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PALA2007

―Style and Communication― 31 July – 4 August 2007

ABSTRACTS

Kansai Gaidai University

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Kansai Gaidai University for their financial support towards the running of this conference.

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PLENARIES Geoffrey Leech (University of Lancaster, UK) Style in interior monologue: Virginia Woolf’s ‘The Mark on the Wall’ The curious nature of the style of interior monologue is that it is language without an addressee. Unlike diary writing, it cannot even be regarded as addressed reflexively, to its author. ‘The Mark on the Wall’ was an early experiment in stream-of-consciousness writing that Virginia Woolf wrote in 1917 ‘all in a flash, as if flying after being kept stone breaking for months.’ I will try to show the salient characteristics of this style of writing, finally comparing the results of ‘orthodox’ stylistic analysis with the analysis tentatively provided by techniques of corpus stylistics. Yoshihiko Ikegami (Showa Women’s University, Japan) Linguistics and Poetics of ‘Ego as Zero’: The Japanese Speaker’s Preferential Choice of Subjective Rather Than Objective Construal ‘Construal’ is a crucial notion in cognitive linguistics. The speaker of language is known to have the ability of construing one and the same situation in a number of alternate ways and of making different senses of it. It is also known that being faced with one and the same situation, the speaker of one language may prefer to construe it in one way, while the speaker of a different language tends to construe it in another way --- resulting in what Whorf called ‘fashions of speaking’ (which, according to him, “do not depend so much upon ANY ONE SYSTEM (e.g., tense, or nouns) within grammar as upon the ways of analyzing and reporting experience which have become fixed in the language…(and) are closely integrated with the whole general culture” (Whorf 1956:158,159)). I’m going to argue that ‘subjective construal’ (which results in ‘subject-object merger’) is the Japanese speaker’s favourite way of construing and encoding a situation, in contrast to ‘objective construal’ (which results in subject-object contrast), preferred apparently by the speakers of English (and, for that matter, more generally, of Western languages). A special note will be taken of the paradoxical consequence that in spite of the fact that ‘subjective construal’ is an eminently ego-centric way of viewing things in the sense that the speaker encodes what he himself directly perceives, the speaker is linguistically encoded as zero. (This follows naturally from the fact that in ‘subjective construal’ the speaker is at the origin of his perceptual field and is thus not included within the scope of his own perception.) A philosophical correlate of this particular linguistic feature is ‘ego as nothing’ (or ‘egolessness’). The present paper proposes to explore both linguistic and poetic implications of ‘subjective construal’ as the Japanese speaker’s favourite type of ‘fashions of speaking’. Andreas H. Jucker (University of Zurich, Switzerland) News Discourse in the third Millennium The first newspapers in the modern sense appeared at the beginning of the seventeenth century leading to a “news revolution” according to Sommerville (1996). For the first time news publications appeared on a periodical schedule and not just in response to major events, such as a war or a natural disaster. In the twentieth century the electronic media added a new dimension to news discourse. In contrast to printed newspapers, radio and television news are published and consumed simultaneously. Listeners and viewers cannot choose the order in which they want to receive the different news items, and they cannot abbreviate the length of these items. Both the print media and the electronic media have in common that they constitute communication from one to many and that they are basically cases of one-way communication.

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The audience has no, or only very limited, possibilities of talking back to the producers of the news. The last decade of the twentieth century with the invention of the Internet has given us yet again a new dimension of news reporting, perhaps another “news revolution”. In this paper I want to show how the different formats of news discourse are merging on the Internet. On the Internet, we are currently witnessing a fusion of print and electronic news reporting, a fusion of the public and the private domains, and a fusion of the sender and the recipient. News discourse is no longer exclusively one-way communication. The audience gets a fair share in the production of news. Against the background of my earlier work in this area (Jucker 2003, 2005a, 2005b, 2006), I shall illustrate these developments with detailed case studies of live text commentaries, weblogs and newspaper chats, and at the end I shall attempt to make some predictions for the future development of news discourse in the twenty-first century. References Jucker, Andreas H. (2003) Mass media communication at the beginning of the twenty-first century:

Dimensions of change. Journal of Historical Pragmatics 4.1, Special Issue on Media and Language Change, edited by Susan C. Herring, 129-148.

Jucker, Andreas H. (2005a) News discourse: Mass media communication from the seventeenth to the twenty-first century. In: Janne Skaffari, Matti Peikola, Ruth Carroll, Risto Hiltunen and Brita Warvik (eds.). Opening Windows on Texts and Discourses of the Past. (Pragmatics & Beyond New Series 134). Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 7-21.

Jucker, Andreas H. (2005b) Mass media. In: Jan-Ola Ostman and Jef Verschueren in collaboration with Eline Versluys (eds.). Handbook of Pragmatics 2003-2005. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1-18.

Jucker, Andreas H. (2006) Live text commentaries. Read about it while it happens. In: Androutsopoulos, Jannis K., Jens Runkehl, Peter Schlobinski und Torsten Siever (Hrsg.). Neuere Entwicklungen in der linguistischen Internetforschung. Zweites internationales Symposium zur gegenwartigen linguistischen Forschung uber computervermittelte Kommunikation. Universitat Hannover, 4.-6. Oktober 2004. (Germanistische Linguistik 186-187, 2006). Hildesheim: Georg Olms, 113-131.

Sommerville, John. (1996) The News Revolution in England. Cultural Dynamics of Daily Information. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Sylvia Adamson (University of Sheffield, UK) Text, context and the interpretive community: towards a new historical stylistics From today’s retro-perspective, the history of modern stylistics falls into two phases: a formalist phase, generating the major work of the 60s and 70s, and the contextualist phase that has dominated more recent developments. A similar paradigm shift can be observed in the neighbouring disciplines of literary criticism and linguistics over the same period. In stylistics, though, the turning-point came early and can be rather precisely located. The key document was undoubtedly Stanley Fish's essay ‘What is stylistics and why are they saying such terrible things about it?’ First published in 1973, it crystallised the alarmed reaction of many in the literary establishment to the impact of stylistics in the 1960s and to the growing hegemony of linguistics across the humanities more generally. But the sheer virtuosity of Fish’s rhetoric turned defence into attack and by the 1980s the essay had the status of a classic text of the anti-formalist movement, surviving recurrent rebuttals (e.g. Milic 1985; Ellis 1989; Toolan 1990; Hoover 1999) to exercise a potent influence both on the internal development of stylistics and on its reputation abroad. By the millennium, stylistics had become, almost, a subject that dared not speak its name. This paper is in part an exercise in rehabilitation or reconciliation. Specifically, I want to suggest that the contextualist turn has itself produced innovations in theory and method that allow us to envisage the possibility of a negotiated settlement between the original antagonists.

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INDIVIDUAL PAPERS David Althaus (Setsunan University, Japan) The Style of Legal Language: Questioning Techniques Designed to Limit and Obfuscate Quite often courts are seen as forums for truth-finding, performing a communicative function. In courtroom narrative in order to achieve this aim, those charged with the fact-finding mission use a range of questioning techniques to elicit the “truth” from witnesses. In reality, truth, a nebulous concept, is that version of truth the questioner permits the court to hear. The communication between lawyer and witness, could then be adversarial or conversational. Japanese law students experience considerable difficulties adapting their discourse to meet the interactional norms associated with this spoken genre. At a time when legal English is evolving and despite the legal system being an ancient profession, (using latin phrases) Japanese students are fortunate that the plain English Legal movement (some 31 years old) has simplified the use of legalese. In this presentation I will show a video of the range of techniques the students employ to illustrate a conversational style and discourse. As mock lawyers, students had the opportunity to control and manipulate witnesses, but failed to recognize the point at which they may have achieved their aim. The Japanese students, style is one that relies predominately on pre-formulated questions that undermines and de-legitimates the objectives of learning about questioning techniques. It may be the Japanese conversational style lacks the flexibility to construct and respond to answers given from mock witnesses. The fall back position is one that they have relied on throughout their formative years, tuning into sets of questions and answers. Throughout this law course students were taught how to ask leading (cross examination) and non-leading (examination in chief) questions and more importantly how to use the last answer to frame the next question. These first year law students took on roles of witnesses and barristers to role-play mock trials. Students learn not only how to communicate but how to limit, discredit and exclude testimony that does not fit their “truth” parameters. However, the Japanese students may have found it difficult to embrace the power relationship inherent in the questioning techniques used to control their witnesses. Students learn that the discourse of the courtroom as being appropriate for examination in chief (open). They do this without leading the witnesses, that is, without suggesting the answer to the witness. Generally speaking, Wh questions are employed, those being open questions, but also closed questions can be used. These are then broken down into word choice and yes/no questions. So students ask a series of questions to control the witnesses’ answers and restrict the version of truth they want the court to hear. In stark contrast, when learning cross-examination students learnt the art of asking leading question, only asking leading questions to get what they need from the witness then STOP! Controlling the witness with just one fact per question limits the witness to a yes or no answer only. This is about trivializing what the witness has to say and showing the tribunal that the answers do not matter. Essentially, students failed to completely understand double negative questions and tag questions that sought to manipulate and control the witnesses’ answers through controlling questions. Lastly, non-verbal behaviour as well as intonation are important in suggesting or not suggesting answers to questions. The subtle inherent in these styles is another area the Japanese students found troubling. Kyoko Arai (Toyo University, Japan) Relevance and Persuasiveness – An analysis of advertising language – This paper offers an analysis of persuasiveness used in advertising language as viewed through the lens of relevance theory. There have been considerable numbers of books and other literature explaining how our

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communication can be made more persuasive in the fields of mass communication, advertisement, marketing, social psychology and so on. However, none of them adequately make manifest or define persuasiveness. Some advertising copy consisting of just a few phrases is very persuasive, while many others are less so. This paper proposes that a part of what makes successful copy persuasive can be explained using relevance theory’s notion of mental profit (cognitive effects) for the hearer (reader). The aim of advertising copy is to inform the audience about a product name or brand and to persuade them to buy the product. This paper suggests that making advertising language more persuasive has much to do with the notion of ‘relevance’ and supports this assertion by quoting several examples in advertising articles. Firstly, the scope of the study of pragmatics on persuasiveness in advertising language will be set by considering the borderline between linguistics and other faculties of study. In her 2000 study, Marie Taillard argued that persuasive communication has two purposes: to be understood and to be believed. Studying the former should occur in pragmatics, and the latter in social psychology. Therefore, this study will examine how persuasive communication is understood. Additionally, Taillard used the notion of ‘persuasive intention’ as an object of study in relevance theory and this issue will also be reviewed and discussed farther on. Secondly, the relationship between persuasiveness and relevance will be discussed using some relevance theoretic concepts. Concrete examples of persuasiveness, taken from magazine advertising copy, will be examined from the standpoint of such relevance theoretic notions as ad hoc concept construction for metaphor, poetic effects, and weak explicatures. References: Carston, R. (2002) “Thoughts and Utterances, The pragmatics of explicit communication,” Blackwell

Publishers, Ltd., John Benjamins Publishing Company. Forceville, C. (1994) “Pictorial metaphor in advertising,” Metaphor and Symbolic Activity 9, 1-29 Gibbs, R.W. and Tendahl, M. (2006) "Cognitive effort and effects in metaphor comprehension: relevance

theory and psycholinguistics," Mind & Language 21 (3): 379-403 McQuarrie, E.F. and Phillips, B.J. (2005) “Indirect persuasion in advertising”, The Journal of Advertising,

Vol. 34, No. 2, 7-20, American Academy of Advertising. Sperber, D. and Wilson, D. (1997), “Relevance, communication and cognition”, second edition, Blackwell

Publishers, Ltd. Taillard, M.O. (2000) “Persuasive communication: The case of marketing,” UCL Working Papers in

Linguistics 12: 145-172. Tanaka, K. (1996) Advertising Language: A pragmatic approach to advertisements in Britain and Japan.

London: Routledge Masumi Azuma (Kobe Geijutsukoka University, Japan) How did the term “metaphor” take root and develop in another language? This paper discusses how the term “metaphor” was introduced into another language/culture, how the term took root, and how it developed in that language/culture. A special focus is on the case of Japanese where the language system and cultural background were quite different from those of the term’s origin. In the occidental world, metaphor was rooted in rhetoric. Aristotle’s clarification of the theory and effects of rhetoric has been beneficial for our study. There were repeated rises and falls in the use of rhetoric until the early 19th century, and the 20th century saw the flourishing studies of figures of speech, especially of metaphor in the occidental world. Since then, metaphor has been studied in linguistics, semantics, psychology, anthropology, and other fields. In Japan, we may be able to trace the roots of figurative expressions to Man-yo-shu in a literary form or in other forms of writing/illustration or even earlier. The term “metaphor” came to be used by

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literary figures in the Meiji Era. The time coincided with an epoch-making period in Japan. Since around the 1970’s, when the views and theories of cognitive linguists on metaphor were publicized in the occidental world, Japanese researchers also have paid more attention to it. The focal points in the presentation: (1) A probable first appearance of the term “metaphor” in Japan.

The introduction of the term “metaphor” into Japan evidenced in a document may have been in the early 19th century, i.e. the Meiji Era. It originated in Wen Zhe’s Chinese Rules of Sentence 『文則』written in the 12th century.

(2) A flourishing time for the use of “metaphor” in Japan in the Meiji Era. The literary figures were interested in rhetoric and classified figures of speech, among which metaphor was included. Dairoku Kikuchi (1879), Sanae Takata (1889), Shoyo Tsubouchi (1893) and Hogetsu Shimamura (1902) contributed to the classification, theory and use.

(3) The recent use of “metaphor” and its research in Japan. In daily conversation, the common term used to designate one’s idea figuratively is noted as ‘hiyu,’ which covers all aspects of figurative speech. Therefore, ordinary Japanese people seem to have no need for the term ‘metaphor’ but researchers or those who are interested in ‘metaphor’ seem to specifically use the term ‘metaphor’ to distinguish metaphor from other figures of speech. Several studies (e.g. metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, etc.), such as those of Sato (1992/1996; 1997), Seto (1997; 2000) and Yamanashi (1995; 2002), will be discussed in this section.

From the above discussion, we find that the term ‘metaphor’ came to be known by the Japanese in the Meiji Era. Ever since, it has become familiar to ordinary Japanese people, because there have been an increasing number of publications or talks that illustrate ‘metaphor.’ However, instead of the term ‘metaphor,’ the terms ‘hiyu’ or ‘hiyuteki hyogen’ (figurative expressions) are still used to refer to all of the figures of speech. Dany Badran (Lebanese American University, Lebanon) Language and Persuasion: Is there Still a Place for Literary Discourse? One of the major dimensions of Hall’s Literature in Language Education (2005) view of ‘Literature as Discourse’ is the argumentative/rhetorical dimension. Yet the most up-to-date textbooks used for teaching rhetoric and argumentation at universities worldwide seem to overwhelmingly favour the non-literary at the expense of literary texts. Despite their somewhat vague reference to elements of ‘style’ in their proposed analyses of texts, such popular (American) textbooks as: Read, Reason, Write: An Argument Text and Reader or Writing Arguments: A Rhetoric with Readings (currently used as textbooks in two major Lebanese Universities which follow the American system) clearly feel that there is no place for literary discourse in the teaching of rhetoric and argumentation, as reflected in the overall absence of literary texts. Stemming from a view of literature as a socio-cultural and institutional/ised form of discourse which is in fact special at least from a reader-response perspective (if not from a structural one), and by looking at a poem, written by Witi Ihimaera and entitled Dinner with the Cannibal, from an argumentative/stylistic perspective (i.e. literature as argumentation), this paper argues that literary discourse is not only appropriate for the teaching of rhetoric (since it possesses all the necessary constituents of an argument), but can also offer students at an advanced stage with a superiorly explicit account of these constituents in a highly motivating yet challenging (and memorable) classroom setting. Based on empirical data collected from a rhetoric classroom situation, as well as on the above view of literature, it is concluded that while ‘non-literary’ texts are a good starting point at the basic identification level, when it comes to reading critically (at the interpretative level), literature serves as a unique communicative, and consequently instructional, medium with significantly positive outcomes, at the argumentative, literary and linguistic levels.

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Tom Barney (University of Lancaster, UK) The raw stuff of language In this paper I explore the link between the fine detail of literary language and a work’s overarching themes, its large-scale structures and its forms. The American composer Vincent Persichetti (1970) has written that the process of composition is one, inter alia, of ‘testing the projectional capacities of sections and segments’. This process – constructing a full-length work out of a short motif – is a common one in music. Likewise, many novelists have recorded that the writing of a novel began for them with a single thought or small incident which gave them a theme to be treated at length. But, while a theme may dictate the structure of an entire work, this ‘testing’ is a linear matter: a stretching out of the treatment of a theme on a single thread along which we read or listen. This means that we experience the work and its themes initially at the low level of rhythm and syntax; we progress along a single narrow path. It is these low levels which give us a sense of style – in poetry in particular it is natural to speak of a poet’s ‘line’ in the sense of style – and from them that we infer the large-scale structure and theme. A work of literature is also a ‘container of consciousness’ (Hudson and Jacot 1995). That is, its form is a constraint, without which original material can have no context or meaning, and a repository for the emotional energy invested in it by both author and reader which, despite the constraint of the form works in ways which are ambiguous and finally indeterminate. It is likewise the ‘testing’ of the ‘projectional capacities’ which describes and delimits the overall shape of a work, and so creates the shape of the container; and it is by our procession as readers through the ‘line’ that we invest it with significance and learn what kind of consciousness we are presented with. Once again the immediate sense of this is as a low-level, word-by-word matter. I shall illustrate the connections between the progression of words, rhythm and syntax on the one hand, and works’ themes, forms and feelings on the other using a variety of examples of both poetry and prose, exploring the psychological significance of the link, and its usefulness as a critical tool. References Hudson, L. & Jacot, B. (1995) Intimate relations: the natural history of desire. New Haven & London:

Yale University Press. Persichetti, V. (1970) ‘Vincent Persichetti’ in Robert Stephen Hines (ed.) The orchestral composer's point

of view. (Essays on twentieth century music by those who wrote it), 166-182. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press.

Tanya Bennett (North Georgia College and State University, USA) Exploding Blackberries: Galway Kinnell and His Metaphors of Nature Galway Kinnell’s amazing poetic prowess is exhibited powerfully in his “nature poems,” including “Blackberry Eating,” “Saint Francis and the Sow,” and “The Fly” among others. In these poems, he crafts metaphors from the natural world to produce figures double-edged: they become both our avenue into the natural world as well as symbols of our alienation from that world. The tension Kinnell generates through such images as the blackberry and its thorns and the sow’s skin reminds us that we use language because we are indeed alienated. Yet our yearning to connect with these elements of our world is heightened by Kinnell’s portrayal of it as pregnant with life and brilliant in relief against our apathy. Kinnell employs the controlling metaphor in these poems in order to draw out and deepen our experience of these natural elements. And his speaker becomes the mediator of that experience: the wanderer climbing amongst the brambles, seeking fat berries; Saint Francis himself, laying his hand on the forehead of the sow and reasserting her beauty; the face experiencing the fly’s caress. This paper will explore Kinnell’s strategies in employing these metaphors and the complex

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effects he produces in these poems as a result. Derek Bousfielda, Lesley Jeffriesa, Dan McIntyrea and Mick Shortb (aUniversity of Huddersfield, bLancaster University, UK) Reader responses to interpreting poetry At the 2006 PALA conference in Finland we ran a workshop in which we asked participants to read and interpret two poems – ‘Mittens’ by Peter Sansom, and ‘Of Mere Being’ by Wallace Stevens. Our aim was to investigate a number of questions concerning the nature of interpretation. These included: ● Can a reader ‘get it wrong’ and what do we mean by this? ● In what conditions might one arrive at equally good but different interpretations? ● Are some valid interpretations more general than others? ● What is the relationship between personal response and textual interpretation? ● Is understanding reliant on precise decoding? ● Can we distinguish between topic and theme in texts, and if so, how? ● How can/do/should stylisticians investigate these questions in a reasonably rigorous manner? As part of the task, we asked participants to provide brief written interpretations of the two poems, detailing their intuitive responses to the texts and outlining which parts of the text they felt were most important for their interpretations. As guidance, we asked participants to consider the topic and/or theme of the poem, what the author may be have been wanting to convey in relation to the topic and/or theme, and what effect (if any) the text had on them. Having collected participants’ responses to the poems, we are now in a position to present some of our analytical findings. In this presentation we will present an analysis of the language used by participants in their written responses. Our approach has been to treat the responses of the participants as linguistic data in its own right (cf. Alderson and Short 1989, Short and Van Peer 1989, Jeffries 2002) and to use these to provide insights into the interpretative process. References Alderson, J. C. and Short, M. (1989) ‘Reading literature’, in Short, M. (ed.) Reading, Analysing and

Teaching Literature, pp. 71-119. London: Longman. Jeffries, L. (2002) ‘Meaning negotiated: an investigation into reader and author meaning’, in Csábi, S. and

Zerkowitz, J. (eds) Textual Secrets: The Message of the Medium, pp. 247-61. Budapest: Eötvös Loránd University.

Short, M. and Van Peer, W. (1989) ‘Accident! Stylisticians evaluate: aims and methods of stylistic analysis’, in Short, M. (ed.) Reading, Analysing and Teaching Literature, pp. 22-71. London: Longman.

Joe Bray (University of Sheffield, UK) ‘Empathy with the past stage of the self’: First-person Free Indirect Discourse and the 1790s Concentration on the third-person form of free indirect discourse (FID) has led to a relative neglect of the first-person variety of the style, to the extent that some critics even seem to deny that FID can exist in the first person at all (see Hamburger 1973 [1957]; Ehrlich 1990). This paper aims to redress this balance and investigate under what conditions first-person FID emerges. Briefly, first-person FID results from the interaction of the present ‘narrating’ and past ‘experiencing’ selves of the first-person narrator. According to F.K. Stanzel, ‘empathy with the past stage of the self is […] one of the prerequisites for free indirect style in the first-person novel’ (1984 [1979]: 220). Recent work on empathy though has suggested the

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flexibility of the concept and the difficulty of achieving complete ‘identification’ with another (see for example Oatley 1994; Tan 1994; Kuiken, Miall and Sikora 2004). Drawing on a range of theories of empathy from cognitive psychology and cognitive poetics, this paper examines the struggles for, and obstacles to, empathetic identification with ‘the past stage of the self’ in first-person novels of the 1790s, including Charlotte Smith’s Desmond (1792) and Mary Hays’s Memoirs of Emma Courtney (1793). With particular attention to the theories of William Godwin, it argues that the tumultuous political and philosophical developments of this period created tensions between past and present selves which both encouraged and complicated the emergence of first-person FID. Works Cited Ehrlich, S. (1990) Point of view: a linguistic analysis of literary style, London and New York: Routledge. Hamburger, K. (1973 [1957]) The Logic of Literature, 2nd edn, trans M.J. Rose, Bloomington and London:

Indiana University Press. Kuiken, D., Miall, D.S. and Sikora, S. (2004) ‘Forms of Self-Implication in Literary Reading’, Poetics

Today, 25 (2), 171-203. Oatley, K. (1994) ‘A Taxonomy of the Emotions of Literary Response and A Theory of Identification in

Fictional Narrative’, Poetics, 23, 53-74. Stanzel, F.K. (1984 [1979]) A Theory of Narrative, trans. C. Goedsche, Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press. Tan, E. S-H. (1994) ‘Film-Induced Affect as a Witness Emotion’, Poetics, 23, 7-32. Michael Burke (Roosevelt Academy, The Netherlands) Formative Stylistics: Exploring the pedagogical role of stylistics in liberal arts & sciences tertiary education Can stylistics have a role in academe outside literary or linguistic departments? More specifically, instead of it being taught either as a formal brand of literary criticism or an informal approach to linguistics teaching, can it be considered as something more fundamental to academic language and skills learning: something more pivotal and pedagogical? This presentation will explore these questions within the context of a liberal arts and sciences tertiary educational model. Drawing on experiences from teaching within that model over a two year period, a case will be made that there appears to be far more to stylistics and stylistics teaching than first meets the eye and that rather than the field being seen as ‘optional’ or ‘peripheral’ - as it often is in linguistic and literature departments - it might very well be pedagogically pivotal in certain higher educational settings.

Key words: stylistics, communication, pedagogy, liberal arts & sciences Lesley Carlyle (University of Sheffield, UK) Women’s Talk in Shakespeare. Although research into the influence of gender on speech is a popular and thriving discipline little of the work done to date has focused on single sex groups. The majority of investigations which explore the characteristics of female speech examine it within the context of a mixed gender group, and the manner in which women talk amongst themselves is neglected. Jennifer Coates’ 1996 work Women Talk provided one of the first full length studies of this subject, successfully identifying several key aspects of speech identifiable in all-female groups. My paper will use the linguistic features identified in this work to investigate the representation of conversations in all-female groups in the Early Modern period. More specifically, I am interested in the possible readings of the plays of William Shakespeare

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which may result from the application of Coates’ model. My paper will examine the extent to which the all-female conversations in Shakespeare’s work reflect, or modify, Coates’ findings. The aim of my paper is not to force the conclusions of a new discipline onto an older text, but to investigate the potential for new readings which results from the examination of Shakespeare’s work within Coates’ framework. In the process I will address more general questions concerning the relation between Modern and Early Modern conversational norms and between real conversation and its literary representation. Works Cited: Coates, Jennifer, Women Talk: Conversation Between Women Friends (Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1996). Xu Chen (Hangzhou Dianzi University, China) The Perfect Blending of Style and Theme—— A Critical Study of Hemingway’s Short Story A Clean, Well-Lighted Place A Clean, Well-Lighted Place is one of Ernest Hemingway’s shortest stories, in which Hemingway depicts two café waiters and a drunken old man almost entirely through dialogue. Though the café itself is the central symbol, it is described only as “clean”, “well-lighted” and as a contrast to the bar visited by the old waiter at the end of the story. Reactions of the drunken man and the waiter reveal it to be a place of refuge from the omnipresent truth that life “was all a nothing and a man was nothing too.” Besides omitting extended description of place, Hemingway also refuses to explicate his theme of nada (“nothing”) beyond providing the waiter’s Biblical parody. Both omissions unify the story, for Hemingway is neither concerned with a particular café nor with substantiation of his own nihilism. Rather, he is concerned that the readers gain an impression of the old waiter’s response to nada and the refuge offered by the café. The quality of this story exists in the fact that it says so much in so little space, which is to say that it combines maximum economy with maximum implication. Where now is the loquaciousness, the labyrinthine flow, for Faulkner, the lyric richness of Lawrence? Those styles served their subjects beautifully, but their subjects were the discovery, under the social surfaces, of more opulent realms of being. Hemingway’s subject may be smaller, but his writing serves it with equal integrity. His tight-lipped style presents as subject, the discovery, under the social surface, of precisely nothing at all. The miracle lies in the integrity of the style. In the whole vocabulary of criticism, “style” is one of the most difficult words to define; but if we are looking for an example of what style does. A Clean, Well-Lighted Place is among the most lucid. Hemingway’s theme, the exhaustion of value in the world he knows, is perfectly investigated and invested by his bare style, and in this story, no meaning at all is to be inferred from the fiction except as the style itself tells us that there is no meaning in life. This style, furthermore, is an interesting technical substitute for the conventional narrator or commentator in fiction; Hemingway’s own moral view disdains any “talk” about suffering, any such loss of “dignity” in even the most ignoble situation. His style expresses this peculiar morality of the stiff upper lip that he borrowed from athletes. The verbal economy of Hemingway’s style expresses directly his preference for mute suffering in the face of a blankly intolerable universe. His style is not only his theme, but also his view of life. Urszula Clark (University of Aston, UK) Thinking the unthinkable: Mindstyle, lexical priming and the psychological profiler A recent phenomenon in crime fiction is the emergence of the psychological profiler. Like the amateur sleuth and the Private Investigator, they operate outside the institution of the police. Unlike the amateur sleuth and PI, however, their speciality is in ‘thinking outside the box’, specifically as it relates to

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particularly violent and horrific crimes. Psychological profilers have specialist knowledge and training into the way the criminal mind works which goes beyond that of even the most gifted detective. This paper considers the construction of the psychological profiler Clarice Starling in Thomas Harris’ novel Silence of the Lambs through the consideration of mindstyle and lexical priming. The aim of this paper is to consider the construction of the psychological profiler through an analysis of firstly, mindstyle, which derives its categories form cognitive linguistics, and secondly, an analysis of lexical priming, informed by corpus linguistics. Both cognitive and corpus linguistics share the common aim of understanding how individuals process language, and this paper argues that stylistic analysis can benefit from the application of categories drawn from both disciplines. The paper also considers how the introduction of the psychological profiler into the crime genre allows for taboos dealing with sex and violence to be broken and represented. Patricia Wallace Costa (Vesalius College Brussels, Belgium) Aiming at the Wider Audience: Strategies for Embedding Latin in Elizabethan Popular Prose Literary scholars have tended to view the communicative power of Latin insertions in Renaissance English prose in plus/minus terms: insertions as well as the scholarly commentary apparatus found in humanist texts fostered bilingual dialogue across the ages, strengthening the vernacular with classical Latin’s seriousness and prestige; incorporated into popular prose, the same material was seen as disrupting the text with essentially non-communicating, often comic tokens of a distant culture that was being overrun, literally and figuratively, by the energetic new vernacular and modern culture. Close analysis of the work of Thomas Nashe, a contemporary of Shakespeare, suggests that this schematic view does not describe what is happening linguistically and stylistically by the end of the sixteenth century. By the 1590s, Latin was among the numerous registers available to university-educated writers of popular prose like Nashe, whose pamphlet writing and fiction engaged a broad, socially and educationally varied cross-spectrum of readers. Latin was not so much an “alien” obstacle to communication as part of the “hodgepodge” that English had become by the end of the century. Indeed, the sixteenth century was a period of tremendous lexical expansion and experimentation, a time when linguistic heterogeneity reflected the continuously expanding political, commercial and geographical horizons of Elizabethan England. This paper looks at how the Latin insertions in one of Nashe’s works, Pierce Pennilesse His Svpplication to the Divell (1592), communicate without alienating the less educated segments of the audience he needed to reach. It examines the insertions in terms of their field of origin and grammatical form; it then looks at the English matrix in terms of its structural receptivity. It also considers how certain forms of cultural conditioning—such as the native prose tradition of English and the humanist cultivation of “copia” or abundance—could reinforce the writer’s drive for intelligibility and how the flux of language decreased the sense of linguistic boundaries while increasing readers’ tolerance for linguistic and stylistic heterogeneity. The study shows that Nashe’s choice of Latin is not pedantic and far from “dead.” By the variety of fields he draws on, and by his grammatical weaving of insertions into the English matrix, Nashe not only facilitates understanding but actually transforms prefabricated bits of Latin into living elements of style that (somewhat paradoxically) add to this writer’s celebrated “extemporal veine” while functioning as visual emblems of the vast cultural mingling known as the Renaissance. Peter Crisp (Chinese University of Hong Kong) On The Borderline: Allegory and Extended Metaphor Blending theory in its most general formulations is almost, thought not quite, vacuous. What philosopher

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or cognitive psychologist could ever doubt that we are continually bringing together disparate concepts and/or knowledge items in order to create new concepts and/or inferences? Blending theory only becomes important in those kinds of explicitly figurative context whose analysis has provided it with its major evidential support. Many, though not all, of these explicitly figurative contexts are primarily metaphoric. When extended beyond such contexts blending theory is either little more than a truism or, if interpreted in a more demanding fashion, has not so far been rendered testable by cognitive psychology’s empirical canons, as Ray Gibbs has pointed out more than once. The kind of explicitly figurative contexts whose analysis has so far provided blending theory with real evidential support can however only be analyzed in terms of blending theory or of something very like blending theory. Notable among these contexts are those poetic contexts involving linguistic and/or conceptually unconventional metaphor. Blending theory gives us a means of addressing the sense of fusion which has so often, by Geoffrey Leech amongst others, been noted as at the heart of poetic metaphor’s effects and, more generally, of the whole phenomenon of ‘seeing as’ in metaphor. In order to understand how it does this it is necessary to grasp firmly that a blended space is not any kind of possible world or possible situation but that it is a ‘pretense cocoon’ and can only be understood in the context of the whole network of psychological activation of which it is a part. Care thus has to be taken even in the case of unconventional and/or poetic metaphor not to formulate blending theory in a fashion so loose as to make it a mere truism. An effective way to do this is to apply a rigorously defined of version of it to cases involving the borderline between blending and different, though related, phenomena. This paper will analyze some lyrics from Blake’s Songs of Experience, and the related notebook, in which we can see metaphorical blends either developing into the possible situations (text worlds) of allegory proper or see such possible situations dissolving into blended spaces. If there is time, attention will also be given to some of the extended image metaphors in the poems Amany El-Shazly (Helwan Univresity, Egypt) Narrativity in Translation: a study of public narratives across languages This paper draws extensively on the notion of narrative within social and communication enterprise to examine the role of translation and interpreting in shaping and influencing the intellectual and moral stand of a particular group or nation. Following Baker's (2006) categorization of narratives; namely: ontological, public, conceptual and meta-narratives, the present study is particularly interested in public narratives and how they are re-framed in translation. Hence, according to Baker, narratives reflect the vision of a society and translators play a key role in 'elaborating and promoting these narrative visions of society, with all the real world consequences that these vision entail'. In addition, considering the claim that in the cases of conflict, we construct an enemy or an other, who is so distant than the self, and can thus be blamed, criticized or condemned, and who can even be rendered to the status of an it, one main focus of the study is to investigate the ways in which 'translators and interpreters participate in both circulating and resisting the narratives that turn the whos of our time into the its whose suffering is either justifiable or at best simply 'regrettable'. In this respect, the relationship between narratives and reality is also touched upon. Starting form the assumption that knowledge is never "point-of-viewless", the paper builds on the postulation that narratives constitute rather than simply represent reality and this embodies the narrator's perspective of a certain event. At the same time, the analysis points to some features of narratives and makes use of Walter Fisher's influential narrative paradigm. Mark R. Freiermuth (Gunma Prefectural Women’s University, Japan) Creating Customers but Fleecing Fools: Comparing Sales Letters to Advance Fee E-mail Fraud Because e-mail has become an indispensable means of communication in our personal lives, in business and in academia, e-mail accounts have become targets for a great deal of unsolicited bulk mail, commonly

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referred to as spam. Much of the spam sent out to the unsuspecting is simply advertising of one kind or another; however, some spam is indeed malevolent. Here we look at a linguistically rich form of potentially very harmful spam, commonly referred to as the Nigerian 419 Scam. The purpose of such fraudulent e-mail messages is to engage the intended-mark in the hopes that a business partnership can be established. The hook of the typical scenario is the scammer’s claims of huge sums of money that can only be accessed with the help of the mark. As a reward for assisting the scammer, the mark is supposed to receive a percentage (usually millions of dollars) of the cash. If the mark provides contact information to the scammer, the scammer informs the mark that the release of the promised funds hinges on some monies being sent to clear up a few remaining legal but minor complications. This is the crux of the scam; the monies sent by the mark are never recovered. Because 419 scams have become so common, and can be so financially devastating to a willing mark, the language of such advance fee fraud schemes warrants investigation. The purpose of this study is to examine rhetorical structures that are common to 419 scams. A pilot test revealed that advance fee fraud e-mail messages represent the genre of persuasion, and so we have compared these messages to another form of persuasion, namely the sales letter (Vergaro, 2005). In both cases, a successful transaction consists of an exchange of monies for goods or services. At the heart of the exchange, there is the element of trust. Just as customers must rely on vendors to be trustworthy, 419 scammers count on a feeling of trust being spawned in the mark that will act as an impetus for completing illicit transactions. In this presentation, besides comparing similarities and differences between rhetorical moves in sales letters and 419s, we will discuss the intended aims of each of the primary moves in 419s as they relate to eliciting engagement with the mark. Alison Gibbons (University of Sheffield, UK) Surface and Worlds: Bi-stable Oscillation and an Opera in Flatland Stylistic analysis concerns itself with the substance of literary texts, with the linguistic features that induce its meaning. As a related discipline, cognitive poetics maintains rigorous concentration upon textual style yet adds a cognitive dimension, considering structures of language and literary devices as expressions and materialisations of patterns of human thought. Text world theory (Werth 1999; Gavins 2007), for instance, is based upon the premise that “human beings understand all discourse by constructing mental representations” (Gavins 2005 p.90). Indeed it is the rich imaginative realm, rather than the words on the page, that become most significant for the reader during the literary experience. Text world theory is thus built upon a complex critical equilibrium between actuality and imagination. Despite detailed linguistic focus, cognitive poetics’ attention to the psychological ‘beyond’ implicitly treats language as a facilitator to literary experience, regarding readers as being “transported” (Gerrig 1993) into the fictional arena of the text in a way that renders the words ‘transparent’. The relationship of the concrete to the imaginary is further complicated in multimodal narratives. In contrast to traditional western literary forms, they are ‘opaque’, bearing self-conscious graphic designs that draw attention to their materiality. Richard Lanham’s theory of bi-stable oscillation (1993) launches a path for investigation into reading multimodal texts as a form of dual vision. He states (p. 5), “The textual surface has become permanently bi-stable. We are always looking first AT and then THROUGH it, and this oscillation creates a different implied ideal of decorum, both stylistic and behavioral”. Multimodal texts demand a dynamic reading strategy in which the reader must toggle between textual surface and cognitive worlds. This paper takes an exploratory step towards developing a cognitive poetic account of bi-stable oscillation in the ‘imagetext novel’ VAS: An Opera in Flatland. A collaborative work between writer and designer, the book investigates literary dimensionality and perspective through its unusual layouts as well as thematically by reference to Edwin A. Abbots’ (1884) short novella. Drawing on terminology from text world theory and models of vision and attention, this

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analysis demonstrates the conceptual and perceptual processes involved in negotiating and experiencing the shifting topologies of multimodal literature. Works Cited Abbott, E. A. (1884 [1998]) Flatland: A Romance of Many Dimensions, New York and London: Penguin

Books. Gavins, J. (2005) ‘Text World Theory in Literary Practice’, in Pettersson, B., Polvinen, M. and Veivo, H.

(eds.) Cognition in Literary Interpretation and Practice, Helsinki: University of Helsinki Press, pp.89-104.

Gavins, J. (2007) Text World Theory: An Introduction, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Gerrig, R. (1993) Experiencing Narrative Worlds: On the Psychological Activities of Reading, New

Haven: Yale University Press. Lanham, R. (1993) The Electronic Word: Democracy, Technology and the Arts, University of Chicago

Press. Tomasula, S. and Farrell, S. (2002) VAS: An Opera in Flatland, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Werth, P. (1999) Text worlds: Representing conceptual space in discourse, Harlow: Longman. Richard Gilbert (Kumamoto University, Japan) Plausible Deniability: Nature as Hypothesis in English-language Haiku While the source of the Anglo-American tradition of haiku lies in centuries of Japanese poetic culture, its multiple origin-points, found variously in the ‘big bang’ of Ezra Pound’s Metro haiku, the voluminous translations of R. H. Blyth, iconic experiments of the American Beat writers, and more recent decades of innovation, represent an ongoing evolution of creative misinterpretation and advance in the evolution of a new literary genre. Perhaps as a result, haiku in English have to date at best achieved the status of a half-breed literature. Haiku, or more accurately haikuesque techniques, are taught in primary schools as devices for mnemonic play, presented as Zenlike parables of PC crashes on the Internet (computer haiku), and sometimes appear as wit in advertising slogans. Notwithstanding, haiku-as-concept has profoundly influenced modern poetry. Although little studied, notable contemporary works exhibit a unique concern for how a poetics might most directly, minimally and propitiously connote the natural and the sensuous. As the briefest of poetic genres, haiku end nearly before they’ve begun to be cognized; this paper will pursue the idea that brevity of form (word paucity) is but the beginning of an iterative process of reader-resistive, talismanic edge-ism. Though a variety of techniques, including liminal cognitive estrangement, alternativity, the paradox of advancing cyclic return, hypothesis as goal, speculative mythopoesis, time-space subversion, binary paradox (e.g. form as emptiness, real as imaginal, oxymoronic collocation), modes of nothingness (e.g., formal incompleteness, the concept of “broken” language), etc., a partial taxonomy of types can be discerned through which haiku defamiliarize the plausible, subverting presented images and semantic constructions with the result that nature is reframed or recovered as hypothetical or metaxic (cf. Hillman, 1966, metaxy denotes the intermediate realm between two opposites—in Kerenyi, das Moment des Unerklarlichen, the moment of the inexplicable). As metaxic ambiguity is foregrounded, the psychological dimension is deepened and semantic notions are likewise extended. In this sense, a number of contemporary haiku exhibit traits similar to speculative fiction, including time dilation, futurism, mythopoetic realities, spontaneously generating alternate universes, the positing of unique physical laws and behaviors, etc. The move toward alienation exhibited by textual language (as described in Abram, 1989; Manes, 1992) becomes a primary poetic subject and mode of exploration in modern haiku, with the intention to recast the ground of the natural both in literature and in the reader. This intention locates haiku in English uniquely within the purview of ecopoetics and the academic field of literature and the environment. Applications of the above-mentioned techniques may be seen as “modes of provocational forgetting under the influence of creative

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misreading,” or MUMs. A typology of creative misreading in haiku was earlier published in Modern Haiku: Journal of Haiku Studies 35.2 (Gilbert, 2004), and presented at the “Stylistics Seminar in Kumamoto, 2006.” This paper reflects further developments, by describing a few selected MUMs and offering a tentative taxonomy of MUM styles (utilizing a collaboratively-selected corpus of notable contemporary English-language haiku), and ponders what haiku might wish us to recall. References for the above: Abram, D. (1989). On the Ecological Consequences of Alphabet Literacy: Reflections in the Shadow of

Plato’s Phaedrus, unpublished essay, accessible at <http://tinyurl.com/39ems4>. Gilbert, R. (2004). The Disjunctive Dragonfly: A Study of Disjunctive Method and Definitions in

Contemporary English-language Haiku. Modern Haiku: Journal of Haiku Studies 35.2; revised in Kumamoto Studies in English Language and Literature 47, Kumamoto University, Japan, March 2004, pp. 27-66. Accessible at < http://research.iyume.com>.

Hillman, J. (1966). On Psychological Creativity. Eranos Jahrbuch 35, pp. 379-80. Manes, C. (1992). Nature and Silence. Environmental Ethics 14, pp. 339-50; reprinted in The Ecocriticism

Reader, Glotfelty and Fromm, eds., University of Georgia Press, 1996. Alex Gilmore (Kansai Gaidai University, Japan) Using on-line corpora to develop students' writing skills Large corpora such as the British National Corpus and COBUILD Sampler are now accessible, free of charge, on-line and can be usefully incorporated into a process writing approach to develop students' writing skills. This presentation aims to familiarise participants with these resources and to show how they can be exploited in the re-drafting stages of writing to minimise teachers' work-load while maximising students' cognitive processing of their writing errors. Using students' own writing as a basis for classroom work ensures that they are operating within their ZPD (Zone of Proximal Development: Vygotsky) - the on-line corpora, teacher and other students become the 'knowledgable others', helping learners to develop their interlanguage. Martin Gliserman (Rutgers University, USA) Bringing a Corpus to Life: the HEART of 100 Novels I propose a presentation and analysis of the HEART in one hundred classic/noted Anglophone novels from Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe of 1719 to Arundhati Roy’s The God of Small Things of 1997. The heart documentation comes from a database of all mentions of all named (human) body parts–there are about one hundred and twenty--in the corpus of one hundred novels. The heart will be shown in quantitative and qualitative graphics (two examples attached); each graphic will be accompanied by an analysis: Chart 1: a chronological line up of how much heart shows up in one hundred novels from 1719-1997.

There is long decline of heart from the 18th Century on, with Emma and Frankenstein marking the end of the most intense period, and with Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man and The Good Soldier marking the end of a second period of intensity. By and large, the 20th Century has been steady and low–The Sun Also Rises has no mentions of the heart. The chart invites a variety of narratives about its periods and what they might reflect, and of what happens to the emotion delegated to the heart as it decreases?

Chart 2: an incremental chart of the same data that gives a sharp visual statement about the HEART: it shows the overall “value” or intensity of the organ as part of the expression of the characters; the significance of the increment of difference between the lower and higher registers; the general

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range of the text’s hearts, those with least to those with most–and the attendant questions raised by trends and proximities. Unlike many of the other areas of the body, the heart’s quantitative changes in amplitude are striking as markers of a cultural shift in language. (Most of the BODY is fairly stable.)

Map 1: the general set of qualities the HEART shows among these texts, particularly the way it is implicated with affects (feelings, emotions).

Maps 2-7: To illustrate the power of stylistic analysis, the heart will be opened up in five novels–Robinson Crusoe, Pamela, Mrs Dalloway, Autobiography of an Ex- Colored Man, and Beloved.

The most important aspect of HEART is that it is a locus of feelings or what psychologists like Silvan Tomkins call affects. Reading the heart in any given novel will show us the range, intensity and dynamics of affect, and lead us to the implied narrative or cycle of those feelings. The HEART is one strand of the narrative, one redundancy in this particular kind of “ecology of mind” (Gregory Bateson). The story of the heart is one of the novel’s subplots. E.g., in Beloved each major character, including the “crawling already baby”, has a heart narrative with the exception of Beloved herself with whom no heart is associated. When we consider what I call the petite narratives, they reveal how the heart has come to have a certain feeling, and what the person might be lead to do regarding that feelings. So, we see what motivates and what transpires? What is on either side of the feeling in the heart? In addition to what the heart speaks, it is often juxtaposed or counterposed to “mind,” and thereby acquires another facet of meaning. That is, we understand feelings in relation to each other, and we can also understand feelings in relation to other kinds of mental relations, one’s connected to the non-emotional, the non-body, the “mind”: “‘What does the brain matter...compared with the heart?”’ asks Lady Rosseter in Woolf’s, Mrs. Dalloway. What is the cultural story about the value of feelings over the value of rational thought? The overall decline and minimalization of the heart in the 20th Century may not be a story of the decline of feelings. It may suggest a cultural turn--psychoanalytic discourse at the beginning of the 20th Century opened ways for writers to express feelings in a wider range of ways. Christiana Gregoriou (University of Leeds, UK) The stylistics of True Crime: Mapping the mind of serial killers In this paper, the way in which the serial killer mind is linguistically conceptualised in Berry-Dee’s Talking with Serial Killers will be explored. The serial killer narratives, defined as those centred round multiple and often motiveless murders, generate multiple storylines and bring out urgency to the capturing of the perpetrators. The true crime narratives feed from and into fictional literature, and reinforce and preserve the audience’s schematic expectations to do with the nature and justification of the criminal mind. In an analysis of Berry-Dee’s true and interview-based storylines, the term ‘criminal mind style’ will be used to group features which give an impression of a deviant world view and representation of the criminal perspective, affecting our way of thinking about criminality itself. Such features include interesting uses of transitivity patterns, figurative language and emotive lexis. The analysis of the various storylines will be compartmentalised into thematic sections detailing the criminal’s upbringing, criminal activities, and interviews with the author. The narratives often establish unnecessary links between parental neglect and abuse, early non-dangerous idiosyncratic abnormalities, an abnormal physical appearance and genetic disorders on one hand, and serial homicide on the other. Interesting transitivity patterns are employed where the killers tell their own stories, removing responsibility from themselves, and placing it either on chance, nature, God, the now animated and personified weapons, or the victims themselves. Both in the context of factual and fictional representations of crime, our serial killers are metaphorically constructed as extra-terrestrials, vampires, werewolf-like monsters and devils, not to mention animals and faulty machines. Psychological jargon is also often employed and discussed ironically to express its uselessness. At the same time, the victims are dehumanised, conceptualised as food to be consumed, and even placed in some sort of

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pecking order. Finally, irony is often employed as yet another feature also evident in fictional representations of crime. As Tithecott (1997: 179) put it, ‘[the serial killer myth] is a myth in which victims are represented in contrast to the glamour, mystery, and power of those who brought their lives to an end’. Overall, such narratives help alienating our killers and reinforce such myths, serving to explain our society’s anxieties, fantasies and preoccupations. References Berry-Dee, Christopher. (2003), Talking with Serial Killers: The Most Evil People in the World tell their

own Stories. London: John Blake Publishers. Tithecott, Richard. (1997), Of Men and Monsters: Jeffrey Dahmer and the Construction of the Serial

Killer. Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. Ruth Gregson (Lancaster University, UK) MTV in Corsets: First-Person Narrative and the Modern Costume Drama When adapting a novel for television, the screenwriter faces a major dilemma: what do you do when the book's narration is in the first person? This multimedia presentation examines the multimodal devices that screenwriters employ when adapting such novels, and the effects that these can have on the audience's reaction to both the TV adaptation and the original text. Using examples from Andrew Davies' BBC TV adaptation of Sarah Waters' novel, Tipping the Velvet, I will illustrate how the first-person narration of the original novel has been re-created in televisual form; how the characters and action of the story can be framed through devices such as voiceover, mise-en-scène, background music, the content of the shot, point of view, flashbacks, etc. Finally, I will assert that the unreliability of the novel's first-person narrator is paralled by moments in the TV adaptation where the "Camera narrator" undermines the "Voiceover narrator". David L. Gugin (University of Guam, Guam) Syntactic Shock: “Eyeball Kicks” in Allen Ginsberg’s Howl In this paper I will focus primarily on the third question raised in the conference’s Call for Papers – namely, “what contributions do linguistic forms or stylistic variations make in interaction?” More specifically, I will demonstrate how stylistic, or rather, syntactic variation, in part one of Allen Ginsberg’s Howl is crucial to the interactive intent of the poem. I will argue that one of the central purposes of Howl is to force a new kind of interaction, a new kind of communication, between poet, poem and audience. Given that purpose, Ginsberg naturally and successfully developed in Howl a poetic style and voice based on what I will call syntactic shock. In the critical literature, there has been a fair amount of discussion of Ginsberg’s use of shock in Howl, for example, the numerous autobiographical references in the poem to the shock therapy undergone by Ginsberg’s mother, Naomi, as well as his friend, Carl Solomon, whom the poem is dedicated to. In addition, there has been considerable analysis of the poem’s so-called “eyeball kicks” – phrases or word-combinations such as “hydrogen jukebox” that are based on the juxtaposition of two radically dissimilar images, a technique that emerged out of Ginsberg’s close study of the paintings of Paul Cezanne, and, interestingly, the contrastive structures of Japanese haiku. All of these discussions, however, while quite useful, have typically remained at either the lexical or thematic level. That is to say, what has not been explored is the relationship between theme (content) and syntax (structure) in Howl. In this paper then I propose to begin that exploration. I will extend Ginsberg’s own definition of “eyeball kicks” to the syntactic level, showing how, through his use of Relative clauses in particular, he creates a juxtaposition between parallel and anti-parallel structures that functions as a syntactic “eyeball kick” designed to shock the audience (listener or reader) into new forms of perception. In short, Ginsberg is vitally concerned with

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a truly interactive, participatory poetry, a poetry he feels can not be achieved until his audience can perceive – see and think – differently. He wants to unbalance his audience, to shock them into a truer, more transcendent vision, and his syntactic choices, his stylistic variations, reflect that desire. Geoff Hall (Swansea University, UK) Communicating the incommunicable: mixed metaphor in D.H.Lawrence's fiction Canonical modernist fiction such as that by D. H. Lawrence or Virginia Woolf is widely found to be characterised by obscurity and difficulty, and concomitantly has spurred a huge volume of commentary and exegesis. Indeed for some, such modernist texts are paradigmatically literary because of their evident need for subtle interpretative work and ongoing debates around meaning. Literary reading in educational institutions has traditionally tended to appeal to those who welcome the challenge of making sense of such difficult texts or who refuse to accept the evident and the obvious in contemporary life at face value. Such scholars and students argue that the novelty of modernist understandings of the world inevitably led to such difficult writing as well as to its failures and dead ends. Difficulty and obscurity are seen as inevitable and valuable features of this innovative creative writing. Starting out from such thoughts on modernism, difficulty and their centrality to the literary as a field of academic endeavour, I examine some of the characteristic features of D. H. Lawrence’s difficult style through specific examples in his major fiction of vagueness, repetition, mixed metaphors, and generally the ‘philosophising’, to argue that the value and originality of Lawrence’s fiction is indeed to be found in some of the most frustrating and unintelligible passages which can at their best stimulate new understandings in the attentive reader, but are at worst frustratingly impenetrable. Thus the line between creativity and nonsense is a fine one. The wider question is at what point do positively evaluated 'blending' and other such stylistic features end, and mere cliché or the collapse into communicative incoherence begin? Lawrence's metaphors are at their best profound but can also veer perilously close to the ludicrous and are easily parodied. The growing body of research on linguistics of creativity, particularly creativity in the use of metaphor will be drawn on to prompt wider perspectives on linguistic aspects of literary creativity. Yoriko Harada (Keio University, Japan) Poetic Function in Responses to Rejection Traditionally a poetic language is regarded as different one from an everyday language. From the functional point of view, an everyday language is the device to communicate the literal information or meanings to hearers, on the other hand a poetic language express the speaker’s intention beyond literal meanings using the deviate forms form the everyday language and it is mainly seen in works of art such as literature or poetry. In this presentation, however, I would regard linguistic forms as one of the styles of work of art such as pictures, music, and literature: meanings of everyday languages can also reflect the specific characters of context or the participants in an interaction. I shall then examine how speakers exploit stylistic variation to communicate their intended messages and in this process how the poetic function ascribes linguistic forms to specific meaning taking the examples of the patterns of responses to rejection. Poetic functions are sometimes seen in everyday interaction. Situation: a negotiation with the business partner. A: “ettodesune, goirai itadaita ken ni tuite touhou de kentou sita nodesuga zannen [ well be inquired-matter- about - we - consider - however - unfortuatelly nagara gokibou niha soesouninai kukidesite.” your -request - cannot - accept…..]

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(Well, we carefully considered your inquiry, but we come to deciside that we cannot accept you, I’m afraid.) B: “…sou nanndesune” B implies that “I have already known your situation and expected to come to the decision, it is very natural. If I were you I decided as such.” In other words, the speaker express that s/he understand the process of the decision with a friendly attitude and decency not to step into the partner’s situation. From this utterance, the hearer implies the higher emotion in the interactional situation. (c.f, “sou desuka”: I accept your decision but I cannot understand you, “sou nan desuka?”: I am surprised your decision.) From this phenomenon, it is proper to say that a difference in format may lead to a difference in implicature, and we exploit a poetic function in everyday interactions to product a negotiation pacifically or to make for (both good and bad) human relations and so on. My theoretical approach is semiotics. I shall reconsider the conventional communication models: how verbal information guides an inferential process in interactions and how communicative functions work taking the examples of the patterns of responses to rejection. I shall then go on to consider how linguistic forms work when informational structure builds up in order to communicate the speakers’ intentions from the view of sociolinguistics. There is a communicative norm to obey (such as how to say and what to say) so that we can attend the social community properly. To do this, we tend to use specific forms to conform with the contexts. In other words, not only in speech acts but also in statements, sentences imply the higher content such as courtesy, politeness or manner in interaction. This is from the social character of language and it is seen the everyday interaction not only the literature but in everyday usage. Reference Jakobson, R (1960) “Closing Statement: Linguistics and Poetics”. In Sebeok(ed.),Style in Language. MIT

Press Toyoko Hashimoto (Kansai Gaidai University, Japan) A Linguistic Approach to Shelley’s Style Centering on his Lyrics In l’Essay by Pierre Glaudes and Jean Francois Louette, there is a statement that “a style is an appearance that can be treated as an object by an aesthetic scale, i.e. by a subjective one if defined.” Then, looking into the English literary tradition, readers find that many poets showed delightful artistic treatment of their ideas and feelings. Geoffrey Chaucer opened the way for English poems. During the sixteenth century poetry and drama reached heights with new ideas expressed in new forms. Between the periods of Shakespeare’s drama and Milton’s epic, there was a group of men who used extended metaphors in “discordia concors.” They turned their experiences into paradoxical, highly subjective style. The moment the age of Newton and Locke dawned, a heroic couplet was used to instruct readers according to light of reason. However, Neoclassic stress on balance was overshadowed by a counter-movement. Thus, it is an incessant stream of artistic trial. Right then, if the styles are the appearances that inhabit poets’ personal feelings, can readers share the poets’ experiences through their own perception? This paper’s aim is to survey the skill of versification in Shelley’s lyrics. What are the features of his style in lyrics? It seems his is an aesthetic and at the same time, deeply subjective. Readers should see the passion of the poet against the social and political background of the period. Although as a Romantic poet, Shelley impressed readers with his personal perception, but he was the poet who lived in English society and who was bestowed with rich heritage of tradition. Here, the big-issue presents a challenge to Japanese readers; does the style in poetry help communicate the meaning of verse lines? Or does it eclipse the meaning of words because of a principle? First, “Ode to the West Wind” is chosen. The poem follows the structure of Dante’s Inferno,

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including the terza rima, or triple rhyme scheme of aba,bcb,cdc, and so on. With this structure, Shelley successfully evokes the image of powerful being. The form works as an effective vehicle to carry the poet’s prayer. Second, Adonais is discussed. This poem is an elegy, and a pastoral elegy has many predecessors and has certain conventions. Did Shelley adapt these to his Adonais? It is interesting to note that the poet, weeping for the loss of his friend, finally embraces a consolation. Shelley’s music gave Keats an eternal brilliance. What we learn from the study is the fact that Shelley owes much to the Western literary tradition although he lived against his society’s norm. Naoki Hirayama (Hiroshima Shudo University, Japan) Development of Epistemic Verbs in the Paston Letters: from the Viewpoints of Grammaticalization and Subjectification This study is an attempt to clarify development of the constructions containing ‘epistemic verbs’ in the Paston Letters from the viewpoints of ‘grammaticalization’ and ‘subjectification.’ The Paston Letters is a representative collection of correspondence of the fifteenth century. In the letters, using modal expressions (i.e. modal auxiliaries, epistemic verbs, epistemic adverbs, etc.), the addressers indicate varieties of their attitude about what they say. They can also soften their tone by those expressions in order to maintain good relationship with the addressees. I would like to examine ‘epistemic verbs’ in the text in terms of the extent to which they had developed their grammatical unity and the speaker’s involvement (i.e. grammaticalization and subjectification). As a conditional elements of this, I will also deal with social linguistic aspects. ‘Epistemic verbs’ as in ‘I think (that),’ ‘I suppose (that),’ etc. are used to show the speakers’ judgement of the degree of certainty of the propositional content. Thompson and Mulac (1991: 317) give the following three examples according to the degree of grammaticalization. (1) I think that we’re definitely moving towards being more technological. (2) I think exercise is really beneficial, to anybody. (3) It’s just your point of view you know what you like to do in your spare time I think. I will set up several points to check based on Sawada (1993) under three categories. They are propositional conditions (person, tense, etc.), positional variation of epistemic verb phrases (initial, medial, and final), and interpersonal conditions between the speaker and the hearer. ‘Epistemic verbs’ in the Paston Letters according to the above three stages are cited in (4)-(6) (The corpus is restricted to the volume 1 of 2 volumes.). (4) Arblastere thynketh verely that Hugh a Fen may do moch in youre maters. (259 examples) (5) Jamys Gloys is ayen to Gressam, and I suppose Jon Damme shall tell yow what he hath don there.

(292 examples) (6) And as sone as thes men be com in, my lord is porposyd to come to London, whyche I supose schall

be wyth-in thys fortnyth. (108 examples) My tentative conclusion is that ‘epistemic verbs’ in the Paston Letters had not so much developed their degree of grammaticalization and subjectification in view of the less frequency of the examples used in the medial and final positions as shown in (3) and (6). Text Davis, N., ed. Paston Letters and Papers of the Fifteenth Century. 2 vols. London: Oxford Univ. Press,

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1971, 1976. References Brinton, L. J. Pragmatic Markers in English. Mouton de Gruyter, 1996. Gies, F. and J. Gies. A Medieval Family―The Pastons of Fifteenth-Century England, Harper Collins

Publishers, 1998. Hopper, P. J. and E. C. Traugott. Grammaticalization. Cambridge Univ. Press, 1993. Kurath, H., M. K. Sherman, and E.L. Robert eds. Middle English Dictionary. Ann Arbor: The University

of Michigan Press, 1952-2000. Palander-Collin, M. ‘The Rise and Fall of METHINKS’ in Sociolinguistics and Language History.

Rodopi B. V., 1996. Simpson, J. A. and E. S. C. Weiner, eds. The Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press,

1989. Sonoda, K. ‘Glossary to Margaret Paston’s Letters,’ in Eigoshi-kenkyu to Corpus, The Institute of

Language and Culture Studies, Hokkaido University, 1996. 33-119. Thompson, S. A. and A. Mulac, ‘A Quantitative Perspective on the Grammaticalization of Epistemic

Parentheticals in English,’ in Approaches to Grammaticalization. Vol. 2., eds. E. C. Traugott and B. Heine., in Typological Studies in Language, 19. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 1991. 313-329.

Traugott, E. C. ‘Subjectification in Grammaticalisation,’ in Subjectivity and Subjectivisation, eds. D. Stein and S. Wright. Cambridge Univ. Press, 1995. 31-54.

Tammy Ho (The University of Hong Kong) Contemporary Novels set in the Nineteenth-Century In the introduction to Rereading Victorian Fiction, Jenkins and John (2000) comment that ‘Appetites for Victorian fiction seem to be increasing […] as the centenary of Victoria’s death approaches’ (1). This appetite has caused not only a revived interest in the reading of Victorian fiction, but also the re-writing of it. The interesting thing about this trend of fiction is that many of the novels have not simply been interested in resurrecting or retreating into the Victorian past, but have instead ‘display[ed] an informed postmodern self-consciousness in their interrogation of the relationship between fiction and history’ (Shuttleworth, 1998:253). However, in the effort to problematise the boundary between history and fiction, these writers have been forced to rely on the techniques of Victorian realism. What this paper is interested in discussing is how writers of historiographic metafiction have used and adapted the dialogue, the historical documents, the omniscient narrator and the language associated with Victorian literature to communicate an aura and style of the past to suit their critique. I have selected John Fowles’s The French Lieutenant’s Woman (1969) and A.S. Byatt’s Possession (1990) for the discussion. Susanna Onega (1993) includes both novels in her list of historiograpic metafiction. In his ‘The French Lieutenant’s Woman: Postmodern Victorian’, Foster (1994) also lists A. S. Byatt as one of the writers who ‘follow [Fowles’s] lead’ (67). The discussion in this paper will essentially focus on the notion of ‘authenticity’: Does the stylistic imitation convincingly communicate a past world? Will one’s readers recognise, understand and appreciate such a technical imitation? Yu-fang Ho (Lancaster University, UK) Investigating the key concept difference between the two editions of John Fowles’s The Magus -- a corpus semantic approach My doctoral research is a comparative stylistic analysis of the two editions (M1 and M2) of John Fowles’s The Magus. In this paper, I will explore how a particular corpus tool – Wmatrix – helps in text comparison

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between the two editions, and more specifically, between the sampled chapters which have undergone drastic revision. Wmatrix helps us locate significant linguistic differences between the two editions at the word level, at the part-of-speech level, and at the semantic level. Following Stubbs’s (2002) corpus semantic approach, I focus my comparison on the semantic level to explore the key concept differences between the two editions of The Magus. Given that my study explores what kind of changes Fowles has made in his revision and how different it is from the original, the M1 version will be considered as the ‘norm’, with which M2 is compared. I will compare the densities of specific linguistic features between the two editions. Features which are significantly more frequent, or more rare, in M2, will be considered as potential indicators of ‘style markers’ different from M1. In my data analysis, I will first explain why certain types of linguistic items in M2 are ‘underused’ compared with the corresponding M1 sample and discuss whether their ‘underuse’ is equally significant in stylistic terms. I will then focus the analysis particularly on the significantly ‘overused’ linguistic items, given that 19 out of the 22 sampled chapters all show an increase in the number of word tokens in the revision. I will demonstrate how the corpus evidence supports my hypothesis concerning the text style differences between the two editions, i.e. there seems to be a shift in narrative focus from the story/event itself (in the original) to the internal possible worlds of the I-character, e.g. his emotions, perceptions, feelings, cognitions, (un)certainty, doubt, etc. (in the revision). Masahiro Hori (Kumamoto Gakuen University, Japan) Collocational Styles of First-person Narratives in Dickens: David Copperfield, Bleak House and Great Expectations To illustrate a possible approach to corpus stylistics, this paper focuses on the collocational styles of first-person narratives in three of Dickens’ major novels: David Copperfield, Bleak House and Great Expectations. I have previously noted the different patterns of collocations of lexical words such as adjectives and noun phrases in the three texts (Hori, 2004: Chapter 7) and the purpose of this paper is to present clear distinctions in the patterns of collocations of grammatical words among the three first person narrators within these novels. After the examination of the text size and word frequencies of the narratives of David, Esther, and Pip excluding any dialogues in the three texts, the collocations of grammatical words such as in, of, I, and but are discussed in this paper. The importance of the study on collocations of grammatical words as observed in the section “What is said about of” of Sinclair (1991) and as discussed in “local grammar” of Hunston (2002) has been pointed out so far. However, collocational patterns of grammatical words have not yet discussed from the point of view of style or characterization in literature. This paper aims to address this topic from two viewpoints. First I will argue that clear distinctions can be made among the patterns of collocations of grammatical words in these three first-person narratives and demonstrate how they work towards characterization and “mind-styles”, that is, “any distinctive linguistic presentation of an individual mental self” (Fowler 1977: 103) of the three narrators that the author intended to create. Second I will show collocational patterns within the three texts which are shared among the narrators to contribute to what is called Dickens’s style. Key words: collocational style, Dickens, first-person narratives, grammatical words, corpus stylistics, David Copperfield, Bleak House, Great Expectations Fowler, Roger (1977) Linguistics and the Novel, Routledge. Hori, Masahiro (2004) Investigating Dickens’ Style: A Collocational Analysis, Palgrave, Macmillan. Hunston, Susan (2002) Corpora in Applied Linguistics, Cambridge. Sinclair, John (1991) Corpus, Concordance, Collocation, Oxford University Press.

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Hsin-Yi Huang (National Hsinchu University of Education, Taiwan) Communicating Behavior of Refusing: In Department Stores vs. in Traditional Markets This study investigates in communicating behavior of refusing in department stores and in traditional markets. Focus on it happens or not that conversations between customers and attendants follow on politeness theory and Co-operation principles. There are three parts in this study: (1) Customers promote to attendants in different occasion and strategy use. (2) Politeness and the notion of face in Taiwan. (3) Degree of face-threaten on refusal. Data are collected from questionnaires which are answered by testee. The questionnaires are designed according to Discourse Completion Test-Blum-kulka (1989). We also get more deep information by interviewing testee. This article discuss on refusing strategies of communication in different ages and gender. Indirect refusing strategies are more than direct refusing strategies or on the contrary and the relevancies between face threatening acts and refusing strategies of communication. Keywords: Politeness, Speech acts, Face, Refusals Michael Hurley (University of Cambridge, UK) What Constitutes Competence in Poetic Appreciation? To consider “style and communication” in literature assumes the relevance and recoverability of authorial intention: that the author is trying to communicate this as opposed to that, and that that which is communicated is done so through, or indeed by, the style in which the language is employed. This is not an assumption that has been shared by the most influential schools of literary criticism for at least the last three decades. Curiously, it was at the very moment when, in linguistics, Pragmatics grew out of Semantics as an autonomous sub-discipline and “intention” was belatedly being brought into the centre of discussion that the filial discipline of literary criticism lurched in precisely the opposite direction. Curiouser still is that the obituary for authorial intention announced in literary-critical theorising was actually underwritten by linguistics, by the undecidability of language implicit in Saussure’s description of signification as one of perpetually deferred meanings. This apparent anomaly may be explained in terms of aspect. Pragmatics attends to “conversational” meaning. By contrast, author-absent criticism does not approach the text as communication at all; words are not treated as carriers of information from writer to reader but as something different in kind: “meaning” is wrested from intentio auctoris to intentio operis. In practice the shift is yet more radical, however, as intentio operis segues straight to intentio lectoris and the text is denied any power of delimitation. Under these conditions, as exemplified in Derrida’s ironically titled Limited Inc., from a certain deconstructive perspective words may mean anything and nothing; they are “limited” only by the reader’s ingenuity. This paper makes a specifically literary challenge to the legitimacy of such infinite interpretability by arguing against the sophistical slide from intentio operis to intentio lectoris, the first step towards which is to redefine and reclaim the idea of intentio auctoris. The example of Pragmatics provides the basis for this challenge. In a paper proposing the remedial application of methodologies developed in linguistics, it must be noted that, from a “literary” point of view, the encroachment of linguistics into literary studies has been at least as lamentable as the rise of deconstruction and of cultural studies, to the extent that it too has consistently failed to respect the differences between literature and any other kind of language. It will further be argued that the “literary” continues to be marginalized even exactly in the interdisciplinary space between linguistics and literary studies that is being recommended here, in the space that is currently occupied by “Literary Pragmatics.” As the most literary of literature’s structures, versification is at the centre of this argument, which amounts to suggesting that: the reader is bound by the same imperative of readerly “competence” in interpreting a poem as the poet is in realizing his “intention” in his writing; that this “competence” is peculiar to poetry

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(and so not adequately derived from discourse in general); and, most importantly and controversially, that the imperative for such “competence” comes from understanding the ways in which versification inflects, as opposed to reflects, poetry’s “meaning.” Anne Ihata (Musashino University, Japan) Contrasting Styles and Humour: It may not be funny There has been much effort to improve English education in Japan in recent years, largely aimed at bringing achievement levels closer to those of its Asian neighbours. This paper will examine the effects of the Communicative Language Teaching approach on comprehension and production of spoken and written communication in English by Japanese EFL learners, particularly in the area of styles of language. More specifically, it will focus on how texts produced by native English writers and speakers frequently use deliberate contrasts of formal and informal registers for humorous and other effects, and the difficulties this type of discourse presents for learners. It will be suggested that the difficulty is not necessarily due to the learners’ general level of English proficiency, but may lie rather in weakness in particular areas of language knowledge. Examples will be presented to support the hypothesis that some of the difficulty at least is a result of overemphasis on communicative competence, and the resulting concentration on colloquial language forms. One apparent consequence for many learners is lack of a sound knowledge of the social and sociolinguistic applications or functions of formal or polite forms. The paper will discuss how this impacts both oral and written discourse comprehension and production at university level, although the emphasis will be on production since it is a matter that particularly affects academic writing, with inappropriate use of informal expressions in college compositions and what should be academic essays. Reference will also be made to the possibilities for miscommunication of attitude or intention in spoken discourse, and the far from amusing consequences that this may have for the learner, unaware of what they appear to their audience to be doing with the language: the very opposite, perhaps, from what they really intend. Finally, the author will offer practical suggestions to help learners acquire a better grasp of the different uses of formal and informal forms of the language. Reiko Ikeo (Tokyo Keizai University, Japan) Speech and thought presentation in Haruki Murakami’s ‘All God’s Children Can Dance’: a comparative study of the Japanese and English texts Haruki Murakami is one of Japan’s most widely acclaimed authors in contemporary fiction. His works have been translated into English by Americans. One of Murakami’s recent short stories, ‘All God’s Children Can Dance’ contains various types of speech/thought presentation, and they are skilfully translated into English discourse presentation by Jay Rubin, a Harvard professor of Japanese literature. The comparative study of the original Japanese text and the translated version reveals that the Japanese version tends to allow the reader to stay closer and longer with the protagonist’s point of view. The following is the beginning paragraph of the story in the translated version, which is tagged by the annotation system of Lancaster Speech, Writing and Thought presentation corpus. <sptag=N> Yoshiya woke with the worst possible hangover. He could barely open one eye; the left lid wouldn’t budge. His head felt as if it had been stuffed with decaying teeth during the night. A foul sludge was oozing from his rotting gums and eating away at his brain from the inside. <sptag cat=N-FIT> If he ignored it, he wouldn’t have a brain left.

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<sptag cat=FIT> Which would be all right, too. Just a little more sleep: <sptag cat=NRT> that’s all he wanted. <sptag cat=NI> But he knew it was out of the question. He felt too awful to sleep.

(Haruki Murakami, ‘All God’s Children Can Dance’, 2003: 42) In the English version, the reader immediately recognises the point of view is fixed inside Yoshiya from the beginning as his hangover, headache and sickness are metaphorically described in detail. Nonetheless, Yoshiya’s voice is sustained until the fifth sentence. The second sentence with the modality can be associated with Yoshiya’s consciousness, but the reader would not be certain if he/she is hearing Yoshiya’s voice. In the Japanese version, on the other hand, the reader clearly hears Yoshiya’s voice as early as at the beginning of the second sentence. The following is the first two sentences from the original. 善也は最悪の二日酔いの中で目を覚ました。懸命に目を開けようとするのだが、片目しか開かない。左のまぶたが言うことをきかないのだ。 (村上春樹、「神の子どもたちはみな踊る」2003: 153) The quick shift of voices from the narrator’s to the protagonist’s is mainly generated by two factors. First, the Japanese version does not have any pronouns referring to Yoshiya, including the subject and the possessive forms in the first paragraph while the pronouns appear nine times in the translated paragraph. Absence of pronouns helps the reader to be easily involved in the protagonist’s consciousness without objectifying the protagonist from the narrator’s point of view. Secondly, the original text freely shifts tenses from the past to the present and vice versa six times in such a short stretch. This is due to the fact that Japanese has the less restricted tense system than English. The frequent shift of tenses would generate the alternate appearances of ‘free direct’ and ‘free indirect’ forms (if Japanese has the equivalent forms). The small-scale comparative study between the two texts shows the different ways to manage discourse presentation in the Japanese and the English texts and the effects which are consequently generated by these differences. References Murakami, H. (2003) ‘All God’s Children Can Dance’ in after the quake. J.Rubin (trans.). London:

Vintage. 村上春樹 (2003) 『神の子どもたちはみな踊る』「村上春樹全作品 1990-2003, 3 短編集 II」東京：講談社

Osamu Imahayashi (Hiroshima University, Japan) A Corpus-Based Sociolinguistic Study on the Use of look-forms in the 19th Century According to Brinton (2001), lookee appears for the first time in the eighteenth century and occurs commonly in collocation with here in the nineteenth century. If the process of grammaticalization can be explained according to the theory of “unidirectionality” (propositional > textual > expressive) as Traugott (1982) suggests, this pragmatic marker should be in the phase of “expressive”, which Halliday & Hasan (1976) called “interpersonal”. In the nineteenth century, lookee is often found in vulgar speech as is suggested in OED (s.v. look, v. 4.a) and look here appears for the first time. We have look you, lookee, look here, and look during the nineteenth century, so we have much interest in the use of these varieties. Brinton’s research for the development of look-forms within the framework of grammaticalization

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succeeded in the historical perspectives, but sociolinguistic consideration remains wide open. The main purpose of this presentation is to consider the use of various imperative forms of look throughout the nineteenth century from the sociolinguistic point of view (chiefly social class and gender) by making good use of large amount of corpus. Data for this research are collected from the Eighteenth-Century Fiction Full-Text Database on CD-ROM (1996), the Nineteenth-Century Fiction Full-Text Database on CD-ROM (2000), the E-texts of Charles Dickens for Dickens Lexicon Project, The Oxford English Dictionary on CD-ROM (2004) and the Pilgrim Edition of the Letters of Charles Dickens on CD-ROM (2005). References Brinton, L. J. (2001) “From matrix clause to pragmatic marker: The history of look-forms,” Journal of

Historical Pragmatics, 2:2. 177-199. Halliday, M. A. K. and R. Hasan (1976) Cohesion in English. Longman: London. Hopper, P. J. and E. C. Traugott (20032, 1993) Grammaticalization. Cambridge University Press:

Cambridge. Traugott, E. C. (1982) “From propositional to textual and expressive meanings: Some semantic-pragmatic

effects of grammaticalization,” Perspectives on Historical Linguistics, edited by Winfred P. Lehmann and Yakov Malkiel, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 245-271.

Tsuneko Iwai (McMaster University, Canada) Interlanguage pragmatics: Effects of first language on second language pragmatics The study of the way people interpret and produce sentences in their second language is called interlanguage pragmatics (Kasper & Dahl, 1991). Any pragmatic matter requires socio-cultural knowledge of the language spoken in the target society. However, there has been a widely held assumption among second language researchers that even very fluent speakers of a second language make pragmatic errors which result from their transferal of the socio-cultural rules of their first language to the second language. This paper seeks to contribute to such a debate by looking at refusal patterns in the Japanese of native speakers of English. One aspect of pragmatics which will be examined in this study is the speech act of “refusal”. Speech samples of non-native speakers were compared with those of native speakers to ascertain whether the transfer from their first language was taking place; and if the transfer was occurring, to what extent patterns and rules of the speakers’ first language influenced their communicative patterns in their second language. It was found that English speaking learners of Japanese in fact use their North American extralinguistic knowledge, social norms and values even when they are communicating in Japanese. Such evidences of pragmatic transfer was found in the areas of semantic formulas and speech styles. Although the amount of evidence differed from context to context, in general, corroboration was found for the claims made by many researchers that non-native speakers may fail to realize effective or appropriate communicative goals in their second language. Lesley Jeffries (University of Huddersfield, UK) Generic expectations and poetic experiences: interpreting the interpersonal in contemporary poems In recent work (Jeffries 2000, 2006) I have been concerned with the reader’s experience of poems, and in particular the sense of personal involvement in poetic text worlds, as triggered by various deictic and world building elements. This paper takes the investigation a step further by considering the contribution of deictic centres and deictic shifting (see Duchan et al 1995 and McIntyre 2006) and Emmott’s binding and

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priming (1997) to the process of reading poems, and in particular considers the expectations that readers may have of the genre of poetry which will produce a wider range of potential responses than, say, to fiction or drama. The paper will refer to a wide range of contemporary poems, which will be available to read at the conference. Duchan, J., Bruder, G. and Hewitt, L. (1995) Deixis in Narrative. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum. Emmott, C. (1997). Narrative comprehension: A discourse perspective. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Jeffries, L. (2000) 'Point of view and orientation in Carol Ann Duffy's Poetry', in Jeffries, L. and Sansom, P.

(eds) Reading Contemporary Poetry: Huddersfield: Smith Doorstop Books. 54-68. Jeffries, L. (2006) ‘Nonsense or poetry? Meaningful gaps in contemporary poems’ paper given at the

IALS conference in Krakow, October 2006. McIntyre, D. (2006) Point of View in Plays: A Cognitive Stylistic Approach to Viewpoint in Drama and

Other Text-types. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Ivan Jimenez-Williams (Western Illinois University, USA) Contrastive and Interlanguage Pragmatics in a Multicultural Spanish Theatre Class: Xavier Villaurrútia’s ¿En qué piensas? In the Fall of 2006 I taught Xavier Villaurrutia’s play ¿En qué piensas? (What are you thinking about?) to fourth-year Spanish literature students. On the one hand, contrastive pragmatics allowed me to account for cultural differences among heritage speakers. For instance, in Spanish a second-generation Porto Rican may express him/herself differently from his/her Mexican counterpart. On the other hand, interlanguage pragmatics was crucial in upgrading the level of proficiency for both first and second-language learners. The production process helped me to improve and to assess the students’ situationally-appropriate utterances. In turn, the entire experience significantly reduced the well-known academic gap between the literary/cultural components By filming the class, I was able to observe and assess the way in which heritage (L1) and second-language (L2) students synchronized verbal and non-verbal signs. Although first and second-language learning are distinct fields, in a typical North American foreign language academic environment one normally has to deal with both types of speakers. Differences in proficiency of the target language help account for the gap among heritage speakers. To add to the complexity of the scenario, one also finds in a fourth-year class the universal differences in proficiency among second-language learners. Hence, my approach is informed by the two theoretical fields. The play allowed students to participate in the creation of a dramatic text through the implementation performing strategies. For that purpose I ran a double survey that addressed issues concerning first (L1) and second-language learners (L2). Class discussions, lectures, workshops and rehearsals were paramount in creating a theatrical performance that showed the constant tension between the characters. In order to arrive at the dramatis personae the students were constantly involved in the construction of character and the creation of meaning. Ultimately, most of the L1 and L2 students were able to enhance their second-language acquisition through direct and practical access to the semantic synchrony of the instructor and of the most proficient heritage speakers. Although each student had to impersonate a specific damatis persona in the play, I exposed them to commedia dell’arte masks, for instance, in order to be involved in character formation. This objective was reinforced through the use of the stage, mirrors, props, scenes, costumes, and films. However, the students, first and foremost, had to understand the play in its original language and move from there to the creation of the dramatic text and its performance. The theatre model was an excellent teaching tool because it made it possible for me to identify the amount of base knowledge that both L1 and L2 had as well as it enabled the second-language learner

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to have direct exposure to the target language; moreover, the workshops and rehearsals helped to assess the student’s level of learning in an environment that broke with conventional notions of teaching. Characteristic of the actual rehearsals were a number of exercises in memorization techniques, character formation, semantic synchrony, improvisation, intonation and pronunciation that were pertinent to opening a door of speech act opportunities for both L1 and L2 students. Kazuko Kashihara (Kansai Gaidai University, Japan) John Updike’s Style in Rabbit, Run John Updike is often called “a writer who writes insignificant things in a very beautiful way.” So far, Updikeans including me seem to have concentrated to prove that Updike does write the significant and have made light of his beautiful way of writing. Once we turn to his style, we notice that his style is elaborately built and has a great effect on readers’ response to the novel. In the presentation, I will analyze Updike’s style in Rabbit, Run, one of his famous novels, and examine how his style has an effect on readers. Geoffrey N. Leech has introduced a method of analyzing style in fiction, showing a checklist of linguistic and stylistic categories, and suggested the procedure “to make selective use of the checklist in order to bring to the attention what appear to be the most significant style markers of each” (Leech 82). I will pick up tense of verbs and figurative language as “the most significant style markers” of Rabbit, Run. When we read Rabbit, Run, the most conspicuous feature of the style is tense of verbs. Almost the whole novel is written in the present tense, which is unusual in fiction. Novels are usually written in the past tense, for, if I borrow J. Hillis Miller’s expression, “in many novels the use of the past tense establishes the narrator as someone living after the events of the story have taken place” (Miller 177). Then why did Updike use the present tense? I will extract the answer by examining some passages from the novel and taking its effect into consideration. Another characteristic is the use of figurative language. Updike’s skill in figurative language is highly appreciated, and it is considered part of the sources of his “beautiful” style. He uses strange and interesting metaphors and similes. For instance, when Rabbit (the protagonist) loses his infant daughter, the pain in his heart is described as “a hard loop” made by keeping twisting a rope (Updike 269). By examining several examples of his figurative language, I will show its features and the effects, especially focusing on the metaphor using “net,” which is repeatedly used and deeply connected with the theme of the novel. References: Leech, G. N. and Short, M. H. (1981) Style in Fiction, Longman. Miller, H. (1982) Fiction and Repetition, Harvard UP. Updike, J. (1987, first published in 1960) Rabbit, Run, Knopf. Yi-Shan Ke (Graduate Institute of Taiwan languages and Language education, Taiwan) Social Distance Differences Reflected in the Forms of Requests The aim of the study is to investigate the differences of social distance reflected in the forms of requests. There are twelve subjects, around 40 to 50 years old, participating the interviews. All of them are native speakers of Taiwanese, a Chinese dialect prevalently spoken in Taiwan. The conditions are created for the subjects: asking for no disturbing. It is one kind speech act of request. The contents offered by the subjects are recorded and transcribed, describing the verbal interactions within some certain social context in self-retrospection. The intension in the speakers’ mind which make them use different request form will be produced by narrative analysis. In this way, this paper will explore the behavior when Taiwanese

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requesting someone. The results show that the form is direct or indirect doesn’t by all means tell the relation is close or far. The form is decided by the relationship if the speakers care about. The speakers will use direct forms to request stopping disturbing or blaming, in order to make the listeners’ personality better. Besides, the strategies changed accordingly with subtle relative social distance between the interlocuters. Whether the differences are related to working experiences or innate styles are discussed. In addition, the strategy favored by subjects is refuge. Key words: request, narrative analysis Deborah Keogh. (Trinity College Dublin, Ireland) Towards a qualitative analysis of the use of argot in a literary corpus using WordSmith Tools This paper presents the results of a qualitative analysis of the use of argot in a corpus of twenty three French literary texts from the second half of the nineteenth century.1 This descriptive analysis attempts to test the hypothesis that the contextual use of argot by authors and poets in the sub-corpus should reflect the extension of the stylistic function of this lexis during the period from 1865 to 1895, as documented by lexicographers. Accordingly, notions such as register and context are explored in terms of inter-relatedness. Specific focus is given to the ways in which the context of literary communication may be said to influence the choice of register in poetic texts in the corpus. This involves a preliminary survey of previous research on the concept of a context of literary communication. Moreover, specific examples are used to illustrate and explicate how the context of literary communication can be said to influence the poet’s choice of register within selected poetic texts from the corpus. In other words, the aim here is to explore the use of poetic foregrounding. In addition, attention is focused on the stylistic function of argot by lexicographers in dictionnaires d’argot. That is to say, from 1865 to 1895, the traditional use of argot was extended to account for the gradual popularisation of this informal variety of language. Accordingly, they used a number of style labels or marques d’usage, which can be placed on a continuum, ranging from argot des voleurs, argot du peuple, français populaire to français familier. The final sections of the paper look at the application of one specific computer software programme called WordSmith Tools in examining the usage and behaviour of words in context. Here, particular emphasis is placed on how the programme can be used to generate concordances and collocates of specific word types of argot. 1 Littré defined it as a technical and colourful language spoken by people in the same profession (Littré, E., 1878: Dictionnaire de la langue française. Paris: Hachette, p.192). Victor A. Khachan (Lebanese American University, Lebanon) Three-Dimensional Coherence in Argumentative Academic Writing Argumentative academic writing has been for decades the focus of both the academic and non-academic worlds. On the one hand, academic theoreticians (e.g. text linguists, mainly in the context of cohesion, coherence, and topical organization, literary scholars and academic writing textbook writers) have devised models and frameworks for text analysis to understand and/or to use argumentation/persuasion in academic contexts. On the other, non-academicians (professional writers such as newspaper columnists, novelists and scriptwriters) and practicing academics (i.e. researchers) have used argumentation in their works in ways that do not always correspond to the wishes and expectations of the ever-changing academic writing theories. Prior to any assessment of the literature on argumentation theory and practice in academic writing and/or reading, the present work stresses the essentiality of defining and/or redefining ‘genres’ due to the different and, at times, conflicting definitions, weakening our understanding of the existentialist intertwined nature between argumentation and genre or genres. Clarifying such dependence requires a framework that brings together the theories, guidelines and expectations of academic writing

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and/or reading of learners, teachers and textbook writers. Additionally, this work highlights the gap in argumentation between theory and practice by mapping guidelines for argumentative writing in academic writing textbooks and writing materials posted on the websites of renowned universities. It also introduces a bridging model/algorithm of argumentation that is based on a three-dimensional coherence framework. Finally, this work explores practical aspects of the proposed three-dimensional model in facilitating academic and non-academic writing and/or reading. Emiko Kihara, (Kyoto Ｕｎｉｖｅｒｓｉｔｙ, Japan) A Cognitive Approach to Usage Environment of English Light Verb Constructions This study aims to clarify usage environment of English light verb constructions. Poustma (1926), Jespersen (1942) and Dixon (1992), have been studying light verb constructions, only focusing on the semantic structures and usage. As a result, a lot of English textbooks, used in EFL (English as a Foreign Language) classes, just explain the grammar and the variety of the constructions. No textbooks show when and in what style people use light verb constructions, and so English learners do not clearly understand the usage environment of the constructions. However, BNC (British National Corpus) corpus data show that some light verb constructions are used in a certain context. There are numerous light verb constructions in English. (1) a. They made a decision. b. She takes a walk every morning. c. Many babies had a full examinations. In terms of the framework of Cognitive Grammar and Prototype theory, light verb constructions such as (1) can be classified as prototype constructions in the category. This paper focuses on peripheral constructions whose objects appear also in cognate object constructions. (2) a. She smiled a gentle smile. b. She gave a gentle smile. (3) a. He dreamed a strange dream. b. He had a strange dream. (4) a. They shouted a loud shout. b. They gave a loud shout. In BNC corpus, the prototype constructions are used both in formal and informal context. On the other hand, most of the peripheral constructions appear in essay, informal writing and spoken context. The usage environment varies in the constructions. The peripheral constructions often appear in informal context. One of the reasons should be that the peripheral constructions take Germanic nouns as objects, and that Germanic nouns affect the usage environment of the light verb constructions. In fact, while Germanic nouns appear in light verb and cognate object constructions, Latinate nouns appear only in light verb constructions, not in cognate objects. (5) a. They gave a clear explanation. b. * They explained a clear explanation. (6) a. He had a strange approach. b. * He approached a strange approach. Thus etymology of nouns should influence the style of the peripheral light verb constructions. Etymology of nouns have a heavy influence also on Japanese light verb constructions. In Japanese, Chinese origin nouns appear in light verb constructions. Japanese origins are used in complex verbs. (7) a. Karera wa meikakuni setumei sita. 'They gave a clear explanation.' b. Kare wa kimyouni sekkin sita.

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'He had a strange approach.' (8) a. Karera wa meikakuni tokiakasita. 'They explained clearly.' b. Kare wa kimyouni tikayotta. 'He approached strangely.' Thus origins of nouns play an important role in the usage environment of light verb constructions both in Japanese and English. References Poustma, H. 1926. A Grammar of Late Modern English. Groningen: P. Noordhoof. Jespersen, O. 1942. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. London: George Allen &

Unwin Dixon, R. M. W. 1992. A New Approach to English Grammar, on Semantic Principles. Oxford: Oxford

University Press. Shigeo Kikuchi (Osaka International University, Japan) Performative Hypothesis of Literary Discourse In my presentation, I will examine a functional and communicative nature of literary discourse, especially focusing on what I call ‘mediating function’. For this purpose I will employ the concepts of Performative Hypothesis proposed in Ross (1970), the Prague School’s Communicative Dynamism (e.g. Firbas 1975), and Halliday’s text-forming function. Ross’s performative analysis could be outlined as in the following. Ross’s approach to a declarative sentence sheds light on the fact that literary discourse is after all a communicative event between author (addresser) and reader (addressee). This functionalist view clarifies the fact that a whole literary text is like one propositional clause in which the ‘sequence of elements in the clause tends to represent thematic ordering’ (Halliday 1967). I will also argue that a literary text is basically a composite of three discourse constituents, what I call ‘discourse theme’ and ‘discourse rheme’, equivalent ideas of theme and rheme at the clause level, and these two are combined together with the help of the mediating section (an equivalent of what Prague linguists call ‘transition’ and what anthropologists call the ‘liminal zone’) or mediated by the ‘mediating function’ that transforms the discourse theme into the discourse rheme. For the discussion I will give a brief examination of several English literary works like Robert Frost’s poem and the works by Chaucer, Shakespeare and Ishiguro. In the case of Ishiguro, in the text proposition, the discourse theme of his inner problems he faced—his family’s move from Japan to Britain when he was five, resulting in the hard, cultural and ethnic experiences he had to face while growing up in Britain as a Japanese—repeatedly appear in disguise in his works, gradually being replaced with smaller conflicts decreasing their psychological burden. Kang Yl Ko (Yonsei University, South Korea) A Critique of Religious Language: Salman Rushdie’s The Satanic Verses One of Rushdie’s focal points in The Satanic Verses rests in the demystification of Islamic fundamentalist language. In opposition to religious extremists who try to dehistoricize the life of the Prophet Muhammad and interpret their scriptures literally, Rushdie challenges the authority of fundamentalism by representing the human aspects of the Prophet Muhammad and satirizing some dogmatic rules of early Islam. Rushdie also sheds light on the historical context of the Iranian revolution and the establishment of Islam by demystifying the language of religious fundamentalism. Central to the humanization of the religious language in The Satanic Verses is the secularized representations of the Prophet Muhammad. Rushdie justifies such an attempt on the basis of historical

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grounds and goes on to insist that it could make the Prophet Muhammad a more human and comprehensible figure. In addition, Rushdie’s unique exploitation of language such as puns and multiple use of the same proper names is worth a careful scrutiny in the sense that it plays a crucial role in demystifying orthodox religious language. It is through his critique of the Iranian revolution that Rushdie reveals the de-historicity of the fundamentalist language. In the novel, he discloses the falsehood of fundamentalist rhetoric, whereby he refutes the fundamentalists’ claim that the Iranian revolution was the completion of history; Rushdie sees the revolution as just one of numerous historical events. Also, he tries to elucidate the driving forces at work behind the establishment of Islam by employing the Foucauldian genealogy. The narrator of the novel implies that the growing power of early Islam might be a result of the unbalance of power. Rushdie also offers alternatives to religious fundamentalist language. He proposes a secularized language that can invite mutual understanding among various religious groups. For Rushdie, the language for reciprocal understanding should be the substitution for the fundamentalists’ rigid language. Keisuke Koguchi (Yasuda Women’s University, Japan) Stylistic Use of Repetition in A Tale of Two Cities As Brook (1970: 143) states, repetition is one of the linguistic devices “of which Charles Dickens is very fond,” and the novelist “makes things easy for his readers by his constant repetitions, and his habitual phrases are remembered by readers who are not used to reading with close attention.” According to Monod (1968: 461), the author’s “stylistic use of repetition reaches its climax in the Tale.” The purpose of this paper, therefore, is to explore the relationship between repetition and functional relevance in A Tale of Two Cities (1859). In other words, this study investigates Dickens’s stylistic and linguistic artistry from the viewpoint of repetition in the novel. The analysis also represents the linguistic idiosyncrasies of the novel as one phase in the development of Dickens’s English. My chief concern is devoted to three aspects of repetition. First, I examine the repetitive use of words that appear as a verbal medium for individualizing characters and exposing them through their speech. Second, I demonstrate how significantly repetition contributes to the creation of symbolic meaning. For example, such words as “footstep,” “echo,” “foot,” “tread,” “wine,” “red,” and “blood,” which appear repeatedly throughout the novel, often co-occur with one another, and convey additional and different meanings as well as their own specific ones, in accordance with the contexts. Third, I discuss the thematic use of repetition, that is to say, the different or contrastive use of repetition between the scenes, especially between the English and the French scenes. For the statistical analysis of repetition, I take advantage of a computer-assisted approach to a self-made Dickens Corpus of his 23 novels. References Brook, G. L. (1970) The Language of Dickens. London: Andre Deutsch. Glancy, R. (1991) A Tale of Two Cities: Dickens’s Revolutionary Novel. Boston: Twayne Publishers. Hasan, R. (1989) Linguistics, Language, and Verbal Art. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hori, M. (2004) Investigating Dickens’ Style: A Collocational Analysis. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Koguchi, K. (2001) The Language of Charles Dickens’s A Tale of Two Cities: From a Cohesive Point of

View. Hiroshima: Research Institute for Language and Culture, Yasuda Women’s University. Leech, G. N. and Short, M. H. (1981) Style in Fiction: A Linguistic Introduction to English Fictional Prose.

London: Longman. Monod, S. (1968) Dickens the Novelist. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. Sørensen, K. (1985) Charles Dickens: Linguistic Innovator. Aarhus: Arkona. Yamamoto, T. (2003) Growth and System of the Language of Dickens: An Introduction to A Dickens

Lexicon 3rd edn. Hiroshima: Keisuisha.

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Masaru Kosako (Okayama University, Japan) Messages in Feminine Endings in Spenser’s Faerie Queene Book V In the forthcoming English Corpus Studies 2007 No. 14, Kosako discussed with the assistance of corpora some patterns of feminine endings in relation to the discourses or contexts, focusing on the Radigund episode in Book V of E. Spenser’s Faerie Queene (1590, 1596). The present paper is going to develop this stylistic study, examining how the poet exploits feminine endings to communicate his intended messages in Book V of the poem. Sarala Krishnamurthy (Polytechnic of Namibia, Namibia) "How ya doin' ?" Meta-Pragmatic Awareness in TV-Serials: Friends (A Case Study) That TV serials by nature consist of conversation is stating the obvious. Whether the serials are soapies (Dynasty, The Bold and the Beautiful, Dallas) or detective (CSI, Miami), drama in the courtroom (Boston Legal, The Practice), adventure (Lost) or plain and simple “slice of life" (Sex in the city, Desperate Housewives, Friends), all of them depend on two vital ingredients for their success. These two ingredients are the elements of suspense and conversational exchange. It is the plot with the element of suspense that moves the story forward, quite like the Victorian three decker novel which was serialised in magazines in the 19th century and disseminated amongst an agog, eager, hungry-for-information public. In the 21st century plot ensures that the TV audience returns week after week, episode after episode. The other element, conversation, keeps them glued to the TV set and the interplay of words amongst the characters not only furthers the action but also provides for various factors like humour, profound insight into human nature and a vicarious experience of the unknown. While logic and semantics traditionally deal with properties of types of expressions, as analytical tools they fail when examining properties of language that differ from token to token, and from utterance to utterance. Semantics is the study of the conventional “compositional meaning" of language and as such, is limited when it comes to an analysis of speech utterances of human beings. Now it is accepted that analysis of speech requires a separate field of study and this field is called Pragmatics which looks at interactional meaning and provides illuminating explanation into socio-linguistic conduct. The findings of the cooperative principle and politeness principle also explicate person to person interactions. The choice of different linguistic means for a communicative act and the various interpretations for the same speech act elucidate human mentality in the relevant principle which contributes to the study of communication in particular and cognition in general. Pragmatic analysis involves perception augmented by some species of ampliative measures like induction and inference. Any TV show's success is reflected by the number of seasons that it has run. “Friends”, a popular TV serial of the 90s ran for 10 seasons before it finally wrapped up after ten years. Part of the show’s success was because of the situational comedy in which the characters are trapped. But most of it was because of the lively verbal interaction amongst them. This paper examines the cultural assumptions that are inherent in and integral to an understanding of social behaviour using “Friends” as a case study with a view to explicating that although the pragmatic conditions of communicative tasks are theoretically taken to be universal, the realisation of these tasks as social practice is variable. Further, it will also examine the role of pragmatic analysis in narratology: how conversational exchange furthers action and thus moves the plot forward. Marina Lambrou (University of East London, UK) Parallel lines: evaluation in personal narratives According to Labov and Waletzky (1967), strategies for evaluating personal narratives, together with the

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basic narrative clause, are seen as the most important aspects of a fully formed narrative. It is how narratives are evaluated and what form they take that is the focus of this paper. Specifically, what strategies do individuals as narrators of their own personal experiences use to highlight the ‘raison d’etre (Labov, 1972) of their telling and thereby reinforce the reportability value of these stories? By analysing a corpus of spoken personal narratives from members of the Greek Cypriot Community in London, a number of evaluative features come to light. Using Labov and Waletzky’s (1967) functional model of narratives as the central framework for narrative analysis, evaluative devices that include mirroring, repetition or ‘parallelism’ are all found as rhetorical devices. Further evaluation is found in the presence of what I call ‘ring composition’, often associated with folktales and oral narratives from primary oral cultures. These framing devices appear to blur the role of the abstract and coda as they function to emphasize the reason for the narrative telling in the first place, and therefore its overall success as an engaging story. Hyang Sook Lee (Yonsei University, South Korea) Mating Birds: A Case of Subversion of an Authoritative Language Under a colonial situation, one of the most important issues might be the function and power of the colonizer's language. As Ann McClintock notes, the colonial discourse should not be read "as a matter of textuality alone", but with the notion of alternative forms of authority, knowledge, and power."(McClintock 16) The control over the means of communication almost always accompanied colonial oppression. In this sense, "the seizing of the means of communication and the liberation of post-colonial writing by the appropriation of the written word become crucial features of the process of self-assertion and of the ability to reconstruct the world as an unfolding historical process."(Bill Ashcroft, Gareth Griffiths, and Helen Tiffin 82) Lewis Nkosi's first novel, Mating Birds (1986), represents a world bleeding from apartheid, a form of internal colonialism, along with the resistance on the part of the segregated blacks. In Mating Birds, the colonial situation is characterized by silence, a general lack of communication and also by the powerlessness of anti-colonial writing. For Sibiya, the narrator in jail awaiting execution for the attempt of rape of a white girl, the cell is a metaphor of the limitation of communication, writing, and physical movement under the colonial situation. Even in the world outside the prison, the situation is not very different. An example is the beach on which a small stream separating Sibiya from a white girl physically also functions as a means of blocking verbal communication. The warning sign of racial barrier dividing the white and non-white makes Sibiya enter into a non-verbal region, a silent love game that has certainly political implications in the political frame. This paper starts with analyzing the way apartheid deprives the non-white South Africans of their voices, as seen in the case of Sibiya. It explores the way Nkosi sketches the relationship between language and power in a colonial context; and it reveals what kind of strategies are employed on the part of the colonized against the hegemonic power of the colonial discourse. This paper then moves on to analyzing the effect of apartheid upon the narrative itself. In other words, this paper brings light on a certain style of the narrative and discusses the way it results from and, at the same time, carries out a critique of apartheid. Works Consulted Arendt, Hannah. On Violence. London: Harcourt Brace & Company. 1970. Ashcroft, Bill, Griffiths, Gareth, and Tiffin, Helen. The Empire Writes Back: Theory and Practice in

post-colonial literatures. New York: Routledge, 1989. Dubow, Saul. "Afrikaner Nationalism, Apartheid and the Conceptualization of 'Race'." The Journal of

African History 33.2(1992): 209-237. McClintock, Anne. Imperial Leather: Race, Gender an Sexuality in the Colonial Contest.New York:

Routledge, 1995. Nkosi, Lewis. Mating Birds. New York: Harper & Row.1986.

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Bosco Li (The University of Hong Kong) The Language Use of Hong Kong Mahjong Players This paper investigates the language use of mahjong players in Hong Kong under the theoretical framework of ‘Community of Practice’ (CofP) (Wenger 1998). This framework is defined as ‘an aggregate of people who come together around mutual engagement in an endeavour. Ways of doing things, ways of talking, beliefs, values, power relations – in short practices – emerge in the cause of this mutual endeavour’ (Eckert & McConnell-Ginet 1992:464). The key issues addressed in the paper are how Hong Kong mahjong players use their language on the gambling table to interact with other players and how the communication pattern in this particular context significantly differs from those in other contexts. This paper mainly focuses on two key issues including the use of jargon terms and various communicative strategies for both relational and transactional goals. Data are analyzed from regular meetings of a mahjong playgroup based in Hong Kong. The target language of the study is mainly Cantonese, and code mixing is also expected to be frequent in this multilingual situation. The frequent use of jargon terms is found to be one of most significant features in this context and this serves certain functional purposes including expression of solidarity and psychological factors. A number of examples are found to be culturally specific to the Hong Kong context. Apart from the use of jargon terms, mahjong players are also found to exploit a large variety of communicative strategies in the process. During the game which may indeed lasts for a few hours, players have a large number of occasions which they may not just need to interact with other players for relational goals, but also to negotiate with others on issues related to the game. Strategies identified include the use of questions, humour for mitigation purposes, etc. The study demonstrates need for small-scale context- and cultural- specific linguistic research on the use of jargon and communicative strategies. References Eckert, P., & McConnell-Ginet, S. (1992). Communities of practice: Where language, gender and power

all live. In K. Hall, M. Bucholtz & B. Moonwomon (Eds.), Locating Power. Proceedings of the Second Berkeley Women and Language Conference. April 4 and 5 1992 (Vol. 1, pp. 89-99). Berkeley: Berkeley Women and Language Group, University of California.

Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of Practice. Learning, Meaning, and Identity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Shisheng Liu (Tsinghua University, China) The Voice of Ten Years’ History: -- A Stylistic-Narrative Approach to the ‘Eight Revolutionary Model Plays’ In this article, the author uses a stylistic-narrative approach to discuss the ‘Eight Revolutionary Model Plays’ of China’s Cultural Revolution, which left profound but sometimes negative influences on many aspects of Chinese people’s life. Because of the political upheavals of the time, these so-called eight revolutionary model plays were dominating the cultural stage during that special period of Chinese history. However, they have been popular again in recent years. This is really an interesting cultural phenomenon that deserves academic observation. After careful narrative and semiotic analyses, the author has got some interesting findings. James Phelan’s narrative theory of three narrative voices (mimetic, thematic, and synthetic) is used for narratological analysis and the result is that these model plays mainly use the thematic voice. Roman Jakobson’s semiotic theory of six factors within the speech event is used for semiotic analysis and the result is that each of the six factors has polyphonic features. The conclusion is that although the plays were originally made out of political purposes, they have become part of Chinese culture after people’s long time appreciation and consumption. In this sense one can say that art, like

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language, is also a kind of convention. Rosa López de D’Amico and Rebeca Oropeza R. (Universidad Pedagógica Experimental Libertador, Venezuela) Experience with Australian literature: A cultural-linguistic tool in the learning-teaching process of English as a foreign language The objective of this research is to study the relevance of incorporating literary text from the Australian literature to the programs of courses from the English Department of the UPEL - Maracay, specifically from the Literature and Culture Area. Traditionally we have been working with literary texts mostly from the USA and Great Britain and occasionally some writers from the Caribbean or Africans. This study is part of the research project: Australian culture and literature in which one of the objectives is to make the students know the characteristics of an English speaking country which is unknown to many in this side of the world. There is a review of theories that have been used in the teaching of foreign languages and literature. Surveys were applied to the students at the beginning and at the end of the course (2002 –I). In this paper, the researchers share the results obtains so far and the experience obtained in this first part of the research project. Key words: Teaching literature, EFL, Literature, Culture VipulKumar Makodia (Bhavan’s Shri A. K. Doshi Mahila College, India) Communication and Miscommunication: A Pragmatic Study of Legal Discourse “Language is not held in common by all human beings but only by those who belong to specific community.” - Randolph Quirk Lawyers form one such community who possess “a set of conventions” in their speech. A pragmatic analysis of legal discourse would be immensely important in order to eradicate the idiosyncrasies and ridiculous nature of language employed in it. Legal discourse seems to have failed in communicating thoughts with common men and women. Legal discourse is known for its obscurity, ambiguity and complexity. Even a sweet, little, easy flowing poem can be killed mercilessly by the legalese. See, how Dr. Sandburg in his poem entitled ‘The Legal Guide to Mother Goose’ writes the line ‘Jack and Jill went up the hill’. :

“The party of the first part hereinafter known as Jack And the party of the second part hereinafter known as Jill Ascended or caused to be ascended An elevation undermined height and degree of slope Hereinafter referred to as hill.”

In order to make legal language easy to understand, one needs to follow certain principles of communication as advised by pragmaticians. Grice, a noted pragmatician, has discussed four principles for effective and rational communication. They are as under. : 1. Principle of Quality 2. Principle of Quantity 3. Principle of Relevance 4. Principle of Manner Most of the times all these four principles of communication are violated in legal discourse which ultimately leads to confusion. This paper shall discuss and examine legal discourse comprehensively in the light of above four principles of communication and shall derive following conclusions.

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(1) All the four principles of communication discussed above should be sincerely executed in legal discourse.

(2) Obscure writing not only makes the language unintelligible but also wastes time of the reader. (3) The teaching of linguistics, pragmatics and semantics is of prime importance for the students of

law if at all we wish to reform the age old fashion of legal discourse. (4) Omission of unnecessary words, use of proper basic verbs, much use of active than passive voice,

shorter sentences, proper punctuation and proper arrangement of words will surely lead one to a more successful communication in legal language.

(5) If the foundation of a democracy or a civilized society is law, it should be readable, comprehensible and should be able to communicate with laymen.

(6) The legal discourse should be put forward in clear prose without aphoristic and artificial expressions. This is the demand of the time.

Nobuyoshi Matsui (Maizuru National College of Technology, Japan) You know , the function of you know is ･･･ (At someone else’s house) ‘What should I say when I want to go to the － well, er, you know?’(Crystal, 1984:49) In this utterance the speaker induces the addressee to infer the implication of what is followed, and you know (as well as well, er) does not seem to convey any literal meaning. It appears that while you know as a discourse marker may have very little information value, it acts significantly as a linguistic device to link segments of the discourse to each other in face-to-face conversation. It appears in initial, medial and final position, and is loosely connected to the main clause, serving to construct a discourse which is an organic aggregate of the sentences and also serving as a kind of floorholder to keep drawing the speaker’s attention to the addressee in the development of the discourse. Then, what functions does the discourse marker you know have concretely? The observation and analysis of a variety of texts makes it possible to provide a somewhat convincing account of the functions of you know. In conclusion, the functions of you know are： 1. The speaker monitors the state of shared knowledge in the conversation 1.1 The speaker believes that the addressee already knows what is being said 1.2 The speaker doesn’t believe that the addressee already knows what is being said 1.3 The speaker doesn’t know if the addressee knows what is being said 2. The speaker doesn’t monitor the state of shared knowledge in the conversation 2.1 The speaker searches for linguistically appropriate expressions for precision 2.2 The speaker adds some supplementary explanation for more precision 2.3 The speaker notices a false start and changes the syntactic direction of the utterance. 2.4 The speaker signalls the opening of an utterance 3. Others 3.1 The speaker uses it as a personal speech habit 3.2 The speaker induces the addressee to infer the implication of what is followed in an utterance Kazuko Matsuura (Okayama University of Science, Japan) Oxymora in Sidney’s Astrophil and Stella: In Comparison with those in Wyatt’s and Surrey’s Sonnets and Songs The rhetorical figure, oxymoron is one of the most typical rhetorical devices Renaissance poets preferably employed. In the sonnets, poets often reveal the lover’s desire and his unfulfilled torments. Sir Philip

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Sidney (1554-86), as Hamilton (1977) pointed out, ‘treats a love that may be neither satisfied nor rejected’ in Astrophil and Stella (1591). Their distress is often reflected in oxymoron, which is deeply connected with the theme of their works.

The purpose of this presentation is to clarify what stylistic features are seen in Sir Philip Sidney’s oxymora, compared with those in Sir Thomas Wyatt’s (1503?-42) and Henry Howard Surrey’s (1517?-47) sonnets and songs. To analyze each poet’s sonnets, using the method proposed by Shen (1987) and revised by Gibbs, Jr. and Kearney (1994) will give us a better understanding of the internal semantic structures of oxymoron. Shen proposes a method of distinguishing ‘direct’ oxymoron from ‘indirect’ one. The structure of the direct oxymoron ‘consists of two terms which are antonyms,’ such as “swete bitter.” Furthermore, we think it preferable to classify the direct oxymoron into that of genuine antonyms or quasi-antonyms, because we have noticed that some of the direct oxymora are rather composed of quasi-antonyms than genuine antonyms: e.g. “Dere and cruell.” With respect to the structure of the indirect oxymoron, ‘one of its two terms is not the direct antonym of the other, but rather the hyponym of its antonym.’ For example, in the indirect oxymoron of Shakespeare’s ‘cold fire,’ ‘fire’ is a hyponym of the superordinate entity of ‘scorching,’ which is the antonym of ‘cold.’ Shen distinguishes three types of ‘poetic’ or ‘indirect’ oxymora, according to the processing complexity, ‘the unmarked structure,’ ‘the medium structure,’ and ‘the marked structure.’ The unmarked structure is typical of the indirect oxymora in which the hyponym is a prototypical exemplar of its superordinate entity. The medium structure requires more complex processing, because the hyponym is neither the prototypical exemplar nor the ‘very bad exemplar.’ In the marked structure, which is ‘the most complex structure to process,’ the hyponym is a very bad exemplar; namely, there is no poorer exemplar of its superordinate entity, or it is at least very difficult to find one. Gibbs, Jr. and Kearney revised Shen’s terms ‘unmarked’ to ‘high typicality,’ and ‘marked’ to ‘low typicality.’ Let us show the five phases of analyzing oxymora in the following:

1. Direct oxymora of genuine antonyms 2. Direct oxymora of quasi-antonyms 3. Indirect oxymora with a hyponym of high typicality 4. Indirect oxymora with a hyponym of medium typicality 5. Indirect oxymoron with a hyponym of low typicality Making use of their revised phases of analyzing oxymora, in this paper we would like to discuss the similarities and differences between Sidney’s oxymora and Wyatt’s and Surrey’s and grasp the internal semantic structure of oxymora in these poets. References Gibbs, W. Jr. and Kearney, L. R. (1994) ‘When Parting Is Such Sweet Sorrow: The Comprehension and

Appreciation of Oxymora.’ Journal of Psycholinguistic Research. vol.23, No.1, 75-89. Hamilton, A. C. (1977) Sir Philip Sidney: A Study of his Life and Works. Cambridge University Press. Shen, Y. (1987) ‘On the Structure and Understanding of Poetic Oxymoron’. Poetics Today. 8:1, 105-122. Dan McIntyre (University of Huddersfield) A corpus stylistic approach to Casino Royale This paper is part on an ongoing project that takes a corpus linguistic approach to investigating the stylistic characteristics of popular fiction. Here we present a corpus stylistic analysis of Ian Fleming’s novel Casino Royale, focussing on such issues as the construction of character and the stylistic characteristics of the novel as a whole. In so doing we also discuss the methodological value of a corpus approach to stylistic analysis, and its potential for providing an objective way in to the analysis of long texts. We use WordSmith Tools (Scott 2004) and Wmatrix (Rayson 2005) to look at word frequencies, keywords, key semantic domains, clusters, concordances and semantic prosodies, and we look at the extent to which the results we obtain tie in with literary critical comment on the James Bond novels. Although this paper

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focuses on one novel in particular, we also aim to discuss general theoretical issues concerning corpus stylistics. We argue that local categories of description are crucial to capture textual features in literary texts, and also contribute to the systematic apparatus that corpus linguistics suggests is necessary to describe language. In this respect, we aim to provide support for Sinclair’s (2004: 51) assertion that ‘no systematic apparatus can claim to describe language if it does not embrace the literature also’. References Rayson, P. (2005) Wmatrix: A Web-based Corpus Processing Environment. Computing Department,

Lancaster University. http://www.comp.lancs.ac.uk/ucrel/wmatrix/ Scott, M. (2004) WordSmith Tools 4.0. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Sinclair, J. (2004) Trust the Text. Language, Corpus and Discourse. London: Routledge. Philip McNally (Osaka International University, Japan) Teacher Beliefs: A Discursive Approach Research on beliefs held by learners and teachers has grown considerably since the groundbreaking studies by Horwitz and Wenden in the late 1980s. However, almost all of this research has traditionally taken what could be termed a ‘normative’ approach, with the assumption that beliefs are cognitive and relatively stable. Being conducted within a positivist paradigm the majority of studies have made use of questionnaires (such as Horwitz’s Beliefs About Language Learning Inventory) and quantitative analysis, with the idea that implicit attitudes can be made explicit through survey instruments. Researchers such as Kalaja (2003) have challenged this tradition, arguing for a ‘contextual’ approach to studies on learner beliefs. This approach sees beliefs as being embedded in contexts, as being dynamic, emergent, experiential, paradoxical, and contradictory. Kalaja’s work draws on discursive social psychology, particularly that of Edwards, Potter and Wetherall. In particular she draws on Edwards & Potter’s (1992) discursive action model (DAM) and their reconceptualization of attribution theory (Edwards & Potter 1992; 1995). Beliefs are seen as a property of discourse occurs on particular occasions, and with alternative analyses and data, can be shown to be contradictory and dynamic, rather than the stable cognitive entities traditional research in this area has assumed them to be. These ‘alternative’ data include participants’ written and spoken texts that are analyzed in order to identify oft used systems of terms, known as ‘repertoires’. These repertoires are interpreted in order to posit ideas about their construction and function, and thus highlight participants’ beliefs about expectancy of success and self-efficacy. This study aims to provide support for Kalaja’s discursive approach to research on beliefs, and her attempt to move the topic into the qualitative paradigm. Using the Discursive Action Model as a framework for analyzing written and spoken data from an American English high-school teacher in Japan, it shows that a discursive approach can also be applied to teacher beliefs. It highlights the dynamic and contradictory nature of these beliefs, with a view to challenging the traditional assumptions held within a normative approach. The study may also serve as a possible contribution to teacher education by providing insight into how we as educators construct and use language in order to articulate our own beliefs and attitudes towards our work. Paul Mercer (Tama University, Japan) Reading Culture from Television This paper examines the connections between cultural location and the use of visual resources in television drama. I will be considering one television text each from the USA, Britain and Japan. The texts share a common theme – that of police work by detectives, but represent the world in ways that differ in or

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share certain uses of visual representation. For example, resources available to the producers of the text include the use of the camera to create a point of view, movement of the camera and the stability of the camera. “Style” here is the motivated use of the medium’s resources to create a coherent text. From a semiotic perspective, the cultural location of a text has a crucial impact on the choices available to the producers of a text. For example, the manner in which the Police are represented on television may be considered a representation of how the Police are thought of in a culture – with respect? With disdain? Institutional pressure (from Broadcasting institutions themselves and others), considerations of sponsorship for example may be considered as part of the cultural environment. Furthermore the specific choices made in producing the programme indicate something of whom the producers expect to be the audience for the text. The use of resources in a “traditional” way, that is the forms of television drama that have been dominant for many years (and owe their origins to the theatre, and film in the first half of the last century) indicate a consideration for an older audience whereas the use of more recent innovations (that might be related to music video for example) tends to indicate an intention to appeal to a younger audience. The paper hopes to demonstrate the potential for the considering aspects of the “reality” of a particular culture from its television products and the “style” in which they are made. Julie Millward (The University of Sheffield, UK) Dystopian world-view: Whorfian linguistics revisited The discourse of George Orwell’s Nineteen Eighty-Four, in common with that of many other dystopian fictions, has often been subject to critical interpretation in terms of linguistic relativity (also known as the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, or Whorfianism). Orwell’s depiction of Newspeak, in particular, has come to exemplify Whorfian premises in literary fiction. Returning to Benjamin Whorf’s original writings on what he termed the linguistic relativity principle, this paper reinterprets Whorf’s position on the relationship between language and perception, and suggests that linguistic relativity may be seen as a process, or an activity, which informs and underpins both Orwell’s writing and the reader’s reception of this dystopia. Focusing on close stylistic analysis of the language in Nineteen Eighty-Four, together with some consideration of Orwell’s own views on the use, inadequacy, and inconsistency of language, the paper considers the effects achieved by the futuristic setting of this narrative, and the linguistic signalling of this alterity. An examination of neologism in the main body of the text (that is to say, the non-Newspeak neologism) suggests that Orwell lexicalises states, conditions, and ways of thinking and being that are beyond the resources of the lexicon available to him at the time of writing Nineteen Eighty-Four. Through this focus, the paper offers the suggestion that language may be the locus of dystopia’s empirically observed propensity to affect the ways in which readers’ views of self and society. Hiroaki Miyake (Mukogawa Women’s University, Japan) Why will the balloon be blue? – Phonological development of the story in A. A. Milne’s Winnie-the-Pooh The aim of this paper is to explore how sound patterns can be exploited for the discoursal development of a story. To illustrate the effective uses of phonetic repetition, we will take for example A. A. Milne’s Winnie-the-Pooh (1926), one of the monumental works in the 20th-century children’s literature. In this presentation, Chapter 1 is taken as an example for discussion, where the story starts to develop with recurrence of some fixed sound patterns. Our objectives in this paper are therefore as follow: first, the phonetic and phonological patterns are identified. Then, we will see how important they are mainly in terms of discourse management. In addition, with reference to the normal course of language acquisition (e.g. Goodluck 1991), we will discuss that the sounds in those patterns coincide with, and/or are “carefully chosen” from, the first varieties of phonemes to be acquired by English-speaking children. Our conclusion will therefore be that the phonological repetitions, together with the sporadic-yet-regular deviations from

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them, are the main factors which provide guidance to the imagined young readers/listeners, i.e. babies, toddlers and children, through the whole story of Winnie-the-Pooh. Rocío Montoro (University of Huddersfield, UK) Mind style and modality: From written to filmic narratives This paper is concerned with how idiosyncratic mind styles (Fowler 1977) are represent in the filmic adaptations of contemporary novels, with special reference to Ian McEwan’s Enduring Love (1997). The term mind style was originally coined as a less cumbersome alternative to ‘ideological point of view’. Subsequent studies, especially those by Semino and Swindlehurst (1996) and Semino (2002), favour a differentiation between ideological point of view and mind style because of the distinctive aspects of characters’ world views that each concept purports to reflect. Semino (2002) claims that whereas the former facilitates information on aspects which are social, cultural, religious or political in nature, mind style incorporates those elements that more specifically embody the personal and/or cognitive features of that particular individual. Mind style is consequently understood as those linguistic or stylistic patterns that help characterise the cognitive makeup of a character. To account for the way in which linguistic and stylistic features are transposed from a written to a cinematic medium and, consequently, account for the multimodal possibilities of narrative expression, I propose to utilise and, when appropriate, rework analytical frameworks generally employed in Stylistics on a medium that stylisticians have, so far, neglected to examine. My choice of novel is justified by the presence of a De Clérambault syndrome sufferer as main character who displays a clearly unconventional or deviant mind style. I propose to analyse how modality can help delineate the mind style of those characters that are considered especially deviant (Jed Parry, the De Clérambault sufferer) and those that display a level of social and/or psychological conventionality (Joe Rose). Modality patterns, in particular epistemic modality, can help us evaluate the complex psychological reasoning process that leads Parry to be convinced of his love for and from Rose. The linguistic ‘conventionality’ of the ‘non-deviant’ character is put to the test after the strain exerted by Parry’s harassment. I suggest that modality patterns, realised both linguistically and non-linguistically, can illuminate not only Parry’s but also Rose’s ‘post-traumatic’ mind style. References Fowler, R. (1977) Linguistics and the Novel. London: Methuen McEwan, I. (1997) Enduring Love. London: Jonathan Cape Semino, E. (2002) ‘A Cognitive Stylistic Approach to Mind Style in Narrative Fiction’ in E. Semino and J.

Culpeper. Cognitive Stylistics. Language and Cognition in Text Analysis. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins

Semino, E. and Swindlehurst, K. (1996) ‘Metaphor and Mind Style in Ken Kesey’s One Flew over the Cuckoo’s Nest’ Style. 30(1): 143-166

Emma Moreton (University of Birmingham, UK) Corpus stylistics and postcolonial literary theory: A corpus study of the linguistic features of African American slave narratives This paper seeks to illustrate two possible ways in which corpus stylistics can be used in the analysis of postcolonial literature. One of the key aims of postcolonial theory is to establish the voice of the colonised subject in order for us to understand the postcolonial experience. To do this theoretical models are applied to the texts which examine notions of, for example, colonial mimicry (which can serve the function of both rejecting and reinforcing the imperial model), hybridity (which emerges from the ‘clash’ of two cultures), and language and identity. This paper will use corpus methodology to examine some linguistic

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aspects of 18th and 19th century African American slave narratives within the framework of postcolonial literary theory, to see how the postcolonial subject negotiates their identity using the language of their colonial oppressor; what resistance strategies, if any, are employed by the writer; and also how the narrator articulates their experiences when writing within the colonial setting. The aim is to consider whether corpus stylistics supports, or adds something new to, our current understanding of the way in which literary discourse can be studied. The study will adopt two methodologies for analysing the texts. The first will provide a corpus-based Hallidayan approach and will focus on the relationship between language and identity within the narratives; it will consider, in particular, notions of the ‘self-referential’ and ‘other-referential’ (that is, the language used by the narrator to represent themselves and to represent their colonial oppressor). The second (corpus-driven) methodology will analyse the texts individually to see whether there are any common stylistic features (such as common keywords; collocations; or metaphors) which allow us to group the narratives based on the language being used by the slaves. These new groupings might then be considered in terms of how they inform and/or challenge our understanding of the postcolonial experience. Keywords: mimicry; hybridity; postcolonial theory; corpus stylistics; self-referential; other-referential. Hiromi Murakami (Kansai Gaidai College, Japan) John Steinbeck’s Of Mice and Men: An Analysis of the Conversation in the Play-Novelette Version An analysis of conversation in John Steinbeck’s works still leaves a possibility of discovering a new approach to study fiction. Once it was a taboo to analyze conversations in fiction, for they are not as natural but artificial as people use in everyday life. The presenter thinks that the conversation in fiction as a type of verbal communication has a significant function for the reader to understand psychological conditions of the characters in the fiction. This study, therefore, aims to set the frames of analyzing conversations in novels. Deborah Tannen provides 16 frames as evidence of expectations in her Frames in Discourse (1993). Her discussion of the types of "Expectations" has encouraged me to analyze conversation in fiction, especially in terms of the characters’ expectations in conversations. Conversations in literature are created by the writers whose imagination produces the stories. To analyze the expectations of the characters in fiction through conversation will be a new approach in Steinbeck studies. Very often, while writing a story, Steinbeck read the dialogues aloud to make sure that they sound as close and natural as the person would utter. Of Mice and Men (1937), a play-novelette, is, as the writer notes, “an attempt to write a novel that could be played from the lines, or a play that could be read.” Its particular feature is as a play-script that it consists of the farm hands’ vivid, vernacular language which also appears in In Dubious Battle (1936) and The Grapes of Wrath (1939). The present analysis is one of the series of my conversation studies on Steinbeck’s fiction. It will help one to understand nonverbal or untold expectations and messages of the characters and, hopefully, of the author. Especially in Of Mice and Men, the conversations of the farm workers are written as closely as they talk in their everyday life, and even the spellings are written in the reduced forms as the characters pronounce. In the play-novelette, the two protagonists George Milton and Lennie Small lead a hard life in a California ranch in which Lennie is destined to kill a favorite puppy and a woman accidentally. At the end of the story, George shoots Lennie with a gun so that he may keep the friend from an inevitable lynch. His is a heroic act beyond friendship, sympathy, and compassion. It may be quite difficult for the reader to understand George’s mind and behavior on the moral viewpoint. A conversation analysis of the novelette, however, will give another possibility of discovering the reason and intention of his killing the close friend. This study hopefully tries to find several frames of analyzing conversations in fiction in general, as well.

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Anita Naciscione (Latvian Academy of Culture, Republic of Latvia) The Irrational in the Stylistic Use of English This paper is an attempt to have a closer look at the irrational in the stylistic use of language. These cases are not logical fallacies, which violate the rules of logic and which are seen as errors in reasoning to be avoided in argumentation. My aim is to examine cognitive acts, which do not follow the cannons of logic but at the same time are seen as acts of creativity, challenging the neutral standard forms of language expression. The use of the irrational for a stylistic effect has been a long-standing tradition in the English language. It goes back to English folklore. For instance, shaggy-dog stories present the incredible and the improbable, no reason can believe them. Yet they are part of folk wisdom, creating a vision and revealing a keen sense of humour. The irrational streak is manifest in some types of English riddles, which are sometimes called mad riddles, and in the famous limericks. Interestingly, many of the older English tombstones demonstrate striking incongruity between the seriousness of the situation and the absurd, nonsensical or jocular text of the inscription. Moreover, the very system of stylistic patterns includes devices that are intrinsically based on the absurdity of seemingly irreconcilable constituent elements, e.g. oxymora and paradoxes, which are widely used in English. Apart from that malapropisms stand out as a special English stylistic technique, based on a logical blunder. The non-rational lies at the basis of the whole genre of English children’s nonsense literature, providing the inimitable flavour of the unique topsy-turvy world. E.g. in Lewis Carroll’s Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland it is not only the Hatter and the March Hare who are raving mad but also the Cheshire Cat who growls when it is pleased and wags its tail when it is angry. There are the jurors who pass the sentence first and the verdict afterwards, let alone the Mock Turtle who suffers from deep sorrow that is all in his own fancy, which is all beyond reason and credibility, sounding like “uncommon nonsense” (Carroll). The tradition of the stylistic use of the irrational is alive in English today, both in literary and media discourses, including such applied areas as advertising. Ken Nakagawa (Yasuda Women’s University, Japan) Some Aspects of Adjectives in The Prelude The purpose of my presentation is to extract the adjectives that modify natural things in The Prelude and then investigate which nouns (expressive of human ‘mind’) those adjectives tend to modify in turn. I compiled a table which made a quantitative classification of adjectives used more than 10 times in The Prelude. What is clear from the table is that Wordsworth is attracted by something ‘great (70),’ ‘strong (34),’ ‘mighty (23),’ and ‘sublime (13).’ Closer observation of the table revealed the following two points. One is a tendency for the poet to use identical adjectives to qualify both natural things and human temperaments. In other words, a correspondence is recognized between the adjectives describing natural objects and those that describe human minds, so that you see the same adjectives appear in both descriptions of nature and human activity--mind and deed. To give a representative example, ‘mighty’ Forms (1, 425) of Nature deeply influence Wordsworth’s mind, hence his ‘mighty’ Mind (13, 69). I cannot help feeling that the poet’s deepest debt to Nature is condensed into this phrase, ‘mighty Mind.’ The following Figure represents the corresponding relation between adjectives describing inner and outer worlds. Expressions in the left circle depict aspects of the outer world, and those in the right refer to the world of the human mind. Adjectives in the center circle are those common to both worlds.

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Outer world Inner world Figure: Mirror-image relation between ‘in’ and ‘out’ The other point is that Wordsworth uses the adjectives of ‘heavy, thick, long, large’ type rather than those of ‘light, thin, short, small’ type. This must be a natural consequence of the poet’s way of looking at things. He takes a broad and wide view of things around him. He shows more interest in the real state of affairs than superficial appearance of affairs. He is a poet who looks into the essence rather than the surface of things. That is why Wordsworth chooses to use ‘great,’ ‘high,’ ‘strong,’ and ‘sublime’ rather than ‘beautiful’ and ‘fair’ which denote the superficial beauty of nature. As mentioned above ‘mighty Mind’ is one of the most important word combinations in The Prelude. It will be well worth scrutinizing the phonological and semantic structure of the phrase. Koichi Nishida (Tohoku University, Japan) Definiteness, Indefiniteness, and Anaphoric Relations in English In this paper, I argue that the basic properties of the definite and the indefinite articles in English are extended to the stylistic differences of anaphoric relations in discourse. I discuss two types of anaphoric noun phrases (NPs), as shown by the underlined NPs in (1) and (2): (1) ... Illinois state senator Barack Obama, 43, transfixed a nationwide audience with his ... speech at

the Democratic National Convention. In a dismal year for Democrats, the Hawaiian-born son of a black Kenyan father and a white woman from Kansas was a singular sensation.

People Yearbook 2005, p.23. (2) S.-Y. Kuroda has illuminated a great many aspects of the study of language in his ... contributions.

This collection of essays ... is a fitting tribute to the work of an outstanding scholar. Interdisciplinary Approaches to Language: Essays in Honor of S.-Y. Kuroda, 1992, Backcover. Here I refer back to the speaker as he, and to the addressee as she. Anaphoric definites like (1) are often used in journalistic articles on famous people. Their descriptions are changed repeatedly in reference to one person: in the later part of article (1), Barack Obama is referred to as “the married father of two” and as “the Harvard Law graduate.” Adapting Ariel’s (1990) idea of ‘accessibility,’ Epstein (2001) argues that the basic meaning of the definite article is the low accessibility on the part of the addressee: the referent of a definite NP is available for her to construct or retrieve from memory, but is not close to her center of attention. This meaning is realized by a journalistic style like (1) where the speaker uses different definite descriptions to imply that their referent is not close to the addressee, and to offer her more access paths to it. Next, Ushie (1986) notes that anaphoric indefinites like (2) occur in the context that provides an interpretation, rather than a simple presentation, of the situation described. Rouchota (1994) argues that the predicative use is the prototypical use of indefinites with the indefinite article. While other uses like the specific and the generic arise from different interpretations of

awful great

growing living

mighty perennial

pure etc.

(8, 213) awful … forms

(5, 618) great Nature (5, 243) growing grass (5, 612) living Nature

(1, 425) mighty Forms (7, 725-26) forms / Perennial

(11, 110) pure forms etc.

Soul awful (3, 287) Great Spirit (8, 608) growing mind (11, 128) living mind (1, 164) mighty Mind (13, 69) Perennial minds (3, 346) purer mind (2, 333) etc.

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context, it is least influenced by context. Combined with copula be, predicative indefinites denote properties ascribed to the referent of the subject of a copular sentence. Ushie’s point follows from the two levels of metonymy based on the predicative use. When combined with the context that describes parts and aspects of an identifiable discourse referent like S.-Y. Kuroda in (2), indefinites assimilate to the predicative use, and denote its properties. The speaker provides such context to allow properties like “an outstanding scholar” to represent the referent having those properties and also a class of which it is a member. With this type of metonymic reference, he helps the addressee interpret the referent showing a particular property in the situation described as being typical of the class whose members share that property. I conclude that the two anaphoric styles, as in (1) and (2), exploit the basic properties of the definite and the indefinite articles. References Ariel, Mira. 1990. Accessing Noun-phrase Antecedents. London: Routledge. Epstein, Richard. 2001. The definite article, accessibility, and the construction of discourse referents.

Cognitive Linguistics 12: 333-378. Rouchota, Villy. 1994. On indefinite descriptions. Journal of Linguistics 30: 441-475. Ushie, Yukiko. 1986. ‘Corepresentation’: a textual function of the indefinite expression. Text 6: 427-446. Miyuki Nishio (Shimane University, Japan) The Reporting Clause in Dickens Charles Dickens, who was a keen observer of the spoken language as well as a lifelong lover of theater, skillfully employs in his novels various devices in order to make speech vivid and dramatic. Indeed, he puts various speech tags and idiosyncratic expressions into the character’s speech so that the reader can easily recognize each character. Quirk (1961) points out that “the use of this well-established dramatic device was an obvious desideratum for a writer who worked by means of serial publication, since it provided the reader with an immediate means of recall and identification.” Dramatic devices have been studied mainly in the reported clause in terms of idiolect, slang, dialect and so on. The reported clause has been a central object for a long time. In recent years, however, the reporting clause has come to be researched little by little as in Kawai (1984), Carter and Nash (1990), Yamaoka (1991), Toyota (1993), Wakimoto (1999) and Semino and Short (2004). Semino and Short investigate speech, writing and thought presentations by using corpus and improve the Leech and Short model proposed in 1981. They also admit that further work is of necessity in order to test and complement their findings. Dickens exploits the reporting clause as one of the dramatic devices in his novels. This, of course, does not apply only to Dickens. Many other novelists employ reporting adjuncts with verbs of saying so as to describe the character’s attitude, action, facial expression and so on. Examining the reporting clause, as Toyota points out, contributes to revealing some of the linguistic characteristics of the author. In this presentation, therefore, I will focus mainly on the reporting clause in Dickens’s novels, and also compare them with some other novels written by the contemporary authors to clarify Dickens’s art of using theatrical elements in his novels. References Carter, R & Nash, W. (1990) Seeing Through Language, Basil Blackwell, Oxford. Kawai, M. (1984) “Spoken English: Fact and Fiction,” Studies in Modern English 1, 62-9. (in Japanese) Page, Norman. (1988 [1973]) Speech in the English Novel, 2nd ed, Macmillan, London. Quirk, R. (1961) “Some Observations on the Language of Dickens,” A Review of English Literature, Vol.

II, No.3, 19-28.

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Semino, Elena and Mick Short. (2004) Corpus Stylistics: Speech, Writing and Thought Presentation in a Corpus of English Writing, Routledge, London.

Toyota, M. (1993) “The Structure and Function of Reporting Clauses,” in Aspects of Modern English, Eichosha, Tokyo, 561-575. (in Japanese)

Wakimoto, K. (1999) “A study of the Reporting Clause in Fielding’s Joseph Andrews: with a Comparative Discussion of Several Contemporary Novels,” Studies in Modern English 15, 65-91. (in Japanese)

Yamaoka, M. (1991) “Direct Speech ni okeru houkokusetsu no style,” Studies in British and American Literature 39, 77-92. (in Japanese)

Misaki Noguchi (Kaetsu University, Japan) The Translator’s Freedom－Three Eighteenth-Century Modernizations of Geoffrey Caucer’s ‘Miller’s Tale’ ‘Translation studies’ are a fascinating area where such diverse disciplines as linguistics, philology, stylistics, poetics, and cultural studies converge. In my paper, I am going to be concerned, not with ‘translation’ in the normal sense, i.e. with synchronic code-switching between different languages, but with ‘translation’ in the sense of diachronic code-switching within one and the same language, a typical case of which is ‘modernization’. Specially, I propose to compare the Middle English text of Geoffrey Chaucer’s ‘Miller’s Tale’ in his Canterbury Tales with its three available eighteenth-century ‘modernizations’ by Samuel Cobb (1712), by John Smith (1713) and by an anonymous translator (1791). By the early eighteenth-century, English had fully established itself not only as the official language of the land but also as the literary languages of the people. More attention than ever was being paid to the classical works in the vernacular, side by side to those in Greek and Latin. Since Chaucer’s language had by that time grown largely ‘uncouth’, it had to be ‘modernized’ for the sake of the ordinary people of the day. Instigated, no doubt, by the success of the ‘modernized’ versions produced by such eminent authors as John Dryden (1700) and John Pope (1709,1713), well over twenty Chaucer’s ‘modernizations’ are known to have been published between 1660 and 1795 (Mason 2005: 473-439). ‘The Miller’s Tale’ was apparently the favorite choice among the translators presumably because of the popularity owing to its superficially indecent plot. It is interesting to note that our three translators chose different approaches to the problem of ‘modernization’. Samuel Cobb, a somewhat better-known author of his time, seems to have been most ambitious to produce a ‘literary’ piece of work, making frequent use of rhetorical devices in his translation. John Smith, a schoolmaster, was apparently more concerned with greater appeal to ordinary people than literary reputation, often preferring more sensational expressions than Chaucer could have intended. The anonymous author behaved most reservedly with respect to bawdy words and phrases, often replacing them with moderate expressions. There is, however, one common point among the three translators: they generally fail to reproduce in their modernizations Chaucer’s ingenious manipulation of lexical ambiguity (especially in the case of the words, hende and sely), which served to keep his tale from falling into downright vulgarity. Yuri Nonami (University of Oxford, UK) Narrative Analyses in a Homeopathic Clinic: Emplotment and Empowerment This paper argues that the narrative between a practitioner and a patient in a medical clinic has some influence on the therapeutic process of the treatment. Does a patient speak her own life story or experience in the presence of a practitioner in the same way as speaking to a friend in a different context? How does the patient express her narrative to the practitioner? How does the practitioner cooperate with the patient’s narrative?

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Cheryl Mattingly (1998) linked narrative theory to the concept of “therapeutic narratives” and explored the relation between narrative and healing. Mattingly (1998) suggests that “therapists and patients not only tell stories, they sometimes create story-like structures through their interactions. Furthermore, this effort at story-making, which I will refer to as therapeutic emplotment, is integral to the healing power of this practice [occupational therapy].” (Mattingly 1998:2). She researched narratives at the occupational therapy and she coined the term “therapeutic emplotment” with reference to the work of occupational therapists. I will apply her theory to a homeopathic clinic to examine how the practitioner and the patient reconstruct, create and “emplot” narratives with the interaction between them and how narratives influence the therapeutic process. I will interpret the process of narrative by exploring transcriptions of a homeopathic clinic in London. Furthermore, I will examine to what extent it is possible to analyze the therapeutic effects of narrative from a linguistic approach. Reference: Mattingly, C. 1998. Healing Dramas and Clinical Plots: The Narrative Structure of Experience.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Nina Nørgaard (University of Southern Denmark, Denmark) Extremely Loud, Incredibly Close and Very Multimodal: Analysing the multimodal complexity of Jonathan Safran Foer’s novel In Multimodal Discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen (2001) present a multimodal view of communication that invites us to view all types of communication as involving more than one semiotic mode. Even written or printed verbal discourse is considered multimodal and should ideally be analysed accordingly. It is the aim of the present paper to pursue this line of thought by exploring the application of a multimodal framework for the analysis of literature. With much of my previous research focusing on the potential of applying Halliday’s Systemic Functional Linguistics in literary stylistics, it would seem a natural step to extend this work to encompass an SFL-based methodology for coping with multimodal discourse, with particular reference to the analysis of literary texts that also employ other modes than verbal language. The literary text selected for analysis is Jonathan Safran Foer’s novel Extremely Loud and Incredibly Close (2005), which – with its use of different typographies, colour, photos, graphics, layout, etc. – emphatically invites an analytical approach designed to understand meaning-making as an interplay of different semiotic modes. References: Baldry, Anthony, Thibault Paul J. (2006). Multimodal Transcription and Text Analysis. A multimedia

toolkit and coursebook. London and New York: Equinox. Kress, G. & Van Leeuwen, T. (1996). Reading Images. The Grammar of Visual Design. London & New

York: Routledge. Kress, G. & Van Leeuwen, T. (2001). Multimodal Discourse – The modes and media of contemporary

communication. London: Arnold. O’Toole, M. (1994). The Language of Displayed Art. London: Leicester University Press. Nørgaard, N. (2003) Systemic Functional Linguistics and Literary Analysis. A Hallidayan Approach to

Joyce – A Joycean Approach to Halliday. Odense: University of Southern Denmark. Van Leeuwen, T. (2005). Introducing Social Semiotics. London & New York: Routledge.

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Takuji Nose (St. Thomas University of Osaka, Japan) An Aspect of the Linguistic Features of Thought Asides in Strange Interlude This study is to consider an aspect of the linguistic features of thought asides in Strange Interlude (1928) written by Eugene O’Neill (1888-1953), investigating the styles in both published text and in the creative process shown in the drafts. Strange Interlude consists of two kinds of speech; one kind being conventional dialogue and the other the thought aside. Thought asides are employed to reveal the hidden psychology of the characters. Whereas in the dialogues the characters speak out using modified and repressed language to communicate with the characters peopling their outer world, in the thought asides they express diverse aspects of their inner consciousness. Although this technique’s use has attracted much attention among O’Neill scholars and has given rise to the postulation of a lot of dramaturgical and theatrical arguments, little attention has been paid to the linguistic or stylistic features of the thought asides. Therefore it cannot be said that they have been fully researched. Among all types of thought asides, which enable O’Neill to illustrate the flux of the characters’ thoughts and emotions, the self-analytic thought asides are especially noteworthy in that while the characters reveal the separation of their personality and become lost in their thought they disclose their real consciousness in the succession of their thoughts’ presentation. This study focuses on examining the linguistic features in these self-analytic thought asides by means of an analysis of the interrogative sentences and the changes in the pronouns used. We will be investigating not only the published text but also the development of sentences’ and pronouns’ style throughout the creative process revealed in the playwright’s drafts. Through the investigation of these self-analytic thought asides, I hope to illuminate one of O’Neill’s strategic devices for reproducing a character’s inner conflicts on the stage. Moeko Okada (Senshu University, Japan) Towards a Possible Model of Humour Humour is very attractive to study and very difficult to study. Since Aristotle, many philosophers have attempted and are still attempting to define and explain humour, and yet the topic does not stop drawing researchers’ attention. The difficulty in dealing with humour lies in its diversity in nature and its complexity of the mechanism. Because of the diversity, humour is studied from various angles in many disciplines: in philosophy, psychology literature, sociology, and linguistics. To hold a rounded picture of it, an interdisciplinary observation will be necessary. In this paper, I will present a possible model of humour. Basically a humour phenomenon contains three phases: a cause of humour (humour stimulus), how the hearer/reader takes it, and how the hearer/reader reacts to it. A humour stimulus can be a word, or an event without a word, but my interest as a linguist is more in the former—a text such as jokes and verbal exchanges in comedies. My model is rather a mild, not rigid, one. In constructing the model, I have specially noted Koestler’s bisociation theory and Bergson’s methods of comedy. Bergson’s ideas have a strong link with the foregrounding theory of stylistics and the incongruity theory of humour. After presenting the model, an attempt at applying the model to an example will be conducted. Soichiro Oku (Kanto Gakuin University, Japan) Connectives in Children’s Literature The work of Milic (1967) can be assumed as one of the preliminary experimental approaches using both descriptive grammar and the assistance of the computer. His analysis, however, was criticized for the leap from the data to a specification of its value by Fish (1973), and in this sense his pioneering accomplishment has not been fairly evaluated regardless of innovative analyzing procedures. Milic

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admitted his assumption, that the procedures needed more time, and that the collection of more data for authorizing them was necessary. Recently stylisticians have adopted a formidable apparatus between descriptive data and stylistic interpretation and this has developed as corpus linguistics and cognitive linguistics. Thus, it is time to reexamine Milic’s quantitative approach in terms of these new qualitative approaches. This paper seeks to investigate the linguistics characteristics of connectives in English children’s literature. The analytical method employed in this paper is a corpus-based approach as Milic did, and then by introducing statistical procedures, it will be possible to certify and connect the data with the stylistic interpretation. With a part-of-speech tagged corpus, examining collocation and respective frequencies of connectives will prove that the use of connectives is one of the most distinguishable aspects of children’s literature. One recurring grammatical feature is the use of coordinating conjunctions, such as and, so, yet and but for clarifying the cohesive relations. Next, the use of subordinating conjunctions is concerned with the sentence complexity, which influences readability of children’s literature. Thus, this paper argues the functions and effectiveness of connectives in children’s literature by comparing other genre and referring to the data of children’s language acquisition. In conclusion, taking the cognitive perspective into a corpus-based analysis will lead to a strong linkage between the data and its interpretation for stylistic study. Hiroko Okuda (Nanzan University, Japan) Koizumi Junichiro’s war rhetoric under the Japanese constitutional constraint: Analyzing the address of “Starting from scratch… again” Prior to an international conference in Tokyo between January 21 and 22, 2002, Japanese Prime Minister Koizumi Junichiro presented Japan’s experience and expertise in rebuilding a once war-torn nation. His rhetorical act, that called for international cooperation in the article titled “Starting from scratch…again” in English in the January 21, 2002 issue of the international edition of Newsweek, implied Japan’s support for the ongoing U.S.-led war in Afghanistan that would weaken its constitutional prerogative. The Japanese version followed in the Japanese edition of Newsweek on January 23, 2002. In this move of taking the initiative in peace talks concerning the “rebuilding” of multiethnic, war-torn Afghanistan, the Koizumi Cabinet sought to help set the stage for Japanese rearmament in the guise of “humanitarian intervention.” How could the situation such that it left Japan no alternative but to commit itself to the U.S.–centered “coalition of the willing” be conceived and enacted? This study explores what Japan’s humanitarian intervention would mean and to what degree Koizumi could re-contextualize his address in view of the identifiable situational exigencies with the ongoing war. Because of the postwar constitutional prerogative to ban its use of force, even in the exercise of collective self-defense, Japan has been capable of making only nonmilitary contributions to the international community unlike other powers. This additional constraint will shed light on Koizumi’s burden of proof that Japanese nonmilitary action would never lower the worth of Japan as a member of the world body as well as the U.S-centered coalition. From that understanding, his call for “Starting from scratch… again” can be made to defend the country against such international backlash that it faced in the crisis of the 1991 Gulf War. Within these situational constraints, Koizumi also had to embrace audiences at home and abroad. To Japanese and other Asian peoples, Koizumi sought to position Japan as a responsible, democratic society. To his international audience in general, he presented Japan as capable of rendering assistance and of being a good and safe global partner. To the U.S.-centered coalition, he even defined the threat to be responded quickly in alluding Japan in the postwar context to the U.S. in the post-September 11 context. The analysis will begin with a discussion of the generic approach in particular U.S. presidential war rhetoric in comparison with descriptive elements of Koizumi’s rhetoric. This will be followed by a discussion of powers of historical analogy, focusing on the symbolic power of postwar Japan important in

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understanding the broader context in which the address was given. Discussions of presidential war rhetoric and historical analogy will result in analyzing the text. The final section will assess Koizumi’s socially construed reality and evaluate the particular implications in which it resulted. Lisa Lena Opas-Hänninen, Anthony W. Johnson and Ilkka Juuso (University of Oulu, Finland) Imaging nationality: an investigation into Trainspotting This paper interfaces the tools of cultural imagology and the digital humanities (particularly computational stylistics) in order to discuss the ways in which nationality is portrayed in Irvine Welsh’s novel Trainspotting (1993) and its film version (dir. Danny Boyle, 1996). In particular, we develop R. Murray Schafer’s idea of the soundscape (1977): showing how soundscapes connoting Scottishness are created in the novel and how aspects of the acoustic world of the novel are adapted into filmic form. By extracting the dialogue of the film and comparing it to the text of the novel, we try to shed light on both the reader’s and the viewer’s experiences of the soundscape as a verbal construction. Our study shows that the novel and the film use both similar and different techniques to create their images of Scotland and Scottishness. Linguistically, they both contain many spoken language markers which may signal dialectal speech, but not necessarily a particular dialect area. They also both contain some lexical items which are signals of a Scottish dialect. At this level, the image of Scottishness seems to stem from a few markers of a clearly Scottish dialect, added to a large number of spoken language markers which, by their sheer quantity, add to the illusion of a Scottish soundscape. Due to the differences in narrativity necessitated by the adaptation of novelistic into filmic materials, the paper then moves on to a reconsideration of transmodality from textual domains into the visual and acoustic. Our closing section examines the compensation strategies as well as the new affordances created by this shift, and considers refinements in the digital toolbag which may further enhance the analysis of national construction within these media. The present study builds on the relation between the digital humanities and the field of cultural imagology as developed by Johnson 2005, 2006; Johnson, Opas-Hänninen and Juuso (forthcoming) and computational stylistics as conducted by Opas and Kujamäki (1995) and Opas and Tweedie (1999). Rebeca Oropeza and Rosa López de D’Amico (Universidad Pedagógica Experimental Libertador, Venezuela) Culture as Producer of Language Teaching and Learning Strategies (Culture to Develop Language Learning Strategies) The cultural aspects illustrate sociolinguistic realities perfectly useful in the development of language teaching, and they permit to settle the reality in which the foreign language learning is presented in Venezuela. This is a qualitative study that follows Action Research methodology. The objectives are: to create pedagogical strategies for teaching and learning English based on culture as a methodological alternative to be used at university level. To intensify and systematize knowledge and techniques for description, analysis and sociolinguistic appreciation of cultures in order to improve and update the foreign language teaching process in Venezuelan. An intercultural viewpoint is taken as the theoretical base for the development of creative strategies to teach English as foreign language (EFL). Constructivism is assumed through significant learning as the fundamental component. The multidisciplinary character of this teaching tendency facilitates an effective link with other subjects. Also, the implemented strategies gather together in three categories: cognitive, meta-cognitive and socio- affective centered on learning the foreign language and immerse in the university curriculum. As product of this Nigeria, Canada and Australia were studied as subject-matters of different comparative researches. In addition, there had been on stage more than fifty (50) performances of British plays. Also, different educational software based on

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literary criticism are still developed. The idea is to apply culture as the central point for teaching languages; it provides a great variety of contents that offer rich thematic to work in an English classroom. Keywords: Culture, EFL, Teaching process Rumiko Oyama (Meiji University, Japan) The Representation of Motherhood and Maternity in Japan and the UK The paper focuses on the way in which the images of motherhood and maternity issues are represented in the media in Japan in the UK. The present research began with the general hypothesis: the kind of message commonly visually conveyed in one culture might not be the case in another. In other words, it might be worth exploring if the choice of semiotic modes for a particular purpose (meaning making) varies across different cultures. One of the points that this paper attempts to demonstrate is that the distribution of ‘functional load’ between different modes of communication can actually reflect characteristics of underlying semiosis in a given culture. The paper primarily examines the representation of mother-child relationships, that is, the way in which the concept of motherhood is visualized in literature on pregnancy and childbirth by looking at examples taken from maternity and baby magazines as well as school textbooks on domestic science. The textual analyses of the data makes use of a theoretical framework of visual semiotics, where each item represented is treated as a motivated sign; they are made and remade within a socio-cultural context. I would like first of all reconsider the role of language that is ‘embedded’ along with visual images before examining the role of visual images themselves. Second, the actual texts are discussed in terms of visualization and choice of modes in relation to the message conveyed. In particular, I draw attention to who is absent/present in the visual discourse of maternity and childcare. The tendency is that in Japanese examples, father figures are more absent than in the British ones and it can be seen as a reflection of gender relations in a culture. Another point to note is the form in which visual images are represented; for example, if certain actions are shown as photographs or cartoon images and what the difference in this choice signifies. The use of photographs of mother and child seem to be more ubiquitous in the British examples than in Japan. The question arises as to if there is any hard and fast ‘rules’ that govern the way the visual and language constitute the overall meaning. The paper concludes with suggestions of the further potential of this research, namely, to explore other types of visual (and verbal) representations as a manifestation of underlying cultural value systems. Among them is the representation of ‘aging’. It can be hypothesized that visual images can take on the functional load that represent what is not culturally encouraged to be expressed in words, as is the case with maternity-related literatures. Mª Sandra Peña (National University of Distance Education, Spain) PRIDE AND PREJUDICE REVISITED: AN ANALYSIS FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF COGNITIVE STYLISTICS Current trends in Cognitive Stylistics argue that Cognitive Linguistics constitutes the appropriate basis for an adequate theory of literature (Freeman, 2000; Semino and Culpeper, 2002; Gavins and Steen, 2003). The fact that many varied and different interpretations of the same literary work coexist poses one of the main problems of literary criticism. The experientially-bound nature of Cognitive Linguistics makes it appropriate for an adequate framework for literary analysis. One of the main ideas lying at the base of Cognitive Linguistics is that language emerges from our interaction with the world. This being so, this linguistic framework is endowed with some universal character which might lead us to a unique embodied interpretation of literary works. This proposal makes use of some of the tools of Cognitive

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Linguistics in order to analyze Pride and Prejudice and goes beyond the analysis offered by Peña (1997/98). Pride and Prejudice shows a unity of vision which depends on the cognitive operations which arise at all levels of the play (characterization, relationships between the characters, the way the plot is developed). While Peña (1997/98) mostly focuses on metaphor and image-schemas, we set ourselves the task of exploring an idealized cognitive model which has remained unexplored up to now in connection with this play: metonymy. It is only very recently that the study of metonymy has been given due prominence within the framework of linguistics. Nonetheless, the last decades have witnessed a substantial rise of interest in the study of this cognitive phenomenon. We shall draw on Ruiz de Mendoza’s (2000, 2005) distinction between source-in-target and target-in-source metonymies and on his recent study of double metonymy. Metonymy will be shown to help us provide a unified interpretation of Pride and Prejudice by giving shape to a myriad of seemingly unmotivated uses of language, central characters, and settings. In sum, this proposal further analyzes Pride and Prejudice by taking into consideration current trends in Cognitive Linguistics (especially in connection with metonymy; see Ruiz de Mendoza, 2005; Ruiz de Mendoza and Mairal, 2006) and the new ideas developed within Cognitive Stylistics. References Freeman, M. 2000. Poetry and the Scope of Metaphor: Toward a Cognitive Theory of Literature. In

Barcelona, A. (ed.), Metonymy and Metaphor at the Crossroads. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 253-81. Gavins, J. and Steen, G. (eds.). 2003. Cognitive Poetics in

Practice. London/New York: Routledge. Peña, M.S. 1997/98. Pride and Prejudice: a cognitive analysis. Cuadernos de Investigación Filológica

XXIII-XXIV: 233-255. Ruiz de Mendoza, F.J. 2000. The role of mappings and domains in understanding metonymy. In

Barcelona, A. (ed.). Metonymy and Metaphor at the Crossroads, Mouton de Gruyter, 109-132. Ruiz de Mendoza, F.J. 2005. High-level cognitive models: in search of a unified framework for inferential

and grammatical behavior. In Kosecki, K. (ed.), Perspectives on Metonymy (in press). Frankfurt, Main: Peter Lang.

Ruiz de Mendoza, F.J. and Mairal, R. 2006. High-level metaphor and metonymy in meaning construction. In Constructing Meaning, Günter Radden et al. (eds.). Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins: in preparation.

Semino, E. and Culpeper, J. 2002. Cognitive Stylistics. Language and Cognition in Text Analysis. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.

Mª Sandra Peña Cervel (National University of Distance Education, Spain) and Lorena Pérez Hernández (University of La Rioja , Spain) Some notes on the fusion of Role and Reference Grammar and Cognitive Linguistics The Lexical Construccional Model, recently devised by Ruiz de Mendoza and Mairal (2006), draws some elements from Cognitive Linguistics (Lakoff, 1987; Goldberg, 1995, 2005) and some other insights from Role and Referente Grammar (Van Valin, 2005). This model attempts to account for the relationship between semantics and syntax. The Lexical Constructional Model involves two key notions: lexical template and constructional template. A lexical template is defined as a low-level semantic representation of the syntactically relevant content of a predicate. On the other hand, a constructional template is an abstract semantic representation of meaning which is relevant from a syntactic perspective and which results from abstracting away multiple lower-level representations. A key issue is the way in which these two kinds of template interact and there are a number of constraints, both internal and external, that make it possible or impossible that a predicate can take part in a given construction. As is well known, image-schemas constitute one of the central notions of the cognitive

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paradigm. They are abstract topological constructs which underlie the conceptualization of a great variety of cognitive models (Johnson, 1987). Some productive image-schemas are the notions of three dimensional space (especially bounded regions in space or containers, which underlie such expressions as He's in trouble, She has a lot of love in her heart), movement along a path (e.g. Christmas is getting closer, where a point in time is conceptualized as a moving object), or spatial orientations (e.g. Prices are going up, where quantity correlates with height). Image schemas have been described as one of the structuring principles of what Lakoff (1987) has called Idealized Cognitive Models or ICMs, i.e. cognitive structures which represent reality from a certain perspective and which are idealized for the purpose of understanding and reasoning. On many occasions, constructions, in Goldberg’s sense, involve a sound image-schematic component which we will try to exemplify in this proposal and which also determines which predicates can take part in a given construction. Additionally, we will show that these new linguistic insights contribute to the development of Cognitive Stylistics. References Goldberg, A. 1995. A Construction Grammar Approach to Argument Structure. Chicago: Chicago

University Press. Goldberg, A. 2005. Constructions at Work: The Nature of Generalization in Language. Oxford: Oxford

University Press. Johnson, M. 1987. The Body in the Mind: The Bodily Basis of Meaning, Reason and Imagination.

Chicago: Chicago University Press. Lakoff, G. 1987. Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things. What Categories Reveal about the Mind. Chicago:

Chicago University Press. Ruiz de Mendoza, F.J. and Mairal, R. 2006. High-level metaphor and metonymy in meaning construction.

In Constructing Meaning, Günter Radden et al. (eds.). Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins: in preparation.

Van Valin, R.D. Jr. 2005. The Syntax-Semantics-Pragmatics Interface: An Introduction to Role and Reference Grammar. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Lorena Pérez Hernández (University of La Rioja , Spain) External and internal constraints on lexical-constructional templates for verbs of motion Functional and cognitive theories have so far offered contradictory views on the nature of the relationship between the lexicon and the grammar. Functional accounts make a clear division between these two components, maintaining that morphosyntactic structure can be derived from the information coded in a lexical representation by means of a set of linking rules. On the contrary, cognitive and constructional approaches believe in the existence of a continuum from lexicon to grammar and deny the necessity of linking rules (cf. Langacker 2005). There are, however, weaknesses in both approaches. On the one hand, functional projectionist theories do not take into account the role of constructions in generating new morphosyntactic structure, as is the case with those constructional patterns motivating a subcategorial conversion which results in an increase in the number of arguments for a given predicate. On the other hand, cognitive and constructional theories of meaning have not devoted too much attention to the description of those constraints that regulate the unification process between a lexical entry and a higher-level grammatical construction. As shall be shown below, the Lexical Constructional Model, as put forward by Ruiz de Mendoza & Mairal (2006), bridges this theoretical gap between current functionalist and constructional theories, and at the same time it provides a powerful system of representation for lexical items and grammatical constructions. The LCM attempts to account for the relationship between lexical and syntactic meaning and does so by merging into one unified approach a number of relevant theoretical and methodological assumptions from functional projectionist theories such as Role and Reference Grammar (Van Valin 2005), on the one hand, and constructional models of linguistic

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description (Goldberg 1995, 2005), on the other. In this connection, this paper makes use of the theoretical tools provided by the LCM in order to carry out an analysis of a group of motion verbs. Our aim is three fold. First, we shall attempt to provide a detailed semantic representation of the verbs under scrutiny in the form of lexical templates as proposed by the LCM. Second, we will show the results of a preliminary corpus study which reveals which type of constructions (caused-motion, resultative, way-construction) these verbs are compatible with. Finally, following the dictates of the LCM, we will comment on the internal and external constraints which regulate the compatibility between the lexical and constructional templates of the predicates under consideration. References Goldberg, A. 1995. A Construction Grammar Approach to Argument Structure. Chicago:

University of Chicago Press. Goldberg, A. 2005. Constructions at work: the nature of generalization in language. Oxford: Oxford

University Press. Langacker, R.W. 2005. “Construction Grammar: cognitive, radical, and less so”. Cognitive Linguistics.

Internal Dynamics and Interdisciplinary Interaction. Eds. F.J Ruiz de Mendoza and S. Peña Cervel. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter. 101-159.

Ruiz de Mendoza Ibáñez, F.J. and R. Mairal Usón. 2006. "Higher-level metaphor and metonymy in meaning construction". In Constructing Meaning. Eds. Günter Radden et al. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, forthcoming.

Van Valin, R.D. Jr. 2005. The Syntax-Semantics-Pragmatics Interface: An Introduction to Role and Reference Grammar. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Ruby Rennie (The University of Edinburgh, UK) Discourse in academic collaborative discussions In current academic settings, the notion of working collaboratively is extensively promoted. This is traditionally done in face-to-face discussions but in more recent years more and more academic discussion is done online. This paper will present the results of an analysis of face-to-face collaborative discourse and online collaborative discourse. The discourses will be gathered from tasks involving professionals (English language teachers) from a number of different countries who are currently studying at master's level in the UK. The analysis will consider styles in the discourse, the changes in discourse as a result of the modes used for communication, and also the presence/absence of markers of collaborative and supportive discourse. This is part of a larger study of the use of cross-cultural collaborative discourse in professional development. Suk Koo Rhee (Yonsei University, South Korea) Politics of Mythic Language in (Post-)Colonial Literature: A Comparison of Palm Wine-Drinkard and River Between As Mikhail Bakhtin in his Dialogic Imagination once claimed, a language is never a simple means of, or a neutral conveyor of, a message. Neither is it a signifying process in which the addressor and the addressee take part on an equitable basis. It is a site for social and political struggles, upon which opposing social groups try to inscribe their own preferable meanings. Of a Marxist background, Bakhtin mainly regarded discourse as a site for class struggles. This Bakhtinian insight, albeit modified, can also be applied to a study of colonial context. What this paper focuses on is the use of a mythic language in the colonial and postcolonial literature. This paper is not first in noting the service rendered by mythic discourses to the

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Western colonizing projects. For example, Patrick McGee in his postcolonial study titled Telling the Other presented a classical account of the significance of a mythical language in Western colonial literature. According to his analysis of Joseph Conrad’s novella, Heart of Darkness, mythologizing strategies are employed in this narrative in order to represent Africa as the West’s demonic or beastly Other. In this case, mythologization went hand in hand with dehistoricization of Africa, a consequence of which was Africa stripped of its “human factors,” to quote from Chinua Achebe’s famous article, “An Image of Africa.” Along with this, McGee refers to Achebe’s Things Fall Apart as a major instance of postcolonial counteraction, that is, a demystification of imperial mythology. Although indebted to McGee’s political reading of colonial and postcolonial novels, this paper differentiates itself from it in that it does not see McGee’s thesis applicable to such postcolonial writers as Amos Tutuloa, Ngugi wa Thiong’o and Flora Nwapa and others. In the works of these writers, to which Ngugi’s later works should be taken as an exception though, demystification cannot be called their narrative strategy. Rather, it is re-mythologization that penetrates the anticolonial and postcolonial narratives. In other words, these writers deliberately employed mythical languages as a means of criticizing the (ex-)colonizer and refuting their colonial discourses. Thus this paper presents a comparative analysis of the usage of mythological discourses in Tutuola’s Palm Wine-Drinkard and Ngugi’s River Between. A tentative conclusion of this paper is that Tutuola’s employment of mythical language effects a sort of ‘encoding’ by which subversive messages are couched in a seemingly harmless fantastical folklore while Ngugi’s mobilization of similar discourses aims at restoring the native community’s tie with traditional beliefs. In either case, the strategy of mythologization is turned against the white master. Akemi Sasaki (Elisabeth University of Music, Japan) Some Linguistic Features of Verb Phrases in John Evelyn’s Diary This paper presents some linguistic features of verb phrases in John Evelyn’s Diary, expanding from Evelyn’s birth in 1620 until within a month of his death in 1706. Over a long term of years he kept a precise written account of what he experienced both publicly and privately, and therefore his Diary has been utilized mostly to investigate the culture and the social life of the seventeenth-century England. Little attention has been given to the linguistic aspects of his writing, though the seventeenth century is a very important and decisive period in the formation of standard Modern English. In the Early Modern English period (1500-1700), English underwent a great development and established many of the characteristic structures of Modern English. The inflectional system had almost been established by this period, while the syntactical development had not yet been completed enough; in other words, the seventeenth century is a transitional and shifting period in which both older and newly introduced structures exist together. There can be seen a fluctuation of usage among individuals, and even in the writings of the same writer. First, this paper shows such syntactic variation in Evelyn’s Diary with special emphasis on the complement structure of some verbs such as give, think, and make. Then, it attempts to illustrate how his usage differs from that of his contemporaries and Present-day English. Through examining Evelyn’s Diary from a linguistic point of view, I would like to explore some distinctive features of his usage. Certainly he retains a great number of obsolete or archaic usage inherited from the pervious times. At the same time, however, he is more willing to adopt some new usage than his contemporaries. His usage shows the tendency towards regularization demonstrated in Present-day English. In this respect, he is not conservative, but often in advance of his time. In addition to this, it is likely that his quick adaptability to the linguistic changes is related to some extent to the style of diary-writing which substantially echoes contemporary colloquial speech.

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Tetyana Sayenko (Nagoya University of Commerce and Business, Japan) Spoken and Written Inspirational Address: Mistakes or Differences in Style? In contrast to poetic texts that are written to be saved, read and orally reproduced by various readers and performers, rhetorical texts are designed for special occasions where they can be delivered to the public by an authorized speaker. These speeches may be recorded or transcribed, they may be read and studied, but they cannot be orally reproduced in their original genre function. In most of the cases only written text versions of public addresses are used and analyzed. The transcriptions of the recorded speeches, however, may not be accurate enough to represent the verbal form of their rhetorical genre. This paper focuses on the study of the discrepancies between the oral and written versions of the famous inspirational political addresses delivered in English. The analysis of the original recordings and published text versions of John F. Kennedy’s Address “Ich bin ein Berliner”, Martin L. King’s “I Have a Dream…” speech, and Mario Cuomo’s Keynote Address “A Tale of Two Cities” showed that in some cases editing of the speech transcription goes beyond the correction of occasional grammatical mistakes and includes the changes in the message and style of the address. Functionally important words, repetitions, and larger segments of text may be inserted, deleted, or changed. Based on the research results, the author claims that some of the “corrections” in the transcriptions of the speeches disagree with the genre features of inspirational addresses, and argues that changes in a written version of an oral text should not distort its original verbal art form. Haruko Sera (University of Hyogo, Japan) Japan’s Prime Minister Abe’s use of language: In comparison with former Prime Minister Koizumi’s use of language This study aims to examine Japan’s Prime Minister Shinzo Abe’s use of phrases and speeches in comparison with those of his predecessor Koizumi and to consider how Japanese public opinion could be influenced by politicians’ language. Koizumi was known for his “one-phrase politics.” In his speeches, Koizumi also showed his talent in the use of language which was believed to have greatly contributed to his high approval ratings. Prime Minister’s Abe’s election campaign slogan, “Beautiful Country” seems to be too vague to gain popularity, when we think of Koizumi’s well-know phrases, such as “Without reform there will be no growth” and “Reforms without sanctuaries.” Politicians often make use of dualism, good vs. evil, as shown in Bush’s “axis of evil”. Koizumi also used this dualism, reform vs. opposition to progress. Koizumi was on the side of reform, and he pointed his fingers at those who opposed his reforms as forces hindering development. Nobody can oppose a “beautiful country” and therefore it is impossible to create opposition forces. Moreover, what Prime Minister Abe tries to express in this phrase is not clearly stated even in his own book, Toward a Beautiful Country. As for his speeches, they have not been highly evaluated so far. For example, his second policy speech was described as “less exciting and lacking enthusiasm compared to Koizumi’s speeches.”1 In his speeches, Koizumi repeated the same words and phrases. Compared with BNC Sampler CG Institutional data2, he clearly overused certain words and their log-likelihood (LL) values are extremely high. For example, in his first Policy Speech delivered in May 2001, the LL values for “reforms” and “reform” are 249.42 and 56.41 respectively. On the other hand, in Abe’s first Policy Speech in September 2006, the LL value for “beautiful” is 93.29. He used “beautiful” less often in his second Policy Speech in January 2007, with its LL value being 55.45. This example shows how Koizumi effectively conveyed his message through his speeches. It is reported that Abe’s approval rating is declining. Of course, language is not the major factor of the decline. However, if he had better command of political language, he could gain popularity among

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the public. The present study also examines phrases and speeches by other prime ministers and tries to investigate how politicians’ use of language can affect the general public. 1 Nikkei BP (http://www.nikkeibp.co.jp/style/biz/feature/news/070131_speech/index.html) 2 All the comparisons shown here are made by Wmatrix (http://www.comp.lancs.ac.uk/ucrel/wmatrix/). Dan Shen (Peking (Beijing) University, China) Internal Contrast in Transitivity: A Neglected Feature of Literariness The transitivity model as pioneered by Halliday more than 30 years ago (including its various later modifications) is concerned with how human beings organize the endless variation and flow of events into different process types. For the past thirty years or so, the applications of the model have, without exception, focused on the contrast among different process types. But in literary discourse, the writer may deviate from the conventional classification of process types and create a thematically-motivated contrast between processes within the same (sub-)type of process. As distinct from previous stylistic investigations on transitivity, this paper directs attention to the internal contrast in transitivity as a feature of literariness. The case chosen for illustration is Langston Hughes’s “On the Road,” which employs such internal contrast as a foregrounded stylistic strategy. I will show that such internal contrast may, by way of semantic reorganization, change the nature of certain transitivity processes on a deeper level, and further, that the functioning of such context-determined deeper-level meaning, which interacts with the conventional surface meaning, depends on double decoding. A functional-cognitive stylistic approach to the thematic interaction of the “internal contrast” and “double decoding” may uncover hidden patterns of textual re-organization and the resultant temporary mind-reorgainizing effects. Since the double-decoding of the two contrastive levels of meaning demands close attention to language patterning, the stylistic devices involved tend to be hidden from the view of literary critics. Many literary critics believe that stylistic analysis can add nothing to existing literary interpretation and is therefore marked by “circularity.” But in effect, stylistic analysis can often shed new light on the literary significance of a work. Based on the analysis of “On the Road,” this paper offers a comparison between stylistic analysis and literary criticism to help to demonstrate the usefulness of the former in advancing literary interpretation. Tomoko Shiotani (Kansai Gaidai University, Japan) Like, I like Ike; The Use of “like” in Adolescent Speech: Analyzing Contemporary Hollywood Movies This paper focuses on a speech style which involves frequent use of “like” employed by adolescents in Hollywood movies from Sociolinguistic perspective. An example of such speech style would be “Like, right now…, but it’s like…, …but people came that like, did not R.S.V.P…, .it was like,…” spoken by the main character Cher of Clueless (1995). Here, “like” is repeated four times in a single locution of hers. Frequent use of “like” is said to be one of the characteristics of “Valley Girl Talk” which originated in Southern California in the 1980s. Today the speech style is no longer confined in Southern California, as it can be found in movies such as Never Been Kissed (1999) where the story takes place in Chicago and White Chicks (2004), a comedy about upper-class girls of the East Coast. Therefore, the speech style now represents something more general than just Valley Girl culture. In many different movies, adolescents with similar characteristics use a particular kind of “like” frequently across different movies. They have many traits in common; they are rich, ditzy, popular, Caucasian, blonde, dumb, and female. It can be presumed that assigning such speech style to a character means attaching certain types of stereotypes at the same time. However, there are exceptions. For example,

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there is a case of unpopular and non-blonde female adolescents employing the speech style in Clueless (1995), Legally Blonde (2001), and Mean Girls (2004). In Dodgeball (2004), male adolescents use non-traditional “like” and in White Chicks (2004), an African American adult male is using it. Such exceptions need careful analysis. One of the aims of this paper is to clarify what kind of “like” is used most often through movie analysis along with finding out under what context they use it, what effects can be brought about, and what kind of image is attached to characters with such speech style. Mick Short (Lancaster University, UK) What should the “Object of Criticism” be for (a) Poems, (b) Prose Fiction, (c) Plays and (d) Films? Although critics usually assume that the object of criticism (and hence the object of analysis in stylistics) for poems should be the text, they seem to have different assumptions for the other literary genres. I want to argue the case for the text as the primary object of stylistic criticism for all three of the main literary genres but that for film we have to assume that we should analyse the film screening, not the film script, a view which, if correct, has interesting consequences for drama analysis Larry L. Stewart (The College of Wooster, USA) “Where the Dear Creature Keeps Her Letters”: Female Voice and Stylistic Variation in Pamela and Clarissa At PALA 2005 in Huddersfield, using methods of computational stylistics, I presented data suggesting that the narrative voice of Pamela in Samuel Richardson’s eighteenth-century British novel Pamela could be empirically or quantitatively distinguished from the voices of male narrators in the same novel; and I argued that these differences in male and female voices, particularly the differences of vocabulary and diction in male and female characters, might be linked to larger cultural assumptions by men about the voice of women. The analysis of Pamela showed what I had discovered in a number of other eighteenth-century British novels: that female narrators constructed by male writers used words of self reference, contingency, and social engagement at a frequency significantly greater than those items were used by male narrators created by male writers or by any narrators created by female writers. However, the use of such aggregate statistics tells only part of the story, and this paper is an attempt to look more closely at stylistic changes of individual narrators within single novels. Although analyses of the language used by narrators (or letter writers) in Samuel Richardson’s Pamela and Clarissa show that each female narrator in the aggregate uses a certain vocabulary more frequently than the main male narrator in the same novel, the analyses also show that the language of each female narrator shifts or changes over the course of the novel, usually correlating with the extent of the female narrator’s dependence on male characters at a given point in the novel. As female characters are at the mercy of male characters, they lose the individuality of their voices. On the other hand, male voices remain relatively constant. This presentation might be seen as an academic attempt to follow up on the desire of the libertine Lovelace, who threatens to strip Clarissa in order to find where she hides her correspondence and swears that ‘I shall never rest until I have discovered where the dear creature puts her letters.’” However, by considering the lexical items used by various narrators, this presentation attempts to show features of the construction of narrative voice and to suggest what is in these narrative voices to which readers may respond.

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Tomoji Tabata (University of Osaka, Japan) The Cunningest, Rummest, Superlativest Old Fox: A multivariate approach to superlatives in Dickens and Smollett This study presents a multivariate approach to superlatives in Dickens and Smollett. The focus is laid on the concomitant variations of frequency among superlatives. By applying correspondence analysis, this study tries to illustrate how sharply the two authors differ in their uses of superlatives as well as how texts are clustered according to chronology within authorial sets. While a number of studies on Dickens’ style have noted a tendency for overstatement in his fiction (Brook 1970; Sorensen 1985; Golding 1985; Hori 2004, etc.), surprisingly little attention has been paid to superlatives per se. Apart from Dickens studies, however, Biber et al. (1999) gives an interesting account of superlatives in four linguistic registers: conversation, fiction, news, and academic prose. According to Biber et al., —est superlative adjectives are most frequent in news reportage (c. 1400 times per million words) while ``the comparatively low frequency of superlatives in academic writing (c. 800 per million) reflects a general reluctance to make extreme claims’’ (Biber et al., 524), with fiction showing even lower frequency for the word class (c. 700 per million). Dickens and Smollett stand in contrast in the frequency of superlative forms. In Dickens’ 23 texts used in this study, the number of tokens for superlatives amounts to 4,960, whereas Smollett employs them 634 times in his seven works. In the normalised frequency scale per million words, the frequency in Dickens is nearly twice as high as in Smollett: 1,049 versus 568. With regard to the number of types, 423 different superlative forms are found in total. Among those, a few types are highly frequent such as, most, best, and least, occurring more than one thousand times. Conversely, more than one third of the whole types occur only once. Such hapax legomena include unique words, such as, superlativest and unfortunatest. The respective frequency of each word is arrayed to form the frequency-profile for 30 texts. The set of 30 frequency profiles (frequency matrix) is then transposed and submitted to correspondence analysis (CA), a technique for data-reduction. CA allows examination of the complex interrelationships between row cases (i.e., texts), interrelationships between column variables (i.e., words), and association between the row cases and column variables graphically in a multi-dimensional space. It computes the row coordinates (word scores) and column coordinates (text scores) in a way that permutes the original data matrix so that the correlation between the word variables and text profiles are maximized. In a permuted data matrix, adverbs with a similar pattern of distribution make the closest neighbours, and so do texts of similar profile. When the row/column scores are projected in multi-dimensional charts, relative distance between variable entries indicates affinity, similarity, association, or otherwise between them. Figures 1 and 2 summarise a result of CA based on 242 superlative forms across 30 texts. The solution given as Dimension 1, the most powerful axis, allows quite straightforward interpretation: the horizontal axis of Figure 1 distinguishes between the Dickens and the Smollett sets. It is also interesting that the early Dickensian texts, such as Sketches by Boz, Pickwick Papers, and Nicholas Nickleby, are among the closest to Smollett’s texts along the horizontal axis. The Dickens corpus is more than four times the size of the Smollett corpus, and the number of types used by Dickens is nearly four times as many as those used by Smollett. It is necessary to ensure that a size factor does not come into play in the outcome of analysis. Figures 3 and 4 (not displayed due to

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space constraints) are derived from 105 superlatives common to both authors. Despite the decrease in the number of variables from 242 to 105, the configuration of texts and words is remarkably similar to that based on 242 items. Of further interest is that, in each of the two authors’ sets, early works tend to have lower scores with later works scoring higher along Dimension 2. These results seem to illustrate how the authorial difference and chronology are reflected in the frequency pattern of superlatives in the texts written by Dickens and Smollett. By taking advantage of the findings from this quantitative approach, an extensive analysis of concordance lines will shed interesting light on stylistic differences between Dickens and Smollett. Figure 1: Correspondence Analysis of superlatives in Dickens & Smollett based on 242 types that appear in two or more texts: Text-map showing interrelationships among 30 texts

Figure 2: Correspondence Analysis of superlatives in Dickens & Smollett based on 242 types that appear in two or more texts: Word-map showing interrelationships among 242 superlatives

References Biber, D., S. Johansson, G. Leech, S. Conrad and E. Finegan (1999) Longman Grammar of Spoken and

Written English. Harlow: Pearson Education Ltd. Brook, G. L. (1970) The Language of Dickens. London: Andre Deutsch. Golding, R. (1985) Idiolects in Dickens. New York: St. Martin’s Press. Hori, M. (2004) Investigating Dickens’ style: A Collocational Analysis. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Sørensen, K. (1985) Charles Dickens: Linguistic Innovator. Aarhus: Aarhus Universitet. Kaoru Takahashi (Toyota National College of Technology, Japan) Stylistic characterization of register categories in the spoken part of the BNC There are two aims in my study: one aim is to identify criteria to measure the extent to which the form of the text indicates social variables, and the other aim is to explore the role that sociolinguistic factors play in the analysis of the spoken part of the BNC. Using the multivariate analysis to examine speech communities and social variables among register categories allows a sophisticated characterization of register categories in terms of style. As a result, in the analysis of a subcorpus generated by one variable (scgdom, spoken domains), I identified ‘consultative style’ versus ‘formal style’. In the case of ordinal classification such as ages and social classes, this technique can rank classified age/social groups in the order of age/social level along the dimension, based on given quantities, whereby the linguistic dimension could be regarded as the significant criterion to identify the position of the age/social group on the continuum, along with the relevant features. Furthermore, focussing on subcorpora generated by two variables, when those generated by variables concerning age and sex are analyzed in the same manner, the interpretation of the dimension proved to be related to ‘prestigious style’ versus ‘vernacular style’. In the analysis of dialogue and monologue, ‘habitual style’ could be identified. In my study, I also focus on lexis

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relevant to the salient features, so features which are addressed in reference to lexical items are clarified in particular subcorpora and discussed semantically. Another novelty in my study lies in the fact that unique statistical techniques are employed to interpret dimensions produced by the multivariate analysis. I explore two ways to interpret dimensions more convincingly: to employ the correlation coefficient of loading scores by multivariate analysis and to delete any subcorpora which might distort the result. These techniques help interpret dimensions more convincingly. In the discussion of lexis, another unique technique is employed to characterise salient subcorpora. That is, the subcorpora are compared with one identified as neutral in terms of their loading scores yielded by the same methodology. By doing this, the linguistic features associated with tag annotation or lexis are highlighted as salient ones along the dimension. Akinobu Tani (Hyogo University of Teacher Education, Japan) Word Pairs or Doublets in Caxton: Paris and Vienne Compared with the History of Reynard the Fox This study examines the use of word pairs (WPs) or doublets in Caxton’s Paris and Vienne (Paris) in comparison with his History of Reynard the Fox (Reynard) in terms of their frequency and etymological make-up to shed light on Caxton’s use of WPs in general. Concerning the WPs in Reynard translated from Middle Dutch (MD), Tani (forthcoming) has shown that the frequency of WPs is not significantly higher in Reynard than, for example, in Chaucer’s prose works. Despite the slight difference in frequency, the WPs in the two works strike the modern reader in remarkably different ways, namely, their appearance in Reynard seems more frequent and more laboured than in Chaucer. This asymmetry Tani has ascribed to the repeated use of the same or similar WPs in Reynard. The study has also shown that WPs consisting of OE +OE are dominant in the etymological makeup of components of WPs in Reynard. This is in stark contrast to the dominance of WPs consisting of OF+OF in Caxton’s Aesop translated from Old French (OF), according to the data by Ito (1995). Based on Ito’s data, Tani has tentatively suggested that the difference could well result from the languages of the originals of these two works: i.e. MD and OF. This study examines, in comparison with the data from Reynard, 1) the frequency of WPs in Paris translated from OF and 2) the etymological makeup of WPs in Paris. The examination is intended to answer the question whether the suggested explanation is applicable to Caxton’s other translations from OF. The findings reveal that the frequency of WPs in Paris is lower than in Chaucer’s prose as well as in Reynard. Furthermore, the findings show that, despite less use of WPs in Paris than in Reynard, our impression that their use is as frequent in Paris as in Reynard can be attributed to the higher percentage of the repeated same or similar WPs than in Reynard. As for the etymological make-up, WPs consisting of OE+OE components are dominant in both works, though with different ratios. This similarity in the dominance of WPs with OE+OE reformulates the conclusion of Tani: this dominance is thought to reflect Caxton’s limited linguistic dexterity in comparison with Chaucer who could more easily manipulate OF elements. In Paris, WPs with OF+OF follow those with OE+OE in frequency, while in Reynard, WPs with OE+OF and OF+OE do. This discrepancy of the ratio of etymological patterns of WPs between Paris and Reynard can be traced to the different languages of the originals. To resolve these questions, the comparison of the translations and their originals will be touched upon as well. Reference: Ito, M. 1995. Aesop Fables by William Caxton (Japanese translation of Caxton’s Aesop.) Tokyo: Iwanami Book Service Center. Tani, A. Forthcoming. ““Word Pairs or Doublets in Caxton’s History of Reynard the Fox: Rampant and Tedious?” To be published in Proceedings for ICEHL 2007.

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Eiko Tatsumoto (Hiroshima University, Japan) Negative Expressions in Jane Austen’s Novels This presentation aims to explore stylistic aspects of all of Jane Austen’s six principal works, Sense and Sensibility (1811), Pride and Prejudice (1813), Mansfield Park (1814), Emma (1816), Northanger Abbey (1818), and Persuasion (1818), focusing on negative expressions used for characterization. Austen tends to use negative expressions for the purpose of characterization in speech in her works. Negative expressions in Austen’s works－for example, double negations such as “not un- / not in-” or “not + verbs of negative meaning,” the contracted form “-n’t,” and the negative adverbs “barely, hardly, rarely, scarcely, and seldom”－are not employed for all characters, but for specific characters of a certain social rank or those who are distinguished in some other way. If we have a close look at this topic, we find that the double negation “not unwholesome” and “not deny” used by Mr. Woodhouse in Emma represent his timorous or hesitant attitude to life. The use of the double negation “not un- / not in-” is almost always found with the educated. It is interesting, however, that Lucy Steele in Sense and Sensibility and Mrs. Elton in Emma use the construction, though they can be considered vulgar. They are social climbers. Thus, we may go on from this to conclude that, although they are vulgar, owing to their being social climbers, they use the construction. Regarding the contracted form “-n’t,” Mrs. Jennings in Sense and Sensibility resorts by far the most frequently to the contracted form “-n’t,” due to her talkativeness, on the other hand, some educated characters never use it. As for the negative adverbs, the phrase “shall hardly know” appears in the speech of Mr. Rushworth in Mansfield Park and Miss Bates in Emma. When Mr. Rushworth is talking about his costume in the play, the phrase “I shall hardly know” appears to refer to whether he will be suited by a blue dress and pink satin cloak. Miss Bates, talking about her niece coming to visit the Bateses for the first time in two years, uses “we shall hardly know how to make enough of her now” as well. They are both foolish and ridiculous. Thus, this supports the view of “shall hardly know” as the characteristic expression of such persons. This presentation will observe how Austen makes use of negative expressions in creating her characters . I should like to explore further possibilities. References Iwasaki, Haruo. (2003) “Jane Austen’s Use of Contracted Forms.” Keirin Daigaku Gaikokugogakubu

Kiyou 15, pp. 1-20. Page, Norman. (1972) The Language of Jane Austen. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Phillipps, K. C. (1969) “Lucy Steele’s English.” English Studies 50, pp. lv-lxi. ---. (1970) Jane Austen’s English. London: André Deutsch. Stokes, Myra. (1991) The Language of Jane Austen: A Study of Some Aspects of Her Vocabulary.

Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan. Tanaka, Toshiro. (1994) “Double Negation in Jane Austen.” POETICA An International Journal of

Linguistic-Literary Studies 41, pp. 137-48. Masayuki Teranishi (University of Hyogo, Japan) A stylistic analysis of Herzog: cognitive and pedagogical perspectives In this presentation, I aim to reaffirm two significant roles of stylistics: (1) as a critical tool in literary studies, and (2) as a pedagogical tool in language studies. In connection with (1), I conduct a stylistic analysis of Saul Bellow’s Herzog (1964), by focusing upon the mode of polyphony, which has generally been considered as peculiar to novels. From the pedagogical perspective, I perform a stylistic analysis of a

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non-literary text: selected passages from Sigmund Freud’s lecture on psycho-analysis, in which a polyphonic style of language is employed to reinforce his argument. I compare the textual features of these literary and non-literary texts, emphasizing how meaningful the stylistic approach to literature can be even for so-called ‘communicative’ English teaching. In the first section, I conduct a stylistic textual analysis of Herzog. Despite the novel’s established reputation as Bellow’s ‘most Jewish’ novel, it can also be argued that Bellow inherits his style of writing from less parochial literary currents, such as ‘Romanticism’, ‘Realism’, ‘Modernism’ and ‘Postmodernism’. Especially in discussing the (post)modernist influence upon Herzog, it is instructive to examine the novel’s technical aspects, because the author’s experimental style of writing is contributory to the representation of plural voices and subjectivities, which creates a polyphonic atmosphere in the novel and epitomizes significant aspects of (post)modernism, such as ‘fragmentation’ and ‘plurality’. Based upon a cognitive stylistic approach to point of view and focalization, I analyze the speech and thought presentation involved in the characterization of the protagonist, Moses Herzog. I have paid special attention to the fusion of and competition among ‘different versions’ of Herzog and ‘inner polemic’ or ‘preemptive response’ developed in his consciousness. From the analysis of selected passages, it is shown how Bellow creates ‘polyphony’, and the place of Herzog in the context of ‘Postmodernism’ is also clarified. In the second section, I compare textual features of Herzog and Freud’s lecture and illustrate that polyphony is not exclusive to literary texts. In particular, my stylistic analysis shows that the polyphonic use of language, such as ‘inner polemic’ and ‘preemptive response’, is also prevailing in a non-literary text. By demonstrating a stylistic analysis of selected passages from Freud’s lecture, I attempt to clarify the correlation between ‘polyphony’ and ‘persuasiveness’. I emphasize that by teaching literary (and non-literary) texts stylistically, we can lead students to become aware of how language works in texts and consequently to acquire the skillful use of language even for practical purposes. Throughout this presentation, I hope to demonstrate that a stylistic approach to literature provides considerable insight into the nature of a text, not only literary but also non-literary, and the use of stylistics in the language classroom will have substantial pedagogical value. I conclude that reading literature stylistically should be a mainstream learning methodology in the literature and language classroom. Cecilia Therman (University of Helsinki, Finland) Spontaneous attention to stylistic features and personal remindings during the reading of short fiction There seems to be a rather widely shared consensus among literary theorists that our understanding of literary texts is influenced by three main components: textual features, the reader's background and context. This paper concentrates on the first two of these components, textual features and the reader, by exploring empirically the kinds of things that catch a reader's attention while reading a short story. The questions I am interested in are the following: To what extent do stylistic features catch a reader's attention during reading? What kinds of personal or other remindings does a text raise? What, if any, is the relationship between the textual features a reader has commented on, personal memories raised by the text and the reader's understanding of the text? The data was collected by asking the participants to read a short story in their own pace and make a small mark every time they felt something in the text caught their attention or reminded them of something. Once they had finished reading, they were asked to briefly explain why they had paid attention to that particular feature or what their reminding was. Hence the readers were asked to use an adapted version of the self-probing method introduced by Seilman and Larsen 1989. In addition, the readers were asked to complete a questionnaire that contains open-ended questions related to the text. The analysis suggests that most of the readers' comments are related to memories of personal experience. Comments that would discuss stylistic features are rare but often the expressions that have

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evoked personal memories or other observations are rich in foregrounding. Hence it seems that although readers do not consciously deliberate on stylistic features, stylistic variance catches the readers’ attention. It also seems that readers tend to understand the text in the same way which would suggest that a shared understanding of language has a more important role in literary text processing than individual differences in personal experiences. Bronwen Thomas (Bournemouth University, UK) ‘What the smeg are you talking about?’ The role of speech and dialogue in fanfiction Fanfiction ‘poaches’ (Jenkins 1994) plotlines and characters from well-known literary and media texts, using them as the basis for generating new storylines and storyworlds. Interest in fanfiction has thus far focused on the extent to which it represents a ‘democratic genre’ (Pugh 2000), facilitating participation and collaboration, and the disruption of fixed boundaries and hierarchies. Little or no attention has been paid to specific correspondences in style between fanfiction and its ‘source’ texts, or to issues arising out of the transposition of stories from one medium into another. This paper will focus on the use of dialogue as a means of evoking the distinctive style of the ‘source’ text, and of creating some sense of continuity and familiarity with core characters. Focusing specifically on fanfiction based on television texts, the analysis will explore how far fanfiction writers borrow from and ‘amplify’ speech patterns and styles made familiar by the ‘source’ texts. However, close attention will also be paid to (usually inadvertent) discordances between the speech of characters in the ‘source’ and fanfiction texts, and the extent to which fanfics produce their own ‘fanonical’ language. Finally, the paper will explore how far fanfiction relies on the representation of speech to compensate for the absence of auditory and visual features and motifs from television texts. Saoko Tomita (Fukuoka University, Japan) Metaphors in Great Expectations In Terms of Humanisation and Dehumanisation One of the most frequent and remarkable linguistic features in Dickens’s novels is that his language is continually abundant in rhetorical expressions such as similes and metaphors, both of which are of great use for the author in delineating elaborately the physical appearances or distinctive personalities of characters in his stories. Dickens makes good use of conventional forms of these devices. As to simile, he compares two dissimilar things using “as” or “like” by saying, for example, “it’s as dark as the grave,” in Oliver Twist. In contrast, the expression without “as” or “like” as in “the baby was the soul of honour” in Great Expectations is one of his conventional forms of metaphor. However, most of his similes and metaphors include symbolical and unique expressions, for he attempts to give the reader colourful images of characters described from every angle and aspect. For example, the mechanical representation of Mr. Wemmick’s mouth as “a post office” in Great Expectations suggests the comical aspect of his lifeless figure to the reader, whilst Mr. Drummle’s appearance as “a spider” denotes his ferocious quality as well as the hero Pip’s deep revulsion for the villain. In this way his metaphors are at all times rich in humour and imagination. To the contrary, Dickens also tends to employ the method of humanising various inanimate objects in order to insinuate his own worldview into the narrators in his novels. Referring to Great Expectations, the techniques of humanisation and dehumanisation are frequently used in metaphors rather than in similes. However, the effect of both techniques is not a mere embellishment of description but a symbolisation of the inhuman and life-lacking qualities of particular characters. In other words, Dickens intends not only to animate objects or deprive people of their human quality, but also to illustrate the human or inhuman nature of particular characters in society by comparison with other living creatures or artificial objects. Thus, we can infer that his technical aims and functions in metaphors are different from

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those of other English poets or novelists. This paper will focus on the ways in which Dickens’s metaphors are effectively created in Great Expectations and also demonstrate his condemnation of mechanism reflected by the narrator’s habit of humanising artificial objects or dehumanising particular characters by means of metaphors. Considering the criteria, I shall firstly analyse the linguistic aspects of his metaphors in terms of forms, devices, techniques and lexes, and secondly explicate the mechanics of conceptual linkage between tenor and vehicle so as to discover the affinities between two different things that are compared. The observation of characters’ points of view casts light on the semantically close relationship between human and animal (or artefact and human) in Dickens’s humanisation and dehumanisation through metaphor. My analysis then goes on to observe both conventional and unconventional forms of Dickens’s metaphors, which gives us the key to trace the historical development of rhetoric and its influence on his metaphorical devices within the framework of delineation of character in his novels. Robert A. Troyer (Chulalongkorn University, Thailand) Dialogue and Culture in World English Literature: A Comparison of Parent-Child Conversations in SE Asian and North American Short Stories Centuries of colonialism and international commerce as well as more recent expansion of global travel and communication have led to the spread of western literary genres to other parts of the world. The growth of English as an international language and its official status as a second language in many countries has engendered local communities of English creative writers in many places. Thus, the medium of English fiction can serve as an excellent object of study for cross-cultural research. As M. A. K. Halliday wrote in Language as a Social Semiotic, “A work of literature is its author’s contribution to the reality-generating conversation of society … and its language reflects this status that it has in the sociosemiotic scheme” (1978:182). A cross-cultural comparison of texts can be performed using methods of stylistic analysis which are inherently contrastive. This paper will summarize results of a study of the dialogue present in contemporary literary short stories written in English and published in Singapore, Malaysia, the Philippines, and North America. Of the Southeast Asian region the aforementioned countries support the largest communities writers and readers of locally produced English fiction. Though these three countries have distinct cultures, stories from the USA and Canada were also analyzed for comparison with an influential western region. One significant indicator of cultural difference is parenting practices which include how parents and children converse with each other. This research sought out contemporary short stories containing dialogue between parents and pre-adolescent children by a variety of authors in each country. Stylistic analysis using a framework of discourse moves was applied to the dialogue present in forty stories. The analysis focused on the discourse roles of initiator and responder in conversational exchanges in the parent-child dialogues. Initiations and Responses were classified according to their function. Initial moves in exchanges (following Tsui 1994 and traditional Birmingham school approaches) can serve the purposes of Organizing the talk, Eliciting information, Requesting or Directing behavior, or Informing. These moves can be followed by responses that serve Positive, Negative, Challenging, or Tracking functions. The portrayal of non-verbal communication in the dialogues was also analyzed. Quantification of the data from the discourse move analysis revealed differences in how parent-child interactions are portrayed by authors in different cultures. This research demonstrates the important role that stylistics and contemporary English world literature can play in the advancement of cross-cultural understanding.

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Corazon D. Villareal (University of the Philippines) Styling Science for the Web This paper tracks the movement of scientific studies as they are translated from an academic register to an accessible style in the web. The corpus is derived from actual articles that have been posted in a university website and subsequently, in a regional website, the ResearchSEA. It documents various stages in the process, particularly the adjustments in vocabulary, syntax, and tone, to suit the style to website browsers. It shows as well, the need for close coordination among the writer, researcher, illustrator, and editor to come up with an article written in a layman’s style, yet faithful to scientific content. The documentation reveals important differences in style between the scientific and the popular, but demonstrates as well how style changes with the shift in medium. Olga Vorobyova (Kyiv National Linguistic University, Ukraine) COMMUNICATING EMOTIONS: STYLE AND MENTAL SIMULATION The multi-dimensional relationship between style and communication cannot be adequately described without addressing the issue of communicating emotions in various social and aesthetic contexts where the audience response, either immediate or mediated, is seen as grounded in the audience's emotional resonance. Scholarly interest towards this facet of communication was largely motivated by two breakthroughs: (i) the reanalysis of ratio :: emotio correlation in the human mind and behaviour where emotions act as orienting and regulating decision-making filters (Oatley 1992; Damasio 1994; Miall 2006); as well as (ii) discovering the role of mental simulation, provoked by mirror neurons, for generating empathetic response (Ramachandran 2000; Lakoff 2001). Hypothesizing that emotional resonance in literary response, evoked by systemically perceived stylistic properties of literary text, is also grounded in mental simulation, brings about at least two questions: (i) what is the source of emotional resonance generated by literary text? (ii) which properties of literary text act as the target of mental simulation? Given that resonance as a physical phenomenon is "the sympathetic oscillation of a system in response to an external excitation" (Macmillan 1989), emotional resonance in literary communication can be viewed as a result of multiple semantic and structural fluctuations that reflect the wave dynamics of textual space (see Beaugrande 1987). Such dynamics emerges as an aggregate effect of the form and/or sense pulsations (imagery, symbols, textual anomalies, artistic details, key words, etc.) that create the so-called longitudinal textual waves, as well as sinusoidal oscillations of syntactical, prosodic, and compositional rhythm that shape transversal textual waves. Alongside textual dynamics, emotional resonance in literary response is also associated with textual statics as a manifestation of tension within configurations of functionally relevant textual elements as well as between such configurations, thus forming simple but capacious iconic images (those of a circle, oval, spiral, funnel, arrow, etc.) inscribed in the textual space. Due to emotionally charged iconicity as a specific in-text code, in literary communication there appears at least a double-coded mental simulation. The reader subconsciously enacts the fictional reality (Leech and Short 1982; Burke 2001) while experiencing a subliminal impact of iconic imagery (global, local, and localized) that in its wave dynamics and geometric statics evokes, through mental simulation, the readers' emotional resonance. The above hypothesis will be illustrated and verified in the comparative conceptual analysis of prose and poetry (Woolf's "The Waves", Tennyson's " Break, Break, Break", etc.) where iconic imagery of sea waves is employed to communicate a wide spectrum of emotions.

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Brian Walker (Lancaster University, UK) A corpus approach to analysing the narrators in Julian Barnes’ novel, Talking It Over. This paper describes part of my PhD research into characterisation in prose fiction and focuses on my current investigation of the narrators in Julian Barnes’ novel, Talking It Over, using Wmatrix1 (Rayson 2001-6, 2003), a corpus tool developed at Lancaster University. Wmatrix, developed by Paul Rayson, is a web interface to the USAS (UCREL semantic analysis system), and CLAWS (Constituent Likelihood Automatic Word-tagging System) corpus annotation tools. Processing a text using Wmatrix produces frequency lists for words; POS tags; and semantic tags, from which it is possible to see standard concordances. Frequency lists can also be compared to Wmatrix output for other texts, allowing comparisons to be carried out at the word level to see keywords, the POS to see key word-classes, and at the semantic level to see key concepts. Talking It Over, by Julian Barnes, is a story with a fairly familiar theme – a love triangle. There are three main narrators – the people involved in the love triangle: Oliver, Stuart and Gill – and six other narrators – people whose involvement with the story is more peripheral, but come into contact with one or more of the main narrators. Through the accounts of the different narrators we learn how Stuart and Gill meet, fall in love, and marry; how Oliver realises that he is in love with Gill and decides to win her; how Gill eventually falls in love with Oliver and leaves Stuart. My analysis uses the output from Wmatrix to construct linguistic profiles for the three main narrators of Talking It Over. I do this by making a series of comparisons, comparing the frequency outputs of one of the main narrators against the combined output of the other two. This allows me to see what, if any, linguistic features are peculiar to a particular narrator. These features can then be investigated systematically to give a fuller account of the ways in which the narrators behave linguistically. This allows me to say something about the way each of the three main narrators represent themselves that both supports my initial perceptions and adds to my understanding of these narrators. References Barnes, J. 1991 Talking It Over Jonathan Cape Ltd: London Rayson, P. 2001-6 Wmatrix: a web-based corpus processing environment, Computing Department,

Lancaster University. Rayson, P. 2003 Matrix: A statistical method and software tool for linguistic analysis through corpus

comparison. Ph.D. thesis, Lancaster University. Greg Watson (University of Joensuu, Finland) Aspects of assertiveness in the lyrics of early 20th century female blues artists It is, and has generally been, perceived that early female blues artists were less risqué and less assertive in requesting their needs, and that they were more genteel in expressing their desires and feelings. Watson (2006) disproved this assumption. I found that pre-1950s blues women were direct in stating their needs, either for love or sexual gratification, and had absolutely no qualms about stating these needs. In a follow-up paper (Acts of Love – under review), I have further investigated how these women express their needs and wants by applying Searle’s (1969; 1976; 1979) speech act theory to the lyrics of 111 songs by 40 early female blues singers. Paying particular attention to their use of assertives, directives, and commissives, I discuss how they seem to be able to make the listeners feel as if they are being directly and personally addressed. In the course of these studies, interesting elements in relation to the way in which these women would assert themselves became more than apparent. Once again, this language is highly colourful, very humorous and quite suggestive. This paper discusses certain aspects of assertiveness in their language use.

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References: Searle, J.R. (1969) Speech Acts. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Searle, J.R. (1976) “A classification of illocutionary acts”. Language in Society 5: 1-23. Searle, J.R. (1979) Expression and meaning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Watson, G. (2006) “The Bedroom Blues - Love and Lust in the Lyrics of Early Female Blues Artists.”

Language and Literature Vol. 15. No. 4. 331 – 356. Watson, G. (under review) “Acts of Love.” Style. David West (University of Northumbria, UK) I.A. Richards on Blending My title, of course, is a spectacular blend in itself, analysable in the same way as Fauconnier and Turner’s DEBATE WITH KANT. How can Richards, who died in 1979, have anything to say about a theory that appeared in the mid-1990s? What is more, what possible connection can there be between Richards and blending theory? Between a person who is now synonymous with practical criticism, the (outmoded) reading technique by which the text is isolated from its social and historical context, and an ultra-modern theory of human imagination, creativity, reasoning, metaphor, and much else besides? Yet, cognitive linguistics, of which blending theory is a part, explicitly acknowledges the importance of theories of the mind – in particular, Gestalt theory and the work of Benjamin Whorf – which belong to the period (the 1920s and 1930s) when Richards was writing, and which were important to him, too. And the psychological theory which had the most influence on Richards' work – Pavlov's theory of the conditioned reflex – has as its canonical case the salivating dog and the dinner bell, a case which, according to Fauconnier and Turner, is an exemplar par excellence of blending. More importantly, though, far from being an outmoded and irrelevant figure, Richards in actual fact shared many of the concerns of blending theory: he was centrally interested in “what happens to (or in the mind of) an Interpreter”; he argued for a contextual theory of meaning; he sought to ground meaning in our pre-linguistic, bodily experience of the world (Similarity, Causation, Space and Time); he wrote on imagination; and he saw metaphor as a conceptual mechanism by which we make sense of our experience of the world. Indeed, in some ways, Richards’ theory of metaphor not so much anticipates contemporary conceptual metaphor theory as supersedes it. Thus, in finding traces of blending theory in Richards' work, this paper argues for Richards to be seen as a protocognitivist, and attempts also to fill in some of the history of contemporary cognitive linguistics, and in particular of blending theory. Sara Whiteley (University of Sheffield, UK) Emotion and Text World Theory Within the discipline of cognitive poetics there have been many calls for a greater focus on the role of emotion in literary reading. Initially neglected by cognitive scientists, emotion is now regarded as ‘the most interesting of current topics in psychology, cognitive science and neuroscience’, and there has been a corresponding rise in its importance in cognitive studies of literary texts (Oatley 2003:168). My research aims to contribute to this exciting area and expand the cognitive poetic framework of Text World Theory in order to include the involvement of readers’ emotions. Text World Theory maps the richly detailed mental representations (text-worlds) that readers produce when reading literature, and already provides a structured way of accounting for the involvement of readers’ background knowledge in the text world they create. This paper will explore a possible way in which a consideration of reader and character emotion can be integrated into Text World Theory. Lahey (2005) has begun this emotion-focused development of Text World Theory by

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considering the way readers of lyric poetry can place themselves into the text-worlds they create in response to the textual need for an addressee. This notion of self-implication is in line with the experiment-based work of Gerrig (1993, 2004) and Kuiken, Miall & Sikora (2004), which suggests that readers who psychologically implicate themselves in a text are more emotionally affected by it. Whilst these theories can begin to account for some incidences of readerly emotion, I argue that it is not always necessary to implicate your self in a text in order to be emotionally affected by it. This paper will explore this issue; drawing on the recent recognition of ‘Theory of Mind’, which is an evolved cognitive mechanism that enables us to interpret a person’s behaviour as indicative of their state of mind (see Zunshine 2006), and examining notions of empathy, sympathy and emotion. It also aims to emphasise the need for the continuation of wide-ranging research into the wide-ranging topic of emotion. Chinwei Wu (National Taiwan Normal University, Taiwan) The Metrics of DuFu’s Verses: A Prosodic-Constraint Based Analysis The current study aims at the metrical grammar of Chinese verses, made by Tang Dynasty poet, DuFu. The regulated verses Pailü and the Guti/Yuefu verses would be analyzed in the Optimality-Theoretical framework. There would be a corpus constructed for the poems. Every lines of verses in this corpus would be specified the prosodic structure: the tonal type (level or contour tone) of each syllable; and, the prosodic structure. Through the calculation, we found the prosodic patterns of Dufu’ regulated verses. The different metric patterns would be due to the different ranking of relevant prosodic constraints, such as BINARY-BRANCHING, FOOT-TYPE, PINGTONE. The Guti/Yuefu verses part would be specified and reordered in the corpus. The different metric patterns would also be due to the different ranking of relevant prosodic constraints. Beside comparing the different rankings for regulated and Guti/Yuefu, the verses of another poet Baijuyi would be specified. The comparison between the two poets would show the differences and the change of the metrics. Chie Yahashi (Jin-ai University, Japan) Prenominal Adjectives in the 18th-Century Chapbooks This paper investigates a set of prenominal English adjectives common in 18th-century chapbooks, which are now known as a record of popular culture in early modern Britain and America. In particular, the study focuses, firstly, on generailizable internal structure of the category of chapbook adjectives in terms of their semantic features. To this end, syntactic and semantic determinants of adjective ordering are devised based on models discussed by Quirk et al (1985), Biber et al (1999), and Carter and McCarthy (2006). Secondly attention is also given to the use of the adjectives with respect to their pragmatic features. The status of adjectives has been widely discussed in the literature but is not yet well understood. Thompson (1989), for example, states that adjectives have no specific pragmatic function, but rather are attributed either to the pragmatic function of nouns relating to reference-introduction or the pragmatic function of verbs relating to predication. In the meantime, it is Pajunen (1998) who presents the possibility of postulating a pragmatic factor peculiar to adjectives, that is, reidentifying one from among already introduced referents. Moreover, it is pointed out that adjectives in this function can be attested by the fact that English adjectives occur in a definite noun phrase (Pajunen 1998). In this paper, the pragmatic function of adjectives is investigated on the basis of chapbooks of the 18th century by use of qualitative analysis. It is hoped that the interplay between the syntactic and semantic functions and the pragmatic function of prenominal adjectives in English is to provide an explanation of why certain adjective

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sequences in chapbook style should arise. Michiyo Yamaguchi (Kyoto Prefectural University, Japan) Ready to be read? -- The Spelling Reformers’ Dilemma Writers exploit language to communicate their intended message. But sometimes it is not easily done. They risk losing their audience due to the exploitation with which they hope to convey their message. If the intended message is about changing the language, then it becomes self-defeating to use the language to convey the message. Advocates of spelling reform, who try to promote alternative phonetic spelling systems for the English language, have often faced this dilemma. In order to promote spelling reform, they need to actually use the proposed spelling system so that they can demonstrate its advantage. But that choice will limit the readability of their text and therefore reduce the accessibility of their message. If they choose the conventional spelling system, however, it defeats the point. I have been working on the history of the English spelling reform movement in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, and have analyzed its meaning in the socio-cultural history as well as in the history of linguistics and linguistic thought. In this paper, I will use materials written by the spelling reformers, such as books, booklets, articles and letters, and discuss how they have tried to cope with the dilemma of writing about spelling reform, while still using the conventional orthography. The materials discussed in this paper will include the journal, “The Pyoneer” of the Simplified Spelling Society in the 1910s. The journal was printed in the reformed spelling except for the last issue. In the last issue, they were trying to justify their use of conventional spelling, instead of their phonetic spelling. Here, the spelling reformers settled for orthography in order to reach a wider audience. I will also refer to the cases of other prominent spelling reformers of the nineteenth and twentieth century, such as Isaac Pitman, Alexander John Ellis and Daniel Jones. Masako Yamamoto (Aichi University, Japan) Code Switching in Narrative:Ta-form and Ru-form as A Linguistic Device It is said that the Japanese language has two kinds of tense markers; a past tense marker (ta-form) and a non-past tense marker (ru-form), and that their behavior in a narrative is mysterious to researchers of Japanese language. A major purpose of this study is to inquire into the cognitive functions of ta-form and ru-form which are the suffixes of verbs, adjectives and auxiliary verbs in a narrative. In this study I focus on the phenomenon that ta-form and ru-form are interchangeable in a narrative. Interchangeability means that they are paraphrastic. In the light of knowledge about human cognition, the notion of paraphrasing can be explained in relation to the sensorimotor account of human perception and cognition, because meaning is critically dependent on construal, i.e. on our capacity for conceptualizing the same situation in alternate ways. Consequently we can say that the difference between ta-form and ru-form reflects the narrator (conceptualizer)'s two different kinds of perspectives or intentions regarding the event. When they intend to code the event as an objective fact in the narrated world, narrators express it in ta-form. Whereas when they express in ru-form, they intend to shift the perspective into the narrated world and describe the event from two kinds of viewpoint. One is from the viewpoint of characters in the narrative. That is, the event is offered as one that a character saw, heard, felt, or thought. The other is from the viewpoint of the narrator himself who intends to explain or comment on the narrated world. Namely the difference between ta-form and ru-form reflects the intention of a narrator as to whether to code the event as an objective fact in the narrated world or not. This code switching yields rhetorical effects in that the continuity of ta-form describes the

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events dynamically and pushes the story ahead energetically, while ru-form describes the event statically and stops the story temporarily in order to allure the reader into the narrated world. Etsuko Yoshida (Mie University, Japan) Sentences as Interaction: A Pragmatic Approach to the Patterns of Clauses in English and Japanese Dialogues Given that sentences in dialogic discourse tend to be interrupted with such frequency that incomplete sentences may be considered a normal phenomenon, I adopt the position that the notion of the sentence should be abandoned as a unit of analysis for spontaneous spoken language. This basic view of the collaborative character in dialogue gives rise to the following research questions: ● How are clauses and utterances combined and interconnected with each other? ● What types of discourse entities are introduced and established as the most salient entities in a

given discourse of both English and Japanese? The results are not expected from the written mode of discourse, because the type of discourse we are now dealing with is a dialogue where speakers and addressees work together in the making of a definite reference: the speaker initiates the process by introducing a NP and the participants are ready to repair, expand, or replace the noun phrase until they can mutually understand each other in the later stage of the discourse. This empirical evidence is highlighted in Clark and Wilkes-Gibbs (1986)’s view in ‘referring as a collaborative process requiring actions by both speakers and interlocutors’. I investigate the way of referring as a collaborative process and its implication in discourse development, and clarify how the different form of referring expression are exploited in the different stages of discourse, as ‘initiating reference’ and as ‘refashioning a noun phrase’. Similarly, I investigate that sentences in dialogues are not always represented by an individual speaker but are constructed as a product of collaborative effort involving more than one participant. Despite the context dependency or the speaker’s preference or politeness in the use of the clause construction, it is possible to extend its interpretation as the fundamental role of conditional clauses in the process of discourse development. That is, when conditional clauses precede, they relate to entities that are topical or given, and play an important role in bridging between the preceding discourse and the subsequent discourse development. Finally, I argue that the choice and the distribution of referring expressions in dialogues depends on the way the participants collaborate to judge the most salient entity in the current discourse against their common ground. Yibing, Zhang (Nanyang Technological University, Singapore) Intertextual Analysis on Hua-jian Ci-Poetry and Chinese New Poetry in the 1930’s Since the 1980’s, intertextuality has been applied in stylistics study and poetics study. In the field of Chinese literature study, previous researches tend to focus on the analysis of intertextual relation on the level of theme instead of form. My thesis attempts to explore the intertextual relation between Hua-jian Ci-Poetry and Chinese New Poetry in the 1930’s on the two levels, both of theme and form. Based on traditional approaches to literature study, there are generally two opinions of the relation between Chinese traditional poetry and Chinese New Poetry in the 1930’s. One is that Chinese New Poetry in the 1930’s diverges from Chinese traditional poetry, imitating Western Modern poetry. The other one which has been more prevalent since the 1990s and been connecting with reflection of the aesthetics modernity of China is that Chinese New Poetry in the 1930’s is still under the great influence of Chinese traditional poetry especially from the perspective of aesthetics.

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My paper will examine the intertextual relation between Hua-jian Ci-Poetry and Chinese New Poetry in the 1930’s from the following three aspects: style (analysis of adjective and personal pronoun, implication, metaphor, and constitutive intertextuality), discourse (identity and heteroglossia) and theme. I argue that Chinese New Poetry does not establish her identity either through divergence from Chinese traditional poetry or imitation of Western Modern poetry, while she shapes her own creative essence through interaction between the pre-texts and precursors of western modernist, Chinese symbolist of 1920’s and Hua-jian school.

Based on my analysis, I strive to solve the following two questions: 1. Is there any feasibility of exploring intertextual relation on the level of form in the field of

Chinese literature study? 2. Is there another value-free point of view from the third-part on Chinese New Poetry in the 1930’s

other than the two perspectives of modernization and nationalization? My thesis illustrates that in contrast to traditional approaches which emphasize textual analysis,

intertextual analysis shifts away from the threatening of oppression from the dominant text, and thus enabling the writer, the works, the reader and the media to be situated on equal and interactive positions. Jie Zheng (Nanyang Technological University, Singapore) Application of Pragmatics in Theatre Studies Pragmatics is of high relevance in interpretation of dramatic texts. Since the 1980s, this approach has been gradually applied in the analysis of language in English dramatic texts to explore the illocutionary act, specifically, the speaker’s intent to perform some communicative purpose, and how it contributes to the development of dramatic conflicts and characterization (Carter and Simpson, 1989; Bennison, 1993; Yu Dongming, 1992, 1994). In the previous research, the study mainly focuses on dramatic dialogues between characters to explore underlying reasons why people employ certain linguistic structure to express feelings and practice the illocutionary act. In contrast, the other elements, like Soliloquy, stage description, and instruction, are considered “the side text” and merely supplementary in understanding the context and situation of a play (Yu 1996: 101). This view, though often taken for granted in theatre studies, is superficial and even misleading. Dialogues in dramatic texts are actualized on multiple levels, in Realist theatre and Naturalist theatre, verbal communication between characters undoubtedly is significant in exposure of dramatic conflict and realization of characterization. Besides this character-level interaction, there is higher-level interaction: character-audience communication. This is often the case with traditional Chinese opera and contemporary theatre in which the characters sometimes jump out of the textual frame and directly interact with the audience. When discussing Chorus’ roles in classic Greek tragedies, the relation between character-level interaction and character-audience intercourse is not of clear-cut contradiction but more of a fluid shift from one to the other, and sometimes the two level interactions identify with each other. In my research, I endeavor to answer three hypothetical research questions posed here: 1. Though the speaker of soliloquy is often supposed to converse with self, he or she is still presumed to be

obeying the co-operative principle and make the audience capable of possessing insight into the inner thoughts and make it relevant in the interpretation. How can pragmatics be applied in analysis of soliloquy? Or specifically, does the speaker have to calculate every uttered word since no other characters can have access to his remarks?

2. When the Character interacts with the audience, he or she has automatically assumed two-level communication: one with other characters and the other with the audience. In this situation arises two questions:

1) Does the fulfillment of politeness and Gricean maxims on one level have to coincide with the violation of them on the other level or vice versa?

2) Does this deliberate interruption facilitate the audience’s interpreting process or disrupt it since the

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audience now not only is in the position of observer but also acts either actively or passively as a participator?