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Abstract Number: 020-0186
Creating an Enabling Tool for Facilitating Engagement in Continuous Innovation Programmes
Dr Helen T Wagner*1, Dr Susan C Morton1, and Prof Chris J Backhouse1
1 Manufacturing Organisation Group, Wolfson School of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering, Loughborough University, UK
POMS 22nd Annual Conference, Nevada, USAApril 29 to May 2, 2011
Abstract
Although Lean Manufacturing is an established concept in both academia and industry,
consideration of the stages that follow a company-wide Lean initiative has received far less
attention. Pursuing continuous innovation (CI) takes commitment from all involved, and the
gap between knowing about continuous innovation and actually doing it needs to be filled. To
facilitate organizational CI, a need has been identified for a bespoke tool that will enable
managers to understand their people and support problem solving activities, at the
supervisory/team management level in particular. Having identified five main constructs that
contribute to successful engagement of employees in CI and their respective diagnostic tools,
the process of questionnaire development was researched. This offered guidelines for
planning, question wording, ordering and presentation, which were actioned in the
development. The work has resulted in a bespoke tool for facilitating engagement that will
add to the information available to managers and academics alike.
Introduction
* Corresponding author:Dr H T Wagner Research Associate: NIMBLE ProjectWolfson School of Mechanical & Manufacturing EngineeringLoughborough University, LoughboroughLeicestershire, UK LE11 3TUEmail: [email protected]
Lean Manufacturing is a well established concept in both academia and industry; however,
what is required when moving on from a lean initiative to attain further benefits is not such
an established field. What lies beyond Lean in relation to performance improvement requires
further investigation; the gap between knowing about continuous innovation (CI) and doing it
also needs to be removed, or reduced at the very least. To facilitate continuous organizational
innovation, a requirement has been identified for a new diagnostic tool for use by managers
to assess all levels of the organization and to assist with problem solving at the level of
supervisory/team management in particular.
Although the information needed could be collected by interviewing workers within an
organization, several advantages to using a standardized questionnaire exist. Studies show
that people are often more honest when completing a self-administered questionnaire [1, 2].
They provide an easy and time effective route to collecting data from many people, provide
anonymity and limit researcher bias, and the structured format ensures each respondent reads
and answers the exact same questions, which makes for robust analysis [3].
Devising a new questionnaire is not an easy task [1] and often researchers underestimate what
is required, thinking that because they have knowledge of a topic they are capable of
developing a good questionnaire [4]. In fact, it is a highly complex and time consuming
process [5] that cannot be shortcut, no matter how tempting it may be [1]. The process
requires not only thorough knowledge, but attention to detail [4] and a ‘stringent and
scrupulous’ approach to ensure the data collected provides what is required in a usable form
[5]. This is essential, as the consequences of the decisions made during the design phase
impact directly on the results obtained [6] and, therefore, the findings and validity of the
study.
It is, therefore, the purpose of this paper to introduce the process undertaken to create a new,
bespoke questionnaire, created to assess the factors affecting employee engagement in
continuous innovation programmes.
Existing Tools that measure the constructs affecting employee engagement in CI
There are five identified constructs that affect the potential for employees to engage with the
CI programme, as outlined by Wagner et al. [7]. In order to incorporate each of the constructs
of creativity, empowerment, leader-member relationship, team role and leadership style, into
the new questionnaire, the existing tools that measure these constructs were assessed.
Job Diagnostic Survey
The Job Characteristics Model (JCM) proposed by Hackman and Oldham [8] is a tool for
analysing the satisfaction and motivating potential offered by a job role. The quantitative
calculation of each component of the model is facilitated by the Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS)
[9], which was developed for use “in research and evaluation activities aimed at assessing
the effects of redesigned jobs on the people who do them” [10].
Questions are set out to identify the core characteristics using two techniques; standard
questions and reverse scored questions. Some researchers have experienced problems with
this approach and have sought to make improvements [11], but when their revised questioning
was tested by others, in a direct comparison, no improvement was found and the authors
recommended continued use of the original questionnaire [12]. The results of the JDS are
entered into the Motivating Potential Score (MPS) equation, also created by Hackman and
Oldham [8], where each component in the equation is scored from 1 to 7, with results ranging
from 1 to 343 and scores commonly around 150 [13].
Leader-Member Exchange (LMX)
Leader-Member Exchange (LMX), with its roots in Social Exchange Theory [14], is based on
the two-way, dyadic relationship [15] between a leader and an individual subordinate [16].
Each relationship becomes differentiated [15,17] based on factors affecting the level of
interaction, communication, understanding and trust [18] between the two; constraining or
facilitating the development of the relationship [19]. The measure of the multidimensional
relationship [18] is based on the perceptions of both the leader and subordinate, and so in its
study, it is vital to view it objectively from both sides [20].
The LMX-7 questionnaire, put forward by Graen and Uhl-Bien [21], assesses the quality of
the relationship of the supervisor with each individual team-member. The tool is made up of
seven items that exemplify different aspects of the leader-subordinate working relationship
[17] and is measured on a five-point scale.
The Belbin team roles model
The Belbin team roles model [22] identifies the nine potential roles each individual could
exhibit when working in a team, outlining the specific behaviours and skills each brings to
the team dynamic.
The Self Perception Inventory (SPI) [23] tool comprises seven questions, which ask the
respondent to distribute ten points between ten different response options. The points can be
allocated where they like, but it is important to use all ten points. Subjects explored include a
person’s contribution to a team and what they feel they lack, their approach to tasks and
problems, and working with others or in a group. Participants completing the questionnaire
indicate their own perceptions of their behaviour in each situation. This can be complemented
by the addition of the Observer Assessment [22], where other team members or the team
supervisor provides their perceptions of the participant, to give an outsider view.
Although some researchers question its validity, many support the tool. They [e.g. Fisher et
al. [24] and Partington and Harris [25]] suggest that it has made a significant contribution to
understanding [24], also suggesting its value in use is more important than its psychometric
validity [25] and recognizing that to set aside the work because of doubt would be a great pity
[24].
Research Tools – KEYS to Creativity
The KEYS to Creativity instrument (KEYS) was developed by Amabile et al. [26], to meet the
need for research in organizational theory and practice, by using theoretical knowledge from
literature to create a tool that would test real organizational settings. It looks at creativity
within the working environment [27], examining the intrinsic motivation of individuals to be
creative and assessing perceived barriers and enablers to creativity [28]. It is said that “the
value of KEYS lies in its capacity to accurately identify the conditions necessary for
innovation to occur” [29]. Aimed at assessing all levels within an organisation, from the shop
floor team to supervisory and organizational, KEYS concentrates on the effects of
environmental factors on an individual’s perceptions, which influence the creativity of their
work [30].
The KEYS instrument itself is made up of 78 questions assessed using a four point scale [27];
purposely designed to force a response by not offering a neutral option [26]. Of the 78, 66 are
related to the work environment with the remaining 12 assessing performance in terms of
creativity and productivity [26]. The work environment factors are split between management
practices that encourage and those that inhibit creativity [29], encompassing: organizational
encouragement; supervisory encouragement; work group supports; sufficient resources;
challenging work; freedom; organizational impediments; and workload pressure.
As a tool it has been extensively empirically tested [30] and has been shown to be both robust
and rigorous [31], demonstrating its validity and reliability [27] through research with more
than twelve thousand research subjects [29].
Extant Literature on Developing Questionnaires
The Oxford English Dictionary defines a questionnaire as: “A formulated series of questions
by which information is sought from a selected group, usually for statistical analysis; a
document containing these” [32], however, some see it as much more. Labaw [33] sees it as not
only a series of questions or just a series of words [34], but a layered structure, where “it is a
totality, a gestalt that is greater than the sum of its individual questions... with each part vital
to every other part and all parts must be handled simultaneously to create this whole
instrument” [33].
Although there may be more to it, the basics of the dictionary definition also hold true; as a
tool for data collection in written format, suitable for large numbers of respondents [1] and a
series of attitude or opinion statements and questions developed to elicit a response, which
can then be used to measure the variable being studied [5]. Well designed questionnaires can
provide an understanding of the details of an organization’s manufacturing strategy [4] and
can aid in driving-in and measuring the success of organizational change [5]. An ideal
questionnaire should be clear, unambiguous and suitable to collect the data required to test
the research question or hypothesis set [5]. In order to meet these requirements it must be
designed with the respondents in mind; this will dictate the type of questions, wording and
concepts that can be explored [34].
The Process of Development
Before question writing begins there is much work to be done; this starts with knowing what
is the purpose of the research [5] and what you wish to accomplish [34]. Questionnaire
construction takes place in stages, which begin with setting objectives [4], clearly defining
what will be studied [5] and to what level of detail and accuracy [6]. This should involve
reviewing appropriate literature [1]. Once all of this is known, research questions or
hypotheses should be developed [5]. It is likely that this initial planning phase will take up a
third to a half of the development time of the questionnaire [6].
Another fundamental part to the early stages of questionnaire development, that must run
parallel to both the planning and question development stages, is that of analysis design [5].
A questionnaire must be designed with analysis as an integral part; so that it can be assured
that the data collected will be suitable for analysis [35]. This statistical analysis will allow
researchers to study data on individual respondents or questions, but will also facilitate the
presentation of results and testing of hypotheses [35]. It must, however, be remembered that
data collection is paramount and no amount of statistical manipulation can make up for poor
questionnaire design [4]. With this in mind, the practicalities of questionnaire design must
next be examined.
Question Wording
The consideration of question wording is one that receives much attention in extant literature.
While all recommend it be given careful consideration, some think that the specific wording
of questions has a much greater impact than others. Brigham [35] suggests that wording has
considerable effect on results; a belief that is supported by Synodinos [4] who found that
even small changes in wording can produce response effects. However, this belief is not
shared by all. Labaw [33] suggested that wording variations have little impact on the stability
of results, a position that was corroborated by the findings of Gendall [34] who stated that it
is possible to ask the same question in different ways with no effect on respondents’
understanding.
Further contention exists in the phasing of attitude statements. Murray [5] considers that all
such statements should be worded positively; however, Gendall [34] found no evidence that
wording positively or negatively has any influence on response. He did find that the strength
of a word had an impact on response, with words such as ‘forbid’ being less acceptable than
‘not allow’ [34].
It is sometimes taken for granted that the respondent reads and understands the question as
the researcher intends, unfortunately this is not always the case [34]. With this in mind, a
table of the suggestions for questionnaire wording has been compiled, outlining the advice of
many sources (Table 1).
In addition to question wording, answer format must be considered. It should provide a clear
structure so that respondents know what is required of them [5]. Closed questions offer a
fixed choice of answers that come in several different formats. Yes/No formats are commonly
used, but should be limited to avoid guessing [5]. Checklists where the respondent is asked to
tick all that apply [1] can be used when multiple answers may be applicable. In this instance,
the use of an ‘other’ box is also recommended in case a possible option has not been thought
of [5], although this may not entirely make up for omissions [36]. Category answers are
possible [5] as are quantities or bands of figures [1].
Table 1: Advice for wording questions
Rules for wording of questions
Use closed questions where possible to ensure the context is the same for all [4, 34, 36]
Questions should be simply worded and structured, unambiguous, focussed and short
[1, 4, 5, 6, 34]
Less than 20 words [5] Less than 12 words [1]
Questions should be clear and precise and not woolly, so all understand and interpret as intended
[4, 5, 6, 34, 36]
Use language appropriate to the target population [6]
Phrase to the lowest education level of respondents [4,5]
Do not patronise or make too elitist [5]
Do not use jargon, unusual words, acronyms, and abbreviations [4, 5]
Avoid unfamiliar, difficult words or words that sound similar to others [34]
Consider of words have an alternative meaning [5]
Avoid double negatives [4, 6]
Double barrelled questions should be separated into single concept questions
[1, 4, 5, 6, 34]
Avoid leading or loaded questions [1, 5, 6, 34]
Avoid assuming/presuming questions [1]
Imprecise conditions such as frequently, generally, normally should be avoided
[1, 6]
Questions should not challenge the respondents’ knowledge, only asking what they are easily able and to answer
[4, 6, 34, 36]
Do not ask respondents to think too far back, not more than 6 months [1, 5]
Hypothetical questions are difficult to answer and should be avoided [1, 5, 6]
Questions that ask people to predict the future should be used with caution [4]
Although different questions require different styles of response formats, it is the attitude or
opinion statements that seem to be the most contentious. Ranges of mutually exclusive
answers, such as strongly disagree to strongly agree [1, 5] are commonly used to quantify
these questions. However, Gendall and Hoek [36] suggest that agree-disagree questions are
the most likely to be affected by question wording and, therefore, the answer format should
be a forced choice. In further work, Gendall [34] reinforces that there should be no mid-point
or neutral alternative offered, in order to measure intensity of feeling, but states that a no
opinion option should always be included.
Question Order
Question order is another issue that must be considered during the design phase of a new tool.
Unlike question wording, most authors are in agreement as to the best way to order questions.
The first and most fundamental point is to establish whether each question is in fact necessary
to complete the study [5], as the length of the questionnaire should be kept to its optimal
minimum. Once the questions are deemed to be necessary they can be ordered based on the
generally accepted advice.
The questionnaire should begin with easy, basic questions that are neither sensitive nor
threatening, in order to ease the respondent into the process [15, 34, 37]. Questions should
then develop logically [4, 5, 34], be grouped by theme [4, 5, 37] and flow smoothly from one
to the next [5]. Questions that are more sensitive or embarrassing should be left until late on
in the order [1, 6, 34]. Advice is divided on where important questions should be placed, with
some feeling that these questions should be first as later responses could impact on these
issues, but others suggest that important questions should be approached slowly [6].
Similarly, division is found in the positioning of demographics questions. While Synodinos
[4] recommends that some screening questions be placed at the end of the introduction
section, he thinks that demographics questions are likely to be the most sensitive in the
questionnaire so, in line with previous advice, these should be positioned at the end.
Oppenheim [38] concurs on the positioning, although his reasoning comes more from the
desire not to dissipate the initial enthusiasm by diluting it with questions not related to the
main topic of the questionnaire. This is in direct opposition to Drummond et al. [39], who
found that placing demographics questions first actually increased response rates in a postal
survey. The effects of question order on response rates were also found by Synodinos [4] and
Dunn et al. [37], and it was thought that this could be influenced further by the gender of the
respondent [39].
Questionnaire Presentation Formatting
Whilst much of the advice concerning questionnaire presentation is aimed at self-
administered tools that are completed as part of a postal survey, there are lessons to learn to
improve the presentation of all questionnaires based on these findings. Jepson et al. [40] found
that the overall length of the questionnaire had a direct impact on response rates with a
response rate at 60% for a questionnaire of 849 words, but only 16.7% when the words are
increased to 1800, concluding that there is an acceptable threshold for questionnaire length.
Although response rate is not an issue in organizational studies with full participation, the
findings on questionnaire length may help to ensure that focus can be maintained by those
completing the questionnaire.
Two things are likely to create an immediate impression on respondents, which makes them
vitally important. The first is the introduction, which is needed to build rapport with the
respondent [5]; it sets the scene and can build interest in completing. Second is the graphic
design of the tool itself [34], which has the potential to either arouse interest or discourage
respondents from taking the time to complete [5].
To maximise the likelihood of completion, practical advice on questionnaire format is offered
by many, and is summarised in Table 2.
Table 2: Advice for presentation of questionnaires
Rules for presentation of questionnaires
Begin by assuring respondents of confidentiality of answers and results [5]
Use a large, distinct typeface/font, appropriate to the target population [1, 5]
Use a different, clear typeface/font for instructions [5]
Instructions should be clear and explicit – illustrated with an example if necessary
[1]
Questions should be numbered and not split across page breaks [5]
Pages should be numbered, with PTO at the bottom of each page (where further pages exist)
[1]
Only place questions on one side of the paper [5]
End by thanking participants [1, 5]
The Process of Development – The FACETS Questionnaire
Developing the FACETS questionnaire forms part of a two year study on employee
engagement in continuous improvement, which began with much background research on the
constructs that affect engagement and how these can be synergistically combined to create a
more successful improvement program. At the outset, the objectives and research questions
were set, purpose of the work defined and the final output agreed upon. Literature suggests
that the initial planning phase will likely take up a third to a half of the development time of
the questionnaire [6], and this has certainly proved to be true for this questionnaire, with early
phases used not only for literature review, but also initial testing using the tools developed
and recommended by previous authors.
Developing a questionnaire when well established tools exist has proven a challenging
exercise. It is essential to ensure that the new tool measures all of the topics considered
important from the existing questionnaires as effectively as the original without using their
questions. In most cases there were substantial parts of the existing questionnaires that were
considered unnecessary for this study, as they went into aspects not thought to link directly to
engagement in the CI process. In order to ensure effective assessment, the existing questions
were reviewed, but this was supplemented by the background research on the constructs and
factors that affect and make them up. Aligning the two, allowed new questions to be written
that have the potential to still measure the construct without plagiarising the work of extant
tool developers. Therefore, creating a new and, more concise tool that measures only the
aspects considered to directly influence behaviour.
Throughout the early development stages, designing the data analysis to be undertaken [5]
has always been under consideration. This will ensure that the final questionnaire not only
meets its purpose in providing knowledge on the individual and their role in the CI program,
but also that it facilitates the proof required to validate the model and theory developed on the
interconnectivity of the constructs considered to effect CI [7].
Question Wording
Wording of questions has been carefully considered to meet as many of the suggested
guidelines as possible. At this early stage all statements have been worded positively, as per
the advice of Murray [5], but this will be carefully analysed to ascertain if it has had any
effect on results.
A decision was taken to align all sections of questions to a standard answer format. Rather
than questions, as such, attitude/factual statements were developed to measure strength of
feeling or level of agreement; all in a closed format [1]. A five point scale was chosen, to
allow for a middle position, although this is labelled as moderate as opposed to neutral, in
order that the participant not see it as a opt out. Congruent to this, no ‘don’t know’ option has
been allowed, with the assumption that if it is possible to answer, participants will choose and
if it is not they will simply leave the question unanswered; as outlined in the instructions.
Referring back to Table 1, the steps undertaken were reviewed in-line with advice in extant
literature, to produce Table 3.
Table 3: Actions on advice for wording questions
Actions taken on wording of questions
Only used closed questions [4, 34, 36]Questions kept concise and simple [1, 4, 5, 6, 34] 100% of questions below 20 words [5] 92.5% of questions 12 words or below [1]
Questions kept clear and not confusing [4, 5, 6, 34, 41]
Language kept simple but not patronising, accessible to all [4, 5, 6]
No jargon, acronyms or abbreviations used [4, 5]
Words carefully selected for singular meaning and common usage [4, 5, 34]
No questions contain double negatives [4, 6]
Double barrelled questions only used when combination effects sought [1, 4, 5, 6, 34]
Questions are neither loaded or assuming/presuming [1, 5, 6, 34]
Imprecise conditions not used, conditions such as regularly considered acceptable
[1, 6]
All questions based on current knowledge and strength of feeling, easy to answer
[4, 6, 34, 36]
Limited hypothetical/future questions used to illustrate some vital aspects of relationship
[1, 5, 6]
Wording effects will only really be measurable once the questionnaire has been pilot tested
on a representative sample of the population, at which stage any felt to be affecting results
will be amended.
Question Order
The combination of previous questionnaires utilized in the early phase of research, resulted in
participants being asked to complete an arduous 237 questions. In light of this, a target was
set of 100 questions for the final tool. At this early stage more questions (120) have been
written, to be refined after initial analysis takes place [5].
In a questionnaire that is primarily based on attitudes, it is difficult to ascertain which
questions are likely to be most sensitive for participants, with the potential for questions to
affect some more than others. In light of this, the questionnaire begins with a general section
on continuous improvement, to both ease the participant into completion [15, 34, 42] and
provide a clear, contextual start on which to base future answers. Further sections are then
used to move through the constructs being measured in a logical [4, 5, 34] themed way [4, 5,
37]; progressing from topics considered less to more challenging [1, 6, 34]. However, within
each section the questions are purposely randomized so that questions on each sub topic are
split up, to encourage them to be read carefully each time rather than creating a lead from one
to the next.
The division shown on the placement of demographics questions [4, 43, 44] has lead to an
approach that allows participants in the pilot phase to choose whether they complete these
questions before or after the main body. Results of this will dictate the final positioning of the
demographics section.
Questionnaire Presentation Formatting
During the development phases, practical information offered in extant literature, as outlined
in Table 2, was kept in mind and the measures taken to meet these recommendations are
summarised in Table 4.
Table 4: Actions on advice for presentation of questionnaires
Action taken on presentation of questionnaires
Introductory section assuring confidentiality and anonymity [5]
Questions in Arial font [1, 5]
Instructions given in Calibri font, headings Arial Bold [5]
Clear instructions given at the start of the questionnaire, covering all sections which are completed in the same way
[1]
All questions are numbered and not split across page breaks, column headings for answer options on top of each page
[5]
Pages numbered, PTO considered unnecessary [1]
Printing only on one side of the paper [5]
Participants thanked at end of introduction and after questions [1, 5]
Although much can be learned from the literature on postal survey response rates,
information on how number of words affects response rate was considered non-influential in
this case, as the questionnaire will always be administered as part of a company based study
with participants completing on company premises, in company time. However, as with
number of questions, overall length of the questionnaire was generally considered throughout
the development stages.
The introduction to the questionnaire was given much attention, due to its potential influence
on participants [5]. Formatted on a single sheet, it outlines the purpose of the study, what it
will measure, and how the information will be presented to management. It assures
confidentiality and anonymity of data and results. The different types of questions
(demographic and research) are explained, along with instructions on how to complete both
sections, giving the choice of completion order. The introduction ends by thanking
participants.
Graphic design was also considered important [5, 34]. General appearance was kept simple,
with questions formatted in a tabular structure, using a highlight for every other question, in
order to both distinguish between questions and to draw the eye across to the correct answer
line for a question. Color was also deliberated. It was decided that the paper should be white,
partly as this was shown to make little difference in previous studies [45] and partly as it
creates a clear, simple background [46, 47]. Highlight colors were researched for their potential
meaning and their practical application in printed form.
Shortlisted colors were pale blue, pale green, yellow, orange and grey, which was included
for simplicity of questionnaire reproduction. Each has a defined meaning and possible effect
on participants and was chosen for these advantages. Blue is “often associated with depth
and stability. It symbolizes trust, loyalty, wisdom, confidence, intelligence” [46], “Green
calms and soothes the mind, stimulates creativity, is easy on the eye” [46], “Yellow
stimulates mental activity, and attracts attention” [46], whereas “Orange increases oxygen
supply to the brain, produces an invigorating effect, and stimulates mental activity” [47].
Piloting the Questionnaire
As literature suggests [6], an initial pre-pilot was undertaken using staff and PhD students
within the university. This allowed for early detection of basic errors in typing and grammar.
It also highlighted a small number of issues in regard to the instructions given and wording in
a couple of questions. These issues were rectified and the questionnaire was then considered
ready to be used. Information from pre-pilot participants led to the decision to use a
questionnaire with blue highlighting during the pilot phase.
The next stage in the development will be a pilot at the organisation being studied, with a
small sample, representative of the general population to be studied. At this stage the
wording, question order and presentation will be assessed for their suitability in meeting the
requirements for a fully commercial tool.
From there, the questionnaire will be completed by large sections of the shop-floor
populations of two of the organization’s larger plants, in order to provide a wide testing
ground in different cultures to give the data needed to assess reliability and robustness of the
tool.
Acknowledgment
Research was supported by the EPSRC Loughborough Innovative Manufacturing and
Construction Research Centre http://www.lboro.ac.uk/imcrc
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