, 4u /ois, *a!co! V? ;i#rar$ of CongressK /e!!? 4a+id Shan#one T%E PESS:*:STS? %enr$ *cNea! Turner, *arcus >ar+e$, E!iah *uhaad, =.E./.

4u /ois, *a!co! V, Stoe!$ Carichae!, Fanda!! Fo#inson, and 4erric /e!! The tradition of #!ac racia! pessiis has its &hite counterpart. According to Thoas JeHerson, The t&o races, e


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thun it possi#!e for the president to #e an African Aerican :n the '57s, : used to as !a& students ho& !ong arati+e action progras ought to !ast. Chapions of such progras, seeing to ensure their !onge+it$, &ou!d sa$that arati+e action &ou!d #e needed unti! the countr$ e!ected a #!ac president. That rep!$ &ou!d e!icit appreciati+e !aughter as !isteners supposed that that foru!a &ou!d preser+e arati+e action for at !east a centur$. /utthen a!ong cae /arac O#aa and &ith hi the rear that soon #ecae a c!ichY? : ne+er thought that :@d !i+e to see a #!ac president." O#aa@s e!ection is uch ore than a onuent to one po!itician@s ta!ent and good

fortune. Changes in pu#!ic attitudes, !a&, and custo ha+e c!ear!$ e!e+ated the fortunes of African Aericans as indi+idua!s and #!ac Aerica as a co!!e cti+it$. Hard facts may give

plausibility to the pessimistic tradition, but they make the optimistic

tradition compelling. 'espite the many wrongs that remain to be righted,

blacks in America confront fewer racist impediments now than ever before

in the history of the 7nited tates. The courage, inte!!igence, persistence, idea!is, and sacrice of Gannie ;ou %aer and Fosa Pars, Ju!ian /ond and /o#*oses, *edgar E+ers and /a$ard Fustin, io!a ;iu22o and ernon 4aherand count!ess other tri#unes for racia! usticeha+e not #een e8pended for naught. The facts of da$-to-da$ !ife a!!o& #!acs to sing ore condent!$ thane+er #efore Jaes =e!don Johnson@s agnicent h$n ;ift E+er$ oice and Sing," often referred to as the /!ac Nationa! Anthe? The #e!ief that &e can o+ercoe aes ore rea!istic the possi#i!it$ that &e sha!! o+ercoe.

Optiis gi+es #uo$anc$ to thining that ight other&ise degenerate into nihi!is *$ optiis in+o!+es ore than a socio!ogica!prediction. : a a!so s&a$ed #$ $ intuition regarding &hich of these h$pothesesthe pessiistic or the optiistic&i!! do the ost good. %ope is a +ita! nutrient foreHortK &ithout it, there is no prospect for achie+eent. The #e!ief that &e cano+ercoe aes ore rea!istic the possi#i!it$ that &e sha!! o+ercoe. Optiisgi+es #uo$anc$ to thining that ight other&ise degenerate into nihi!is,encourages so!idarit$ in those &ho ight other&ise #e satised #$ pure!$ se!shindu!gence, in+ites strategic p!anning that can usefu!!$ harness &hat ightother&ise #e ipotent indignation, and inspires eHorts that ight other&ise #e

a+oided due to fata!is. On E!ection 4a$ '55, e8it po!!ing sho&ed >enera! Co!in Po&e!! #eating President /i!! C!inton #$ a coforta#!e argin. /ut Po&e!! &as not C!inton@s opponent.Senator /o# 4o!e &as. Po&e!! had considered seeing the Fepu#!ican Part$ noination #ut dec!ined in the end to do so. /efore he ade that decision, po!!s suggested that he cou!d &in the noination and the genera! e!ection, #utfriends &ere septica!. Po&e!! reca!!s that Ear! >ra+es, the pu#!isher of /!ac Enterprise aga2ine, to!d hi, ;oo, an [&)hen [&hite +oters) go i n that #ooth, the$ ain@t going to +ote for $ou." *a$#e >ra+es &as correct. Fea!+oting ight ha+e produced diHerent resu!ts fro the po!!s. Gurtherore, &hereas the actua! candidates had suHered a $ear of erci!ess scrutin$ on the capaign trai!, Po&e!! on E!ection 4a$ &as a ere h$pothetica! candidate &hosuHered fro none of the &ear and tear that a presidentia! contest e8acts. At the end of a capaign, the genera! ight not ha+e reained so attracti+e. Sti!!, Po&e!!@s apparent popu!arit$ does pro+ide a #asis for conecturing thatAerica@s readiness to e!ect a #!ac president had #een an unrecogni2ed part of the po!itica! !andscape for !onger than an$ had appreciated. Po&e!! a$ &e!! ha+e denied hise!f the opportunit$ to ae a successfu! historic !eap#$ #eing se!f-defeating!$ pessiistic. A aor fear of an$ #!acs is that acno&!edging progress &i!! propt underestiation of racia! o#stac!es that #!acs at e+er$ socioeconoic !e+e! continue to face. =hen Aericans are po!!eda#out their perceptions of racia! aHairs, &hites are t$pica!!$ ore up#eat than #!acs. The ore aWuent the$ are, the ore up#eat &hite o#ser+ers tend to #e. :nordinate!$ ipressed #$ progress, the$ a!! too often preature!$dec!are +ictor$ o+er racis. A!though cop!acenc$ nourished #$ an o+er!$ ros$ +ie& of racia! aHairs is a rea! danger, : stand #$ $ con+iction that a c!ear-e$ed assessent fa+ors #!ac optiis. =ho, after a!!, ha+e #een the guresost #enecia! to #!acs =as it the *artin 4e!an$ &ho decaped for Africa, thining Aerica to #e irreedia#!$ racist Or &as it the *artin 4e!an$ &ho returned, recruited #!acs for the Union, and participated signicant!$ inSouthern po!itics during Feconstruction =as it the pre-'5 Stoe!$ Carichae! &ho sang =e Sha!! O+ercoe" in the sp!endid ear!$ da$s of the Student Non+io!ent Coordinating Coittee 0SNCC1 Or &as it the post-'5 Stoe!$Carichae! 0!ater renaed 3&ae Ture1 &hose ipatient #itterness he!ped to destro$ the SNCC and rationa!i2e an indu!gent e8i!e to >uinea that s


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#een doing so. Ne+er in Aerican histor$, in ana!ogous circustances, has there#een a higher !e+e! of interracia! epath$. O+ercoing the racia! #urdensindi+idua!, couna!, institutiona!that encu#er us &i!! tae unreitting eHort,aor dep!o$ents of inte!!igence and iagination, daunting aounts of tie, hugee8penditures of one$, and the reso!ute con+iction that Aerica@s racia! aHairs can

and &i!! ipro+e. :s the uncertain prospect of a #etter future &orth that in+estentThe !essons of Aerican histor$ and a coparison of our societ$ &ith others aroundthe &or!d ipe! e to sa$ $es. : a a racia! optiist. On!$ tie &i!! te!! &hether $faith is &ise.

The a*rmative is a pro$ect of in)ltrationFuniversalist

prescriptions that isolate ourselves from the institutions that

e(ercise power militates against revolutionary movementsF

becoming ac2uainted with the methods of American racist

angaroo $ustice is speci)cally key to develop tactics and

strategies for bringing about the end of the world

0illiams G! [Suer '55, Fo#ert G. =i!!ias &as a ci+i! rights !eader and author, #est no&n for ser+ingas president of the *onroe, North Caro!ina chapter of the NAACP in the '5M7s and ear!$ '57s. /!ac Panther Part$founder %ue$ Ne&ton cited =i!!ias@s Negroes &ith >uns as a aor inspiration, peaches,The 4epri+ed? Fe#e!!ionin the Streets", The Crusader, o!ue '7, Nu#er 76,http?freedoarchi+es.org4ocuentsGinder4OCM'DZscansFo#ertZGZ=i!!iasM'D.Crusader.o!.'7.6.Suer.'55.pdf)

&D/&9T:AT6 TH6 %AD &DT&T7T&;D ? /!ac $outh shou!d not coit the

catastrophic error of seeing things simply in black and white .That is, of seeing

things as a!! good or a!! #ad .:t is erroneous to think that one can isolate

oneself completely from the institutions of a social and political system

that e(ercises power over the environment in &hich he resides.Se!f-iposed

and preature iso!ation , initiated #$ the oppressed against the organs of a

t$rannica! esta#!ishent, militates against revolutionary move- ments

dedicated to radical change . :t is a grave error for militant and $ust-minded

youth to reect strugg!e-ser+ing opportunities to oin the ans go+ernent

ser+ices, po!ice forces, ared forces, peace corps and +ita! organs of the po&er

structure. *i!itants shou!d become ac2uainted with the methods of the

oppressor. *eaningfu! change can #e ore thorough!$ e#ectuated by militant

pressure from within as &e!! as &ithout. 0e can obtain invaluable know-how

from the oppressor . truggle is not all violence . EHecti+e strugg!e re


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establishment . G:>%T 3AN>AFOO:S*? :nasuch as the angaroo court s$ste

constitutes a po&erfu! defense ar of t$rann$, e8tensi+e and +igorous educationa!

&or ust #e doneaong our peop!e so that &hen the$ ser+e on ur$ dut$ they will

not become tools of a legal system dedicated to rai!roading our peop!e to

concentration caps disguised as prisons. The angaroo court s$ste is #eing &ide!$

used to rid racist America of black militants , non-conformists and e#ectiveghetto leadership .These so-ca!!ed courts are not protecting the human and

civil rights of our people K the$ are not dis- pensing even-handed $ustice, #ut

are !ong-standing instruents of terror and intiidation./!ac Aericans ust #e

inspired to display the same determination in safeguarding the human and

civil rights of our oppressed people as &hite racists are to !ega!!$ !$nch us. No atter ho& uch

rigaro!e is dished out a#out #!ac capita!is and inorit$ enterprise, the hard co!d fact reains thatit is as dicu!t for a /!ac Aerican i!itant to recei+e ustice in Aericast$rannica! courtsas it is for a cae! to pass through the e$e of a need!e. /!ac peop!e ust #e

#rought to see their dut$ as urors as an opportunit$ to right legal wrongs not to

perpetrate shameful obeisance to tyranny and racism .outh shouldmount a campaign relative to this social evil that &i!! #$ far e8- ceed the capaign of +oterregistration.


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3erm- 'o both

Combining multiple strategies is the best approach to

overcoming the contingency of identity and political

commitments which fractures coalitions to solve oppression.:oithmayr, &llinois law professor, ""

04aria, AFT:C;E? ;eft 0O+er1 Fights", M ;TC B7(, !e8is1

This essa$ has proposed that rights ta! ight $et #e rhetorica!!$ usefu! forcounities of co!or, either as a ode of strategic action, or as transgressi+eperforance. This contingent and instruenta! use of rights ta! a$ he!p to ae a #roader point a#out an ad hoc,contingenc$-oriented approach to socia! action that e!se&here : ha+e descri#ed a radica! or postodernpragatis. 0Foitha$r '551 Postodern pragatis !oos


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and usefu!ness is e

a2 - black nihilism - luv, nikki

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