abc - typhoon report (1)

8/8/2019 ABC - TYPHOON Report (1)

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ABC Reporting

Topic: Typhoon/Flood

Members of the group: (E17 & E18)

Leader: Sunga, Marites M.Secretary: Santacera, CeshireMembers:Castro, Nygel King Mapula, ClydeHilvano, Charls Andrew Santos, JullanQuiambao, Moris Santos, KrsitineRamos, Christy Suzara, Lara EliseRavena, Tarra Sy, Sabrina MaeRuzol, Rose Vallarta, Jude AlbertSiasoco, Karlin Villegas, Laurence Rovi

Sta. Cruz, Gracey Zaguirre, Maria LiezelUgarte, JericUrbano, VanessaVales, Krizsha

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I. Typhoon

A. Definition of termsa. Typhoon

It is a disturbed state of the atmosphere, most often characterized by a lowpressure centre and several thunderstorms, which eventually produce strong windsand heavy rains

It occurs when wind blows at a speed of fifty kilometers or more an hour The centre of the storm is a calm, cloudless area called the eye, where there is

no rain, and the winds are fairly light.

b. ITCZIt is very warm along and around the equator, a region we call the tropics since

the sun shines so directly there throughout the year. As you know, when air isheated, it expands becoming less dense and more buoyant, that is, it becomes verylight and wants to float. Since pressure in the atmosphere decreases as you go up,the rising warm bubble of air expands adiabatically, doing work to push awaysurrounding air and therefore cooling as it rises and leaving a void of low pressurebehind. As the rising air cools, the water vapor in it also cools and then condensesinto cloud droplets, which eventually collide with one another, coalescing to formbigger and bigger droplets until the droplets get so big that they fall out of the cloudas rain. Since it is always so warm in the tropics, this kind of rising motion that formsrain is going on all the time, supplying water to the rainforests. When the rising air



hits the top of the troposphere, it spreads out, going north and south. As it travelspoleward, it radiates energy.

c. Eye of the stormA typhoon usually has a relatively large storm area, with storm radius ranging

from 100 km to 300 or 400 km. As for the typhoon's internal structure, fromobservations done by early-day weather reconnaissance aircraft penetrating thetyphoon from different direction at various heights, we roughly know that a typhoonto be a huge cloud of big radius with height reaching 18,000 meters as has oncebeen observed. The center of these huge cloud columns is an area without or withonly thin clouds, and without or with little wind and rain. This area is the so-called"eye of the typhoon".

This is a circular area of very low pressure. It may vary from a few miles toabout 25 miles in diameter which is calmed and with no rain. It is also roughlycircular area of comparatively light winds and fair weather located at the center of asevere tropical cyclone. As the center of the hurricane approaches an area, the wind

first blows violently in one direction. Then, there is a stillness and clear skies as theeye passes. A wind blowing in the opposite direction soon follows the calm as theother side of the low passes.

d. WindstormA windstorm is just a storm with high winds or violent gusts but little or no

rain.

Other terms:

Weather the specific conditions of the atmosphere at a particular place and time. It is measured in terms of such

parameters as wind, temperature, humidity,atmospheric pressure, cloudiness and precipitation. Inmost places, weather can change from hour to hour andseason to season.

Climate the average weather and its long term variability over aparticular place and time (say a month, a season, ayear or several years).

Climate Variability refers to the fluctuations / variations of climate observedsince the instrumental period (i.e., 1860 to present).These fluctuations are due to natural causes and tohuman activities.

Season a division of the year according to some regularlyrecurent phenomena, usually astronomical or climatic.In the tropics, precipitation is the primary factor; thus,nearly all regions have their rainy season and dryseason.

Normal (climatological normal)

the average value of a meteorological element over anyfixed period of years that is recognized as standard for a country and element concerned; usually a 30-year



period as recommended by the World MeteorologicalOrganization (WMO).

Anomaly (departure from normal)

the deviation of (usually) temperature or precipitationfrom the normal values in a given region over aspecified period.

NE Monsoon locally known as "Amihan". It affects the easternportions of the country from October up to late March,starts over Siberia as a cold, dry air mass but gathersmoisture as it travels across the Pacific Ocean beforereaching the eastern sections of the Philippines ischaracterized by widespread cloudiness with rains andshowers. The North Pacific Trades gradually replacesthe NE Monsoon in March, appears in all seasons andblows dominantly from March to April, giving strongconvective activity.

SW Monsoon locally known as "Habagat", it affects the country from

July to September, is very warm and humid, occurswhen warm moist air flows over the country from thesouthwest direction, is characterized by heavy rainfallthat may last for a week. It brings the rainy season tothe western portion of the country.

B. Development of a typhoonFactors:− 6 main requirements for typhoon formation:

a) sufficiently warm sea/ocean surface temperatures (26.5°C / 79.7°F)

b) atmospheric instabilityc) high humidity in the lower to middle troposphere levels (above latitude 30 iscooler)

d) enough Coriolis force to develop a low pressure center (below latitude 10 has aweak Coriolis force)

e) pre-existing low level focus/disturbance, &f) low/weak vertical wind shear (change in wind velocity over height; >10 m/s / 20

knots / 22 mph)(doesn’t guarantee that a typhoon will form if all 6 conditions are fulfilled)

Notes on typhoon formation:−

warm waters (surface temperature of either equal or above 26.5°C) are needed tomaintain the warm core that fuels tropical systems.− minimum distance of 500 km (300 mi) from the equator is normally needed for

tropical cyclogenesis.− Coriolis force imparts rotation on the flow and arises as winds begin to flow in toward

the lower pressure created by the pre-existing disturbance.− the existence of a significant Coriolis force allows the developing vortex to achieve

gradient wind balance (found in mature tropical cyclones; allows latent heat to



concentrate near the storm core (resulting in the maintenance/intensification of thevortex, leading into the formation of the "eye")).

− can form from either intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ), a tropical wave, a broadsurface front, or an outflow boundary.

− low level feature with sufficient vorticity & convergence is required to begin typhoon

formation.− the lack of a surface focus will prevent the development of organized convection and

a surface low.− low/weak vertical wind shear (>10 m/s / 20 knots / 22 mph) between the surface and

the tropopause is required for typhoon formation.(strong wind shear can “blow” the typhoon apart; displaces the mid-level warm corefrom the surface circulation and dries out the mid-levels of the troposphere, haltingdevelopment.)(moderate wind shear can lead to the initial development of the convective complexand surface low similar to the mid-latitudes (it must relax to allow typhoon formationto continue).)

Formation:

− still the topic of extensive research, and is still not fully understood.− typhoon’s primary energy source is the release of the condensation heat from

condensed water vapor at high altitudes.− can be visualized as a giant vertical heat engine supported by mechanics driven by

physical forces (such as the roatation & gravity) of the Earth.− while an initial warm core system (such as an organized thunderstorm complex) is

necessary for the formation of a tropical cyclone, a large flux of energy is needed tolower atmospheric pressure more than a few millibars (0.10 inch of Hg).

− inflow of warmth and moisture from the underlying ocean surface is critical for typhoon strengthening.

− condensation leads to higher wind speeds (as a tiny fraction of the released energyis converted into mechanical energy); the faster winds and lower pressureassociated with them in turn cause increased surface evaporation and thus evenmore condensation.

− much of the released energy drives updrafts that increase the height of the stormclouds, speeding up condensation.

− this positive feedback loop continues for as long as conditions are favorable for typhoon formation: factors such as a continued lack of equilibrium in air massdistribution would also give supporting energy to the cyclone.

− the rotation of the Earth causes the system to spin (Coriolis effect; depends onwhich hemisphere: north counter-clockwise, south clockwise), giving it a cycloniccharacteristic and affecting the trajectory of the storm.

− deep convection is a driving force.− to continue to drive its "heat engine", a tropical cyclone must remain over warm

water, which provides the needed atmospheric moisture to keep the positivefeedback loop running. (when a tropical cyclone passes over land, it is cut off fromits heat source and its strength diminishes rapidly).



Simplified version:1) thunderstorms begin to increase.2) thunderstorms release large amounts of latent heat due to condensation in the mid

to upper troposphere.

3) warming results in increased pressure aloft.4) increased pressure results in divergence of the air aloft.5) total weight of column of air decreased (results in sea level pressure falling).6) low level winds converge and spin faster around the low pressure center (result of

the need to conserve angular momentum).7) (as the winds converge towards the center), they pick up warm water vapor from

the ocean, with the air rising as it releases more vapor and latent heat.8) the center grows warmer which results in more divergence aloft.9) air at the outer edges is dragged upward and outward by the surrounding air, with it

(the air above) sinking into the eye.

Pics:



C. Differentiation of a typhoon from other terminologies in climatologya. Tropical depressionIt is an organized system of clouds and thunderstorms with a surface circulation

of less than 39 mph.It doesn't have an 'eye' or the spiral shape, which characterizes powerful storms;

it is indeed a low pressure area and hence is referred to as a depression.This depression mostly forms in the tropical regions

How it is formed?1. a low pressure zone is formed in the tropical areas, 5° and 20° north and

south of the equator 2. eventually forms a tropical wave of low pressure3. disturbance in the warm ocean waters, along with a light wind at the upper

level, provides ideal weather condition for the formation of storms4. the intensity of the tropical wave may either increase or decrease (If the

intensity increases, it goes on to become an organized area, characterized byheavy showers and thunderstorms)

5. organized area, marked by cyclonic winds blowing clockwise in northernhemisphere and anti-clockwise in southern hemisphere

6. Equatorial areas, 5° north and south of the equator, do not facilitate formationof storms due to the lack of rotary motion of wind in this area

b. Tropical stormIt is an organized system of strong thunderstorms with surface circulation

between 39 mph and 73 mphIt is when the system reaches to this intensity; it is given an alphabetical name by

the authoritiesThe 'eye' is not present; the spiral cyclonic shape starts to develop in this stage

How it is formed?



Before official names began, some forecasters informally named storms withoutmaking the names public. This made it easier for the forecasters to follow storms, but itdidn't help make clear to the public which storm was which.

Organized naming began in 1950

Forecasters formally begin naming Atlantic Basin in 1950, using names from theinternational phonetic alphabet of the time: Able, Baker, Charlie, and so on. Theystarted using female, English-language names in 1953, and switched to alternatingmale and female names in 1979. They also began using French and Spanish male andfemale names at this time.

A sidelight: The first three male names used -- Bob, David and Frederick -- haveall been retired because they did tremendous damage. Frederick and David were retiredbecause of the damage they did in 1979. Bob was retired after Hurricane Bob hit NewEngland in 1991.

How today's names are selectedThe World Meteorological Organization's (WMO) Regional Association IVHurricane Committee selects the names for Atlantic Basin and central and easternPacific storms.

For the Atlantic Basin and the eastern Pacific, six lists of names are used, witheach list used again - minus any retired names - six years after it was last used. TheWMO's regional committee selects the names to replaces those that are retired. Eachyear the names start with the "A" storm on that year's list, no matter how many nameswere used the previous year.

Hawaiian names are used for central Pacific storms. Here, a revolving list of four sets of names is used and each storm that forms gets the next available name on the

list, regardless of the year.Similar WMO regional committees are involved in selecting names for other parts of theworld, but not all nations involved go along with these names.

While most naming systems use common first names, in various languages, nationsaround the western Pacific began using an entirely new system for naming typhoons in2000. Each of the 14 nations that typhoons affect submitted a list of names for a total of 141 names. The names include animals, flowers, astrological signs and a few personalnames.

By PAGASAGETTING ITS NAME from the Laos word for "elephant," Typhoon Xangsane

(PAGASA name "Milenyo") caused great devastation in Metro Manila and acrossseveral parts of Luzon in 2006. The names Xangsane and Milenyo have since beenretired from use by meteorologists. Photo from Weather Underground.

If you follow weather reports closely, you’ll know PAGASA has really bantotnames for typhoons.

Around the world, typhoons, cyclones and hurricanes–all the same thing exceptdifferent in socio-geographical occurrence–are given names. Curious, I did someresearch. Here’s what I got from the US National Weather Service:



Experience shows that the use of short, distintive given names in written as wellas spoken communications is quicker and less subject to error than the older morecumbersome latitude-longitute identification methods. These advantages are speciallyimportant in exchanging detailed storm information between hundres widely scatteredstations, coastal bases, and ships at sea.

Basically, a typhoon name has better recall than typhoon coordinates. If youwere on a ship in the middle of a storm and you needed to get the hell out of atyphoon’s path, then you would just radio the coast guard asking “Where’s TyphoonOndoy?” rather than something like “Where’s Typhoon 240 deg N, 42 deg E?” It’s justeasier to track a typhoon this way, not to mention less cumbersome to say.

The World Meteorological Organization sets strict procedures for namingstorms.There is a strict procedure to determine a list of tropical cyclone names in anocean basin(s) by the Tropical Cyclone Regional Body responsible for that basin(s) atits annual/biennial meeting. There are five tropical cyclone regional bodies, i.e.ESCAP/WMO Typhoon Committee, WMO/ESCAP Panel on Tropical Cyclones, RA ITropical Cyclone Committee, RA IV Hurricane Committee, and RA V Tropical Cyclone

Committee. For instance, Hurricane Committee determines a pre-designated list of hurricane names for six years separately at its annual session. The pre-designated listof hurricane names are proposed by its members that include National Meteorologicaland Hydrological Services in the North/Central America and the Caribbean. Namingprocedures in other regions are almost the same as in the Caribbean. In general,tropical cyclones are named according to the rules at a regional level.

Basically, storms are named depending on their region of occurrence. If thestorm affects the Western Atlantic, then a certain list compiled by meteorologists in theUSA, Central America and the Caribbean is used. When a storm occurs in the WesternNorth Pacific and South China Sea–the region where the Philippines is located–namesfrom a different list are used.

The Japan Meteorological Agency monitors typhoons in the Western NorthPacific and the South China Sea. It labels typhoons by picking a name from this listproduced by meteorologists around the world and tagging the storm with a 4-digit code(not shown). Unlike other lists, this list is not recycled when meteorologists reach theend of the list. Ondoy and Pepeng, internationally known as Ketsana and Parma in thislist, are under column IV. From the World Meteorological Organization.

If you look at that list carefully, you must have noticed Ondoy and Pepeng aren’tanywhere on the list. That’s because PAGASA deviates from international namingstandards. While we knew the last two typhoons as Ondoy and Pepeng, everyone elsein the world knew them as Ketsana and Parma, respectively.

PAGASA deviates from international typhoon naming standards because it wantsto promote better storm recall among Filipinos by using Filipino names. As bad-ass asParma and Ketsana sound, Filipinos would gravitate towards Pepeng and Ondoy morebecause it sounds familiar.

There is some danger in deviating international naming standards–peopleactually get confused with the names. If you don’t live in the Philippines, you wouldprobably think the PAGASA-named storm was different from the internationally namedstorm. In fact, this is what some folks abroad thought. While Filipinos kept bouncing



Ondoy’s name back and forth cyberspace, international news agencies reportedParma’s name to worried folks abroad.

Despite the cause for confusion, PAGASA insists on maintaining its own typhoonname lists. It’s been argued by the World Meteorological Organization that stormnaming “facilitates tropical cyclone/hurricane disaster risk awareness, preparedness,

management and reduction”.Personally, typhoon names assigned by PAGASA also seem to illicit a non-serious response from Filipinos. Despite the destructive power of the storm, people

joked about how “Pepeng” grew so large that PAGASA decided to rename it “malakingPepeng.” Also, I can’t imagine a storm named Chedeng, Butchoy, Bebeng, Dodong,Yayang, Yoyong, Yoyoy or even Zosimo! Even cuter would be Waldo–”Coast Guard,where’s WALDO?!” Of course, the winner would be Typhoon ZIGZAG! Can you sayTYPHOON NAME FAIL?

PAGASA makes really amusing typhoon names. (I hope they make a TyphoonBruhilda). From PAGASA.

But I must agree with PAGASA. Using Filipino names does give the typhoonsmore recall than the international names. Apart from the names providing some kind of private entertainment for me, I imagine Filipinos find these names a lot easier tocommunicate than an obscure typhoon name from China or Japan.



In the aftermath of Ondoy and Pepeng, it’s questionable whether the localizedtyphoon names actually promote disaster awareness and response in the Philippines. Itcertainly doesn’t seem like it. With Luzon left in tatters after Ondoy and Pepeng, itseems the name did little to prepare anyone for the ensuing chaos and destruction thatwere mostly aggravated by an inefficient government, poor urban planning and

worsening effects of climate change.There’s no doubt meteorologists will agree that the names Ondoy/Parma deserve tobe retired from the lists as it is honored tradition to retire the names of only the mostdevastating typhoons encountered by man.

E. Reasons for giving a Signal number 1, 2 and 3Philippine Storm Warning Signals

Signal No. Wind Speed and Timeof Occurrence Impact of Winds

1 30-60 kph within the next36 hours

Twigs and branches maybe broken; some bananaplants may be tilted;houses of very lightmaterialmay be unroofed;flowering rice crop maybedamaged; in general,

very little or no damagemaybe experienced by thecommunity.

2 60-100 kph within the 24hours

Some coconut trees maybe tilted and broken; fewbig trees may beuprooted and manybanana plantsmay be downed; rice andcorn may be adversely

damaged; many nipa andcogon houses may bepartially or totallyunroofed and oldgalvanized ironroofings may be peeledoff; in general, winds maybring light to moderate



damage to thecommunity.

3 100-185 kph within thenext 18 hours

Many coconut trees maybe broken or destroyed;almost all banana plants

may be downed whilemany trees may beuprooted; rice and corncropsmay suffer heavy losses;majority of nipa andcogon houses may beunroofed or destroyedandthere may beconsiderable damage to

structuresof light to mediumconstruction; widespreaddisruption of electricalpower andcommunicationservices may also occur;in general, moderate toheavy damage may beexpected, practically inthe

Agricultural and industrialsectors.4 Greater than 185 kph

withinthe next 12 hours

Coconut, rice and cornplantations may suffer extensive damage andmany large trees may beuprooted; most residentialand institutionalbuildings of mixedconstruction may also beseverely damaged;

electrical power distribution andcommunication servicesmay be disrupted; ingeneral, damage toaffected communities canbe very heavy.



F. Predicting the coming of a typhoon/tropical depressiona. Scientific prediction

Weather forecast is simply a scientific estimate or prediction of future weather condition as defined by PAGASA. In forecasting the weather, a Meteorologist must at

least know something about the existing weather condition over a large area before hecan make a reliable forecast. The accuracy of his forecast depends largely upon hisknowledge of the prevailing weather conditions over a very wide area. The forecastdecision is based on various forecasting tools. The basic tool of a weather forecaster isthe WEATHER MAP. The weather map depicts the distribution patterns of atmosphericpressure, wind, temperature and humidity at the different levels of the atmosphere.There are two types of the basic weather map namely, the surface map and the upper-air maps. There are five standard levels of the upper-air maps that are constructedtwice daily at twelve-hourly interval. The surface maps are made four times daily at six-hourly intervals. On the surface maps, the distribution patterns of rain or other forms of precipitation and cloudiness can also be delineated.

PAGASA made a brief discussion on how they make a weather forecast and isdivided in 5 steps:1st Step: Observation

• Surface observations are made at least every three hours over land and sea.Land-based weather stations around the world and automatic stations observethe atmospheric pressure, wind direction and speed, temperature of the air,humidity, clouds, precipitation and visibility using standard weather instrumentssuch as the barometer, wind vane, anemometer, thermometer, psychrometer or hygrometer and raingauge. In addition to these, coastal weather stations,weather ships and ocean data buoy observe the state of the sea by observingthe height and period of wave.

•

Upper air stations around the world also make observations at least every twelvehours. The pressure, temperature, dew point temperature, wind direction andspeed are observed at selected levels in the atmosphere using radiosondeswhich record these data by tracking helium-filled balloons attached totransmitters. Another apparatus, the theodolite, is used in observing winddirection and speed also at selected levels. In addition to these, commercial air planes observe the weather along their routes at specified times.

• Meteorological satellites, geostationary and polar orbiting, take pictures of thecloud imagery of the atmosphere. These satellites take picture of the earth'scloud formations every hour and continuously, respectively.

• Weather radars are also used to observe the cloud coverage within the range of

the radar.• A vast array of weather data are fed to the computer which analyzes them as

programmed and makes a time integration of physical equations. This is callednumerical weather prediction .

2nd Step: Collection And Transmission Of Weather DataWeather observations which are condensed into coded figures, symbols and

numerals are transmitted via radiophone, teletype, facsimile machine or telephone to



designated collection centers for further transmission to the central forecasting station atWFFC. Weather satellite pictures are transmitted to ground receiving stations whileradar observations are transmitted to forecasting centers through a local communicationsystem.

3rd Step: Plotting Of Weather DataUpon receipt of the coded messages, they are decoded and each set of observations is plotted in symbols or numbers on weather charts over the respectiveareas or regions. Observations made over land and sea is plotted on the surface or mean sea level charts which are prepared four times a day. Radiosonde, theodolite,aircraft and satellite wind observations are plotted on upper level charts which areprepared twice daily.

4th Step: Analysis Of Weather Maps, Satellite And Radar Imageries And Other Data Current weather maps are analyzed as follows:

• SURFACE (MSL) CHART: The data plotted on this weather map are analyzed

isobarically. This means the same atmospheric pressure at different places areinter-connected with a line taking into consideration the direction of the wind.Through this analysis, weather systems or the so-called centers of action such ashigh and low pressure areas, tropical cyclones, cold and warm fronts,intertropical convergence zone, can be located and delineated.

• UPPER AIR CHARTS: The data plotted on this weather map are analyzed usingstreamline analysis. Lines are drawn to illustrate the flow of the wind. With thiskind of analysis, anticyclones or high pressure areas and cyclones or lowpressure areas can be delineated.

• NUMERICAL WEATHER PREDICTION MODEL OUTPUT: The computer-plottedweather maps are analyzed manually so that weather systems like cyclones and

anticyclones, troughs, etc. are located.• MONITOR WEATHER CHARTS: Plotted data on the cross-section, rainfall and24-hour pressure change charts are analyzed to determine the movement of wind waves, rainfall distribution and the behavior of the atmospheric pressure.

Compare the current weather maps with the previous 24 - 72 hour weather mapslevel by level to determine the development and movement of weather systems thatmay affect the forecast area.

Examine the latest weather satellite picture, noting the cloud formations inrelation to the weather systems on the current weather maps.Compare the latest weather satellite picture with the previous satellite pictures (up to 48hours) noting the development and movement of weather systems that may affect thecountry.

Examine the latest computer output of the numerical weather prediction modelnoting the 24-hour, 48-hour and 72-hour objective forecast of the weather systems thatmay affect the forecast area.Analyze the latest radar reports and other minor forecasting tools.

5th Step: Formulation Of The Forecast



After the analysis of all available meteorological information/data has beencompleted, the preparation of forecasts follows. The first and one of the preliminarysteps is the determination as accurately as the data permit, of the location 24 hourshence of the different weather systems and the existing weather over a particular region. In many cases a fairly satisfactory estimate of the direction and rate of

movement may be made by simply measuring the movement during the last 12 or 24hours and then extrapolating, or extending, this movement into the future and hencewhat weather will be experienced in different areas in the immediate future.

These are some of the different instruments that are used to predict a weather:1. Thermograph - A thermograph is an instrument that records air temperature

continuously on graphing paper. It usually consists of a cylinder made to revolveonce each week by means of clockworks inside. A sheet of graph paper isfastened on the outside. A pen-point that rests on the paper traces thetemperature curve, according to the expansion and contraction of a sensitivemetallic coil or strip corresponding to the reading of a thermometer.

2.Barograph - A barograph is a recording barometer. The pen point that traces thepressure curve on the paper is made to move up or down by means of a series of levers attached to aneroid cells (metallic boxes) in tandem. The use of aneroidcells in tandem provide a more pronounced response to changes in atmosphericpressure than would be indicated by a single aneroid cell of the same size.

3. Anemometer - An anemometer measures the wind speed and is made of propeller cups which are rotated by the motion of the wind. The essential parts of the cup anemometer are the cup wheel, a vertical shaft, the necessarymechanism for counting the revolution of the shaft or indicating its instantaneousspeed of rotation.

4. Hygrothermograph - The hygrothermograph records both relative humidity and

temperature on graph paper in the same manner as the thermograph andbarograph do.5. Weather Surveillance Radar - A Weather Surveillance Radar is of the long

range type which detects and tracks typhoons and cloud masses at distance of 400 kilometers or less. This radar has a rotating antenna disk preferably mountedon top of a building free from any physical obstruction. Radio energy emitted bythe transmitter and focused by the antenna shoots outward through theatmosphere in a narrow beam. The cloud mass, whether it is part of a typhoon or not, reflects a small fraction of the energy back to the antenna. This reflectedenergy is amplified and displayed visually on a radar scope. The distance or slantrange of the target from the radar is determined through the elapsed time thesignal is transmitted and then received as an echo. Its direction is determined bythe direction at which the focused beam is pointing at the instant the echo isreceived. The radar is a useful tool in tracking and monitoring tropical cyclones.

6. Weather Satellites .

b. Non scientific prediction1. Check the clouds. If you see a cloud that is present is getting thicker and

blacker. Clouds that are racing across the sky begin to get fuller, blacker or fill in



from cumulus, to stratocumulus, or cumulus clouds begin to grow taller andblacker at the base. Clouds are moving in all directions. This indicates extremeinstability. If it is a hot day and the clouds begin to grow in early to mid-afternoon,there is a good chance of rain and possibly thunder, later that evening.Stratocumulus clouds begin to merge into more of a stratus formation, expect

persistent rain within twelve hours. If cumulus clouds do not develop until into theafternoon, or simply hang around in the sky without much development, expectcontinued fair weather. If the halo surrounding the moon, or sun begins to shrink,then it is a good sign that the cloud is thickening. Precipitation should beexpected within twelve hours. If altocumulus clouds are whipping around the sky,normally from west to northwest, it is a fair assumption that there will be a hardand heavy rain or hail storm very soon.

2. Look for patterns of animal behavior. A rule of thumb is, if the birds are flyinglow, it means their ears are hurting from the forming air pressure at highaltitudes, thus the formation of a storm. Ants tend to build their hills to a greater

steepness. Cats lick behind their ears just before rain. Cows either stay close toeach other or lie down before bad weather. Amphibians and insects get excitedwhen the pressure drops, so they tend to become a bit noisier.

3. Plants. Unless it rained the night before, checking the grass for dew is also a way to tell if there's going to be rains that day. If the grass is dry, itmay mean a rainy day. Scarlet pimpernel also known as "poor man'sweatherglass", "shepherd's weatherglass" and "shepherd's clock" related to thefact that the flowers close when bad weather is approaching.

Study of typhoon prediction using a numerical model (1st laboratory )

Numerical simulation of a typhoonUsing a numerical model, the research department challenge clarification of

generation, development, decay, and translation of typhoons for the purpose of improvement of typhoon forecasting. Elaborated numerical model expressed everycloud in the atmosphere enables to simulate a realistic typhoon shown in the figure.This study is not only helped to understand complicate mechanism of the typhoon butalso leads to improve numerical prediction such as track, intensity, heavy rainfall, andgust.

Typhoon-ocean interactionStrong wind by a typhoon stirs and cools underlying sea water at the upper layer.

Sea surface cooling is helped to decrease evaporation, which is a egergy source of typhoons, because evaporation suppresses from the ocean to the atmosphere. This isthe reason why sea surface cooling should be accurately predicted in the typhoonintensity prediction. The research department developed a mixed-layer ocean model topredict sea surface cooling by typhoons. The research department further develops atyphoon-ocean coupled model to improve the intensity prediction.



Development of storm surge model including the effect of ocean waves.Typhoon research department challenged studies of disasters concerning

typhoons. The team has developed a storm surge model for three years during 1993-1995. This model has been operationally run in Japan Meteorological Agency. However,it is necessary to install the effect of ocean waves to the storm surge model for the

purpose of improvement of storm surge prediction at the coastal ocean like isolatedislands and peninsulas.A renewal 3-dimensional storm surge model incorporated of the effect of ocean

waves has been developed. Using the model, numerical simulation of storm surge wasconducted.

Study of structual change of typhoons using remote sensing data. (2ndlaboratory)

Utilization of satellite data to typhoon prediction

Because observation is insufficient to grasp a typhoon and its environment and topredict the typhoon, Remote sensing data, meteorological satellite data, is absolutelyimperative. The research department has studied a methodology of structure of typhoons and environmental atmospheric and oceanic conditions, which contributes tothe improvement of typhoon prediction.

Microwave scatterometer of QuikSCAT, which is on board low orbital satellite,can provide information of the sea surface wind very precisely although we can get thedata only twice a day. To utilize less QuikSCAT data more efficient, the department haschallenged new progressive method in retrieving the sea surface wind from another satellite observation.

The research team has developed a new algorithm in which sea surface wind isestimated from vertical profiles of atmospheric temperature obtained from AdvancedMicrowave Sounding Unit (AMSU) on meteorological satellite of NOAA. >From thevalidation in the case of Hurricane Floyd, estimated wind distribution by the algorithmusing AMSU data is almost comparable to the wind distribution by QuikSCAT.

G. Effect of typhoon to the country and people

II. Governmenta. Instruction of the government regarding a coming typhoon

(pdf file)b. Way of giving information to the public

What is a weather forecast?A weather forecast is simply a scientific estimate of future weather condition.

Weather condition is the state of the atmosphere at a given time expressed in terms of the most significant weather variables. The significant weather variables being forecastdiffer from place to place. In the Philippines, the weather parameters with significant



variation and therefore of interest to the users of the forecast are cloudiness, rainfall andwind.How is a weather forecast made?

In forecasting the weather, a Meteorologist must at least know something aboutthe existing weather condition over a large area before he can make a reliable forecast.

The accuracy of his forecast depends largely upon his knowledge of the prevailingweather conditions over a very wide area. The forecast decision is based on variousforecasting tools. The basic tool of a weather forecaster is the WEATHER MAP . Theweather map depicts the distribution patterns of atmospheric pressure, wind,temperature and humidity at the different levels of the atmosphere. There are two typesof the basic weather map namely, the surface map and the upper-air maps. There arefive standard levels of the upper-air maps that are constructed twice daily at twelve-hourly interval. The surface maps are made four times daily at six-hourly intervals. Onthe surface maps, the distribution patterns of rain or other forms of precipitation andcloudiness can also be delineated.1st Step: Observation

2nd Step: Collection And Transmission Of Weather Data3rd Step: Plotting Of Weather Data4th Step: Analysis Of Weather Maps, Satellite And Radar Imageries And Other DataCurrent weather maps5th Step: Formulation Of The ForecastHow is the weather forecast disseminated?

The forecasts are then aired in various radio stations by telephone or sent by telefaxmachines a few minutes after completion and are immediately sent to the weather stations nationwide. Copies are also furnished to different media outlets without delay.Forecasting Methods

Over the years forecast methods have moved from simple subjective deductions

based on observations of specific parameters such as cloud types and motions, seaswells, and pressure, to more sophisticated techniques which use complex computer models of the atmosphere. Until recently predictions were centered around the motionof the cyclone, but both motion and intensity are now being routinely predicted.

A tropical cyclone forecast involves the prediction of several interrelated features,including the track, winds, rainfall, storm surge and, of course, the areas threatened. Inpractice, the National Hurricane Center (NHC) in Miami, which is responsible for tropicalcyclone forecasting in this area, will normally issues a forecast every 6 hours for periodextending out to 72 hours. The official forecast is based on the guidance obtained froma variety of subjective and objective models. The forecaster assesses the output formvarious models and based on present and historical performance of the models, as wellas personal experience, arrives at the official forecast.

Track ForecastsThe simplest method used to forecast the track of tropical cyclones is to

extrapolate the motion of the tropical cyclone during some past period, say 12 to 24hours, for the next 12 to 24 hours. Another method uses historical data to determine theaverage direction and speed of motion of similar tropical cyclones passing close to thegiven location. Another technique employs current and forecast atmospheric variables



in a set of statistical equations to predict the motion. The final set of track forecasttechniques make use of computer models of the atmosphere to predict the motion of thecyclone from an observed initial state of the atmosphere.

Intensity Forecasts

While numerous objective guidance models are available for predicting tropicalcyclone tracks, there are only a few models in operation to predict intensity. The primarymodels are statistical in nature and combine several parameters into an equation todetermine intensity changes for periods out to 72 hours. Improvements in regional andglobal computer models of the atmosphere now make it possible for these to be used topredict tropical cyclone intensity. Characteristics of the cloud patterns associated withtropical cyclones as seen in satellite imagery is also used to predict tropical cycloneintensity change.

c. Management of the government during a typhoonThe Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services

Administration (PAGASA), being mindful of the increasing destruction and death in the

Philippines due to natural hazards, recommended that a Quick Response Team (QRT)be organized dealing mainly with tropical cyclone and other meteorological relateddisasters.

The comprehensive typhoon damage assessment is one of the front-liner worksof PAGASA under the flagship project of Natural Disaster Reduction Branch (NDRB).PAGASA formed a mission-oriented team, the Special Tropical Weather DisturbanceReconnaissance, Information Dissemination and Damage Evaluation (STRIDE) Team,with a vision of providing the decision-and policy-makers a real time information in theimplementation of mitigation strategies to limit the damages caused by typhoons oninfrastructure, agriculture, forestry, loss of human life.

STRIDE is mandated:

• to conduct on-the-spot investigation of the characteristic of the land fallingtropical cyclone, tornadoes, storm surges, etc.

• to conduct comprehensive assessment of hydrometeorological-based damageson agriculture, fisheries, forestry, infrastructure and maritime industry; and,

• to prepare reports / studies on the land falling tropical cyclones and other meteorological hazards such as tornadoes.

The STRIDE team is a mobile group, whose foremost mission is to "catch" thecenter of tropical storm or typhoon during its landfall and to do actual investigation of itscharacteristics such as structure, intensity and movement. After the typhoon passage,the team also undertakes the assessment of damages on agriculture, forestry, energyand infrastructures. It also analyzes the human reponse in the affected areas on theforecast and warning issued by PAGASA. To effectively fulfill these mandates, the teamis composed of selected experts on tropical cyclone/typhoons characteristics,particularly its structure, intensity, movement and techniques used in the damageassessment.

http://kidlat.pagasa.dost.gov.ph/ndrb/case%20studies.html






The specific objectives envisioned to be undertaken to attain the primary goalare:

1. Formation of the core group of weather specialist, hydrologist, and

documentation technician, to work as a team.2. To systematize data gathering on natural hazards and disasters in the country.3. To establish a standardized damage report/damage assessment format for

documentation and effective archiving.4. To assist in the improvement of public awareness on natural hazards through

active public information dissemination.5. To develop hazard maps for floods, tropical cylone frequencies, storm surges,

tornado and other meteorological related disaster.To provide supplementary upper-air observation during tropical cyclone landfallusing RD65-A mobile Radiosonde .

The Climatology and Agrometeorology Branch (CAB) is responsible for thecollection, quality control, processing, storage and retrieval of meteorological, agrometeorological, climatological and allied data andinformation in usable format; the provision of standard statistical products,customized climatological products and user services specially tailored for policy/decision makers and other users in the various sectors, such as inagriculture, energy and water resources; and, the preparation and issuanceof long term climate predictions, seasonal climate outlooks and advisorieson extreme climate events such as El Niño and La Niña. It also undertakesspecialized climate and climate change studies and researches in supportof national development.

DATA MANAGEMENTThis involves the operation and maintenance of the PAGASA's ClimateData Bank and Management System for the collection, processing, storageand retrieval of climatological and allied data for research and for generalusage. Maintain and update the database of Meteorological,Climatological, Agromet, Marine, Ozone, Solar radiation and allied dataand information.

To ensure the integrity and reliability of data, the quality control,processing, and archiving of meteorological, climatological and allied dataare done in accordance with World Meteorological Organization (WMO)recommended practices and standards.

Certified customized information to interested clientele such as thoserequired in litigation proceedings and other purposes, are routinely issued.

The CAB also generates and issues meteorological and climatologicalpublications, and other processed information such as standard statistical

http://kidlat.pagasa.dost.gov.ph/ndrb/rd65a.html

http://kidlat.pagasa.dost.gov.ph/ndrb/rd65a.html



products, for the consumption of scientists, researchers, professionals,students and other interested parties.

INFORMATION AND PREDICTION SERVICESThe CAB vigorously pursues activities to develop and evaluate techniques

for the improvement and/or operationalization of medium and long termclimate information and prediction services for industry, agriculture andother sectors, including a viable system for packaging andcommercialization of information specially tailored to the specificrequirements of clients/users.

Drought bulletins, intra-seasonal climate predictions, weather-based cropcalendars, agrimet bulletins and advisories, and customized climateinformation are periodically prepared and issued for educational,engineering, commercial, industrial, agricultural and other purposes

needed for sustainable development.The CAB also prepares and issues, on a regular basis, climate impactassessments for various sectors such as in energy, land use, buildingdesign, tourism, marine and water resources, pollution, and health, amongothers, as inputs to planning and decision making.

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENTSpecialized monitoring stations for research, are operated and maintainedby the CAB. These include climate / rain, agro-meteorological, ozone andregional background air pollution monitoring stations.

As part of its research and development activities, researches and studieson the application of meteorology and climatology, especially as they relateto agriculture, human health, industry, commerce, and the environment,are undertaken. Studies are also conducted on agriculture- weather relationships, validate or modify available statistical/dynamic models, anddevelop agroclimatic indices and zoning for the country.

The CAB maintains liaison and coordinate with local and internationalbodies and organizations in the conduct of collaborative researches andstudies in climatology, seasonal climate prediction/variability, climatechange, agrometeorology and allied fields.

It also undertakes the processing, analysis and interpretation of data suchas ozone, climate change, rain acidity and chemistry, and conduct relevantstudies, as part of its regular functions.



The Philippines is frequently subjected to various types of hazards and it hasbeen observed to be increasing throughout the years. Its geographical location andphysical environment make it vulnerable to natural hazards such as tropical cyclones,floods, extreme rainfall, thunderstorm (TSTM), storm surges, strong winds, tornadoand others. Every year, these hazards bring havoc to life and property, seriously

disrupt our agriculture-based economy and disturb the lives of millions of Filipinofamilies..

Disasters cannot always be prevented, but its disastrous effects can certainly bemitigated if appropriate measures are adopted. This can be achieved by prper understanding of the hazards and the threat posted by them.

For hazard mapping, basic information and observational data onmeteorological and hydrological hazards in terms of nature, frequency and magnitudewill be gathered, computer processed, validated and analyzed. to locate the hazard,historical records are used to identify critical hazard zone. The result of analysis is

usually presented in the form of maps that shows the type and degree of hazard in agiven geographical location. Hydrometeorological hazard maps showing the placesand frequency of occurrences of hydrometeorological hazards such as tropicalcyclones, flooding, TSTM, storm surge, extreme wind, extreme rainfall and other hazards will be prepared and documented.

In vulnerability analysis, the availability of more information such as socio-economic profile of the area will be very helpful. Having this information, it is possibleto identify geographically, with reasonable accuracy, those elements (i.e. settlements,communities and assets) that are more particularly susceptibe to damage anddestruction from a hazard. This can be done by relating the hazard to humansettlement and its built environment. The results of vulnerability analysis are also

presented in the form of maps.d. Government agencies to call during a typhoon

PAGASA - (632) 434-2696NDCC- 02-4673749Red Cross-DepEd- (032)632-1361 to 71DOH- (+632) 743-8301 to 23PNP- +63.2.723.04.01Philippine navy- +632-524-20-61 to 69AFP- 6729DND - 911-6193 911-0488

III. Private citizen/publicPreparation for the TYPHOON:

I. Before:



The first important thing to do is BE INFORMED. If you know ahead of time that atyphoon is coming, you can do all the preparations before the typhoon hit your place.

a. Plan ahead1. Determine whether you can remain in your home during the typhoon. You may

be able to ride out a weak typhoon with a small storm surge but will need toevacuate for stronger storms. Listen for warnings from your local officials or weather personnel in situations where evacuation is ordered. Note theevacuation routes and plan to leave early.

2. Fix any broken doors and windows . Make sure that there are no objectswhich could obstruct the entrance , just in case you may need to evacuate.Tape your big glass windows which can be potentially shattered by road signs,tree branches and other things.

3. If the place where you live always had problems with floods and a great typhoonis expected, move to an evacuation center in a higher ground even before thewater levels reach a meter high. You should also park your car in a higher

ground . Do not leave it in your garage because it can be carried by strong floodsand cause bigger disasters.4. Make sure that all items in your backyard or balcony are fixed . If any of those

items can possibly be flown by strong winds, better store them inside for themeantime. Also, remove rooftop construction accessories , if any, as thesecan be detached and may break other people’s windows.

5. Ensure that all water drains in your home are clean to avoid cloggeddrainage systems which can cause a lot of water problems.

6. Make lists of television and radio stations where you can get storminformation, phone numbers to call in case of emergencies and locations of stormshelters. Get directions for the emergency shelters.

7.Designate a location for you and your family members to meet if you getseparated and the number of an out-of-state relative to call to say everyone issafe. That out-of-state person starts the phone tree to others on your list after learning you are okay.

8. Find a place to take your pets where they will be safe if you have to evacuate.Most storm shelters won't allow pets.

9. In an emergency, you can make your own sandbag, using strong black bagsfilled with soil. Sandbags are not a total solution, but will help in reducing thewaterflow (as will floorboards slotted over ventilation holes and in doorways). Itis also suggested that a sandbag is placed in the toilet and sinks are plugged toprevent backflow.

10. Listen to news about the typhoon . If the power is down, make sure that youhave a battery-powered radio so you are still updated on what is happening, andknow if in case there is an emergency evacuation program. Listening to the newswill also keep you informed when the typhoon is expected to stop.

b. Assemble a typhoon kit1. Pack food that doesn't have to be refrigerated or cooked along with disposable

plates, bowls, forks, knives and spoons. Each person and pet in the home shouldhave enough to eat especially when the typhoon lasts for many days.



2. Store water . Each person needs three gallons of clean water to drink and to usefor washing. Pets also need water.

3. Add flashlights, oil lamps, lanterns and candles , along with extra batteries,matches and fuel.

4. Include a first aid kit or medicine box in your typhoon kit.5.

Remember to pack board games, card decks and a battery-operated radio .6. Make sure that all cell phones are fully charged in case you have to do someemergency calls.

c. Pack your bags1. Pack a small bag or backpack for each person in the home . It shouldinclude clothes and toiletries.2. Bundle a blanket and pillow for each person and place them in garbagebags (to keep them dry) to take along if evacuating.3. Include a small bag of photos and documents you can't afford to havedestroyed, such as wills and wedding albums.4. Place everyone's bag and bed bundle near the door so they can be

quickly loaded into the car if you decide to evacuate. Fill the car with gas.

II. During:DO’s DONT’SSwitch off all electrical and gasappliances, and turn services off at themains.

Don't walk through flowing water -currents can be deceptive, and shallow,fast moving water can knock you off your feet.

Take your emergency kit and try to letyour friends and family know whereyou are going.

Don't swim through fast flowing water -you may get swept away or struck byan object in the water.

Avoid contact with flood water - it maybe contaminated with sewage, oil,chemicals or other substances.

Don't drive through a flooded area -You may not be able to see abruptdrop-offs and only half a meter of floodwater can carry a car away. Drivingthrough flood water can also causeadditional damage to nearby property.

If you have to walk in standing water,use a pole or stick to ensure that you

do not step into deep water, openmanholes or ditches.

Don’t return to your property until the“All Clear” has been given.

Stay away from power lines - electricalcurrent can travel through water.Report power lines that are down to thepower company.

Don’t reconnect your power supply untila qualified engineer has checked it. Bealert for gas leaks - do not smoke or use candles, lanterns, or open flames.

Look before you step - after a flood, theground and floors are covered with

Don’t eat any food that has come intocontact with flood water.

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http://www.ehow.com/how_2190448_prepare-typhoon.html



debris, which may include brokenbottles, sharp objects, nails etc. Floorsand stairs covered with mud and debriscan be slippery.1. Keep your battery-operated radio on and listen to the latest weather bulletin and

announcements.2. Don’t pay attention to rumors.3. Be calm. Your ability to handle an emergency will inspire others and help them.

III. After:1. After this had happened, do not forget to fix whatever has been damaged.2. Check that no water is leaking into your home. There are still a lot of accidents

which can happen because of not taking enough responsibilities of the effects of the typhoon.

3. Check your things.4. Don’t switch on the lights or the power box of the electricity immediately.

5. Clean your place.6. Check if someone got injured during the flood.7. If you have wounds on your feet wear boots for protection from microorganisms.8. Check the news for updates.9. Help each other.

IV. Nurses/Nursing StudentsNURSING MANAGEMENT(TYPHOON)

Nurse’s Roles1. Taking care of affected people.

2. Assessing the health conditions and any special needs of the affected people.3. Be responsible for establishing mental services, counseling and providing socialsupport especially under such circumstances people need to make meaning of what happened and how to adjust in order to be able to continue their lives.

4. Maintenance of proper sanitation measures.5. Proper control of vector populations6. Control of infectious diseases through public education.7. Special care to children and elderly8. Feeding and sheltering victims.

BEFORE

1. Advise the people to keep or to have the following items at home before thetyphoon:

• Canned goods• Drinking water (distilled as much possible or if ever boiled water is

acceptable)• Clean clothes• Flashlight



• Batteries• First aid kit (Povidone Iodine, Hydrogen Peroxide, Sterile Gauze, Band

aids, Bandages, Cotton balls, Bandage scissors, etc.)• Basic medications (Paracetamol, Loperamide, Mefenamic Acid, Ascorbic

Acid, etc.)• Candles• Matches or lighter • Battery-operated radio• Mosquito net• Fan• Anti mosquito repellant lotion• Blanket• Cooking utensils

2. Advise to fix all the broken windows and roofs to prevent any water leaks duringtyphoon.

3. Advise them to charge emergency lights and cellular phones.4. Advise the people to carry the furniture and appliances on a higher place at their

house in case flood will occur.5. Advise the people whose living areas were prone to have landslides to evacuate

to a safe area to prevent accident.6. Advise the people to reserve water in containers and gallons so that they can use

something for cooking and bathing during and after the typhoon.7. advise them to get extra food, particularly those that don’t need to be cooked and

are easy to prepare. Remember that electric power may be cut off.8. Provide health teaching on how to perform first aid remedy such as proper wound

care.9. Discuss the possible diseases that could arise during and after the typhoon

including its signs and symptoms, the ways to prevent it, and its treatment.The following diseases are as follows:

• Dengue Fever • Malaria• Leptospirosis• Diarrhea• Cholera• Amoebiasis

10. Advise them to clean the drainage system to prevent clogging during typhoon.These areas can also be a breeding site for mosquitoes which can cause denguefever and malaria.

11. Advise them to keep their radios or television on and listen to the latest weather bulletin and announcements.

12. Advise them to prevent from coming out of the house during the typhoon. Flyingobjects are dangerous during typhoons.



DURING

1. Advise them to stay at home to prevent any injuries.2. Advise them to close the circuit breakers if flood occurs.3. Advise to close doors and windows.

4. If the eye of the typhoon has passed your house, there may be a lull lasting for afew minutes to half an hour. Stay in a safe place. Make emergency repairs duringthe lull if necessary. But remember that the wind will return suddenly from theopposite direction with even greater violence.

5. Advise them to watch out for leaks around windows and doors. If the wind isstrong enough, water may be blown into their home even if the windows areclosed. Advise them to prepare handy towels, rags and mops.

6. Advise them to monitor TV and radio reports.7. Advice them not operate any electrical equipment during a flood.8. Advice them to avoid wading through flooded areas. Remind them to not attempt

to cross flowing streams.

AFTER

1. Advise the people to wear boots and proper rain gear when going outside thehouse to prevent acquiring any disease from flood water such as leptospirosis.

2. Advise them not to touch electric outlets and sharp objects.3. Participate in a medical mission conducted by local and private sectors.4. Conduct thorough physical assessment on victims to determine any problems.5. Provide proper wound cleaning.6. Advise them not to drink tap water from the faucet because there’s no assurance

that it is clean and safe enough to drink.

7. Advise them to boil the water with ____ degrees Celsius before drinking.8. Advise them to cover any water containers to prevent any breeding sites of mosquitoes.

9. Provide counseling for victims of the typhoon.

For patients with DIARRHEA

1. Assess the general condition of the client especially his/her hydration status(capillary refill, skin turgor and color of oral mucosa)

2. Teach them how to make an ORESOL.3. Encourage to increase fluid intake.4. Encourage to have adequate rest.5. Advise to eat foods that are rich in potassium such as bananas if available.6. Advise to seek medical consultation if extreme dehydration took place.

For patients with DENGUE HEMORRHAGIC FEVER

1. Assess the general condition of the client and determine for any signs of bleedingsuch as presence of bruises.



2. Perform tourniquet test.3. Advise to use soft bristle toothbrush to prevent gum bleeding.4. Remove sharp objects away from the patient.5. Advise to have adequate nutrition.6. Perform tepid sponge bath whenever there’s fever.

7. Advise not to take aspirin because this can cause bleeding.8. Encourage to have adequate rest.

For patients with LEPTOSPIROSIS

1. Assess the general condition of the client.2. Perform tepid sponge bath.3. Encourage to have adequate rest.4. Advise to seek medical consultation as much as possible because this condition

needs immediate intervention.

abc - typhoon report (1)

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