academic writing style guide

Academic Writing Style Guide

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Academic Writing

Style Guide

Compiled by

NMIT Library

November 2011





Contents

Introduction .................................................................................................. 3

1. Writing skills ............................................................................................. 4

1a. Developing a plan .................................................................................... 4

1b. Formatting an academic paper ................................................................ 6

2. Essay writing ............................................................................................. 7

3. Report writing ........................................................................................... 9

Stage one: Planning the report ................................................................... 10

Stage two: Writing the report ..................................................................... 11

Stage three: Report checklist ...................................................................... 13

4. Resume writing ....................................................................................... 14

5. Writing a tender ...................................................................................... 16

6. Plagiarism and attribution of work .......................................................... 18

7. Referencing (Harvard) ............................................................................. 20

7a. In‐text referencing ................................................................................ 23

7b. Reference list and Bibliography ............................................................. 24

8. Oral presentations .................................................................................. 25

9. Reflective/Research Journals .................................................................. 31

10. Glossary of terms .................................................................................. 34

11. Further information sources .................................................................. 36

Academic writing ........................................................................................ 36

Referencing ................................................................................................ 38

Resume writing ........................................................................................... 38

Study Skills resources .................................................................................. 39

Tender writing ............................................................................................ 39

12. Bibliography .......................................................................................... 40





Introduction

This Academic Writing Style Guide has been prepared for use by Higher Education students

enrolled at NMIT, and aims to assist students with writing a variety of documents including

reports, essays and reflective journals. In addition, this document also includes guidelines

on referencing and plagiarism, the delivery of oral presentations, and the preparation of

tenders documents and resumes.

Additional sources of information on all these subject areas are available at NMIT campus

libraries or by visiting the library website http://library.nmit.vic.edu.au. Should individual

or group help be required with the preparation of written work, NMIT’s Study Skills advisors

are available to assist. Please telephone 9269 1372 to speak to a Study Skills advisor.





1. Writing skills

General guidelines

Academic papers, regardless of whether they are reports or essays, require careful planning

to ensure that all aspects of the task are included. NMIT has developed a standard

approach to assist students with preparing written documents. The guidelines below also

ensure that all papers submitted (regardless of Faculty) follow identical formats.

1a. Developing a plan

Developing a plan or draft of your written work is the most efficient way of preparing to

write a paper. A plan can be used as a framework to guide yourself in making sure you

answer all parts of the question. It will also help you limit what you need to research. It is

sometimes useful to go back over and change your draft as you find additional or

supplementary information.

General guidelines are as follows:

Understand what is being asked of you – read the assignment carefully; clarify any

words you don’t understand; read the assessment criteria. It is critical that you are

clear about what is being asked of you or you may submit an assignment which is

irrelevant and may be penalised accordingly. Section 10 – Glossary of terms (p.34)

will help with the definitions of common directive words used in assignments

Do preliminary reading – conduct some background research on the subject;

consider some main headings and sub‐headings. This will not only help with

structuring your assignment, but it will also provide information to support any

arguments or comments that you make.

Prepare a rough draft – think about the introduction; make some notes under each

heading and sub‐heading; consider the conclusion. A rough draft will help you scope

out the document and will assist with the logical ordering of information

Do more thorough reading – take notes as you expand your reading; take careful

note of references (books, websites, journal articles) that you have used – these will

be needed for the bibliography, and having to backtrack later will cost you time

Write the first draft, including the introduction, body of the work and conclusion.

The first draft helps you sort out your thoughts.





Edit the draft – check the structure and flow of the paper; check spelling and

grammar; ensure all assessment criteria are met; ensure all resources consulted are

included in the bibliography. The bibliography includes all items used to research

and write your paper and demonstrates to your teacher the breadth of resources

consulted.

Finalise and check format (see Formatting an academic paper, p.6)

Submit the assignment – remember to include the cover sheet

Remember to keep referring back to the topic to ensure you are answering what is being

asked of you. Also take careful note of the due date of the assignment.





1b. Formatting an academic paper

To assist lecturers with reading and marking papers, use the following criteria when

formatting your work to ensure that there are appropriate margins for assessors to record

comments, and that line spacing and font size make the document readable.

Line spacing 1.5 or double

Spacing between paragraphs

Double ENTER to create a clear space between paragraphs

Font type Use a clear font, such as Arial or Times New Roman

Font size Use 11 or 12 point

Margins: left and right

2.5 – 3.0 cm Ensure margins on all four sides are adequate for an assessor to comment and edit

Printout Print on one side of the paper only

Page numbers Number pages in order and staple together in the top left hand corner

Page header Put your name, student number and date on each page

Assignment cover sheet

Attach to the front of the assignment; this must always be included to show who you are and so marks are accurately recorded

Plastic sleeves Do not place the assignment in plastic sleeves





2. Essay writing

In addition to preparing a draft and following the correct formatting (as discussed above),

essays often require more detailed planning due to the depth of the research required.

Consider the following guidelines as you plan, research and write your essay:

Be clear about the central idea of the essay

Examine your topic. Look at the keywords. What are you being asked to write about? Write a sentence that encapsulates your topic. A carefully thought out topic sentence will serve two important functions. First, it will provide you, the author, the means to stay focused on your objective. It's a lot easier to write if you know what you are going to write about! Second, a clearly stated topic sentence will provide readers with the tools they need to clearly understand what you have to say.

Have you been asked to discuss, or examine, to compare or some other process? Make sure you know the difference. (See Section 10 ‐ Glossary of terms on page 34 for definitions of directive words)

Brainstorm all your ideas or use a mind‐map to clarify to your thoughts

Outline your essay into introductory, body and summary paragraphs.

Using the above ideas, prepare an outline or diagram of your ideas in relation to the topic.

Write down what you know, and what you need to find out.

Do any research, making sure you record references for all information you have found.

Write your topic statement. This is the one sentence statement that summarises what you are saying in your essay.

Write the body of the essay

Each paragraph should begin with a key sentence which represents your main idea and finish with a sentence that summarises that idea. There should be at least two examples or facts in the body of each paragraph to support the central idea.

Write the subpoints. Remember to support your argument with evidence or logical reasons. A strong reason logically supports your point and is specific and states the idea clearly.

Elaborate on the subpoints with further description or explanation or discussion.

Use quotes of ideas from key resources to support your argument. Do not apologize for what you are saying. An essay is about your opinion; just make sure you include enough supporting material to show that you have researched your topic to form your opinion.





Write the introduction. Now you've written the main part of your essay you know what to say in the opening section. Use a few sentences explaining your topic in general terms, then gradually become more specific, until you reach your argument or central idea.

Write the conclusion. Now you've written the rest of your essay you know what to say in summary. These are three or four strong sentences summing up your points or providing a final perspective on your topic. Review the main points (being careful not to restate them exactly) or briefly describe your feelings about the topic.

Add the finishing touches, checking flow, word and sentence order, and spelling and

don't forget your bibliography (see p.24).





3. Report writing

In addition to the General Guidelines (p.4) and Formatting an Academic Paper (p.6), reports

typically require more precise information (ie. data, statistics, methodology, etc) and, as

such, have a different formula for composition. The following guidelines will provide

additional information for submitting a professional report.

What is a report?

A structured, written document directed to interested readers in response to some specific purpose, aim or request. This can often be an issue or problem, for which a solution needs to be found. Characteristics of an effective report

An effective report is: Appropriate to its purpose and audience Accurate – use current data Logical Well organised with clear section headings Factually based – use authoritative sources of information (eg. articles from peer‐

reviewed journals) and be particularly careful when using or quoting information found on the internet. Authoritative websites include those owned by government departments, educational institutions and professional associations. Be wary of websites such as Wikipedia, as anyone can add or alter information on these sites.

The format of a report

Most reports are modelled on the following structure:

Title page Table of contents Abstract / Executive Summary Introduction Methodology Discussion (includes discussion and evidence) Conclusions Recommendations Bibliography





Stage one: Planning the report

Step 1: Define the purpose

Read the requirement carefully

Identify keywords

Make sure you know what’s really being asked

Step 2: Define the audience

Determine your audience’s level of understanding; what is their current knowledge? Determine what your audience needs to know

Step 3: Establish parameters

Determine the scope and level of detail required Determine the length of the report and what can be covered in that length

Step 4: Gather information

Make sure the information you gather is relevant, up‐to‐date and factually correct Make sure that you copy facts and figures correctly





Stage two: Writing the report

Step 1: Write the body

Write the introduction The introduction puts the discussion in context, explains why the report is necessary

and gives background information on the subject matter It also provides supportive information including the aim, scope and limitations

Write the discussion The discussion is the main body of the report Information is arranged in the discussion using headings and subheadings. Bullet

points are also acceptable, and may make it easier for assessors to read The discussion describes, analyses, interprets and evaluates the procedures, data,

findings, relationships, visual material, methodology and results in the report The material should be presented in an order that leads logically to conclusions and

recommendations In writing the discussion, you should:

Write at an appropriate level Organise material logically Use clear, concise language Give concrete examples

Write the conclusion Conclusions are drawn from evidence, analysis, interpretation and evaluation

presented in the discussion No new material can be introduced in the conclusion The conclusion should follow logically from the discussion The conclusion section should contain:

Summary Key points Main findings

Write the recommendation

The recommendation section (not all reports give recommendations) should present possible actions to be taken based on the conclusion. The conclusion is what was found; the recommendation is what should be done about it.





Step 2: Write the abstract / executive summary

The abstract is also known as the executive summary or synopsis It is a concise summary of the essential elements of the report, from the

introduction through to the recommendations The abstract should be:

Independent; able to be read on its own Comprehensive; covering all the main points Clear and concise Brief; 10 – 15% of the length of the report Written in full sentences and paragraphs

The abstract should include a summary of: Purpose Scope Achievements Main points Conclusions Recommendations

The pages of the abstract are usually numbered with lower case Roman numerals (i, ii, iii, iv, etc)

Many readers look at the abstract to find out whether to read the report

Step 3: Write the supplementary material

Write the title page The title page identifies the report with the following information:

Title Author’s name, position and qualifications Authority for report Place of origin Date

Write the Table of Contents The Table of Contents includes:

Section titles and major headings listed in order of appearance Page locations (standard page numbering begins with the

Introduction) Write the Bibliography and Reference List The bibliography lists all items you used to research and write your report The reference lists contains only those items you have cited or referred to in your

report. Items in the reference list will also appear in the bibliography Use the referencing system recommended by your department





Stage three: Report checklist

Have I fulfilled the purpose of the report?

Is the report written at a level appropriate to its audience?

Does the report contain the correct facts?

Is the report comprehensive?

Is all the included information relevant?

Is the layout and presentation appropriate?

Is the style clear, concise and professional?

Does the abstract provide an accurate summary of the report?

Does the introduction adequately introduce the discussion?

Is the discussion organised logically?

Does the conclusions section interpret, analyse and evaluate?

Are the recommendations reasonable?

Does the Table of Contents correspond with the actual contents? Are the page

numbers correct?

Have I acknowledged all sources of information through correct referencing?

Have I checked spelling, grammar and punctuation?

Have I carefully proof‐read the final draft?





4. Resume writing

A resume (also known as a CV or curriculum vitae) is a summary of your skills, experience

and education, and also provides information on how your skills may potentially meet the

requirements of a job. As potential employers may receive hundreds of resumes, it is

important that your resume makes a good first impression and contains relevant

information in a succinct format. It is said that potential employers can assess whether the

applicant is suitable for the job (and worth interviewing) in the first 45 seconds of reading

the resume. First impressions are vital, and the more organised your resume is, the better.

What to include in your resume

Personal details – your full name and contact details, including address, telephone

(including mobile) and email address

Education and training – starting with your most recent studies, make sure that you

include all training that’s relevant to the job for which you’re applying

Employment history – start with your most recent work history and work backwards

chronologically. Include your responsibilities, tasks and achievements. Your

employment history doesn’t have to be exhaustive, but it should include all

employment experiences relevant to the job

Skills – include a brief list of all your skills, such as communication, teamwork and

time management

Referees – provide a list of people who can support your application by talking about

how good you are as an employee. Include details such as their name, occupation,

company details and contact information. If you have limited employment

experience (for example, if you’re still studying), ask a teacher to be a referee.

Ensure that you ask permission before nominating people as referees.

Optional extras – you may like to include your ‘career objective’ in your resume, to

give potential employers an idea of your long‐term career goals. In addition, you

may also like to list your hobbies and interests to give employers more information

about you and areas in your life where you’ve gained experiences.

Be honest! – if you lie to your prospective employer about your abilities and

experience, remember that you may be asked to perform those skills at some point

during your job.





Checklist

Prior to sending your resume, take some time to check the following:

Proofreading – take extra care to check spelling, grammatical errors etc.

Tailoring – make sure that your resume highlights how well‐suited you are to the job

for which you’re applying

Presentation – your resume should be well laid out, and in a font type and size that is

easy to read (eg. Arial, 10 or 12 point).

Tailoring your resume

It is likely that you will apply for different types of jobs, and your resume will need to be

tailored or adapted accordingly, to highlight your different strengths and experiences. In

the case of resumes, one size doesn’t fit all. Customising your resume can take time, but it

is definitely worth the effort. The following steps will give you an idea of how to do this:

Make sure that you change the position and company to which you are applying. It

sounds simple, but such an oversight can rule you out of the race before it’s even

begun.

Take a close look at exactly what the employer is looking for in a candidate, and

what the job entails. Rearrange your resume to highlight your experiences and

training most relevant to meeting those requirements.

Explain how each of your training and past employment experiences and duties are

relevant to the position for which you’re applying. Emphasize the information that

is relevant to that particular job.

Use the same vocabulary as the employer is using in the advertisement; ie. identify

the keywords and vocabulary and include these in your application.

You may like to highlight the best or most relevant parts of your training and

experience by adding a ‘qualification summary’ at the top of your resume. Place this

directly below your name and contact details but above the body of your resume.

This positioning ensures that recruiters will actually see your strengths.





5. Writing a tender

A tender is a formal written proposal for completing a specific job as is requested by

another company. In essence, a company that needs goods or services supplied to them

requests a tender so that interested people (or companies) can place their tender in order

to win the job.

Details to include when submitting a tender

Depending on the type of job being tendered, the requesting company may provide

information such as details of the job itself and specific requirements; terms and conditions

to be met by both the company and successful tender applicant; target date for completion

of the job; and any potential safety issues. Read all the information carefully to ensure that

your response is accurate and relevant. It is also imperative that you pay particular attention

to the submission deadline.

When applying for a tender, include the following details:

Begin with a summary of how you will meet key specifications and conditions listed.

Respond to each specification and condition.

List your qualifications and experiences to justify why you are the right person for

the job. List any previous bids awarded. You may need to tailor your resume to

highlight specific training and/or experience relevant to the tender (see Tailoring

your resume, p.15)

Focus on the criteria that is important to the customer; ie. timely completion, price,

quality of work. Assure the customer that you can successfully meet these criteria.

Describe how you plan to manage the job, including scheduling and completion

deadlines.

Explain how you would be able to add value to the job if it was awarded to you

Answer the questions honestly and specifically address their requirements. This

demonstrates that you understand their needs. Be realistic in what you can deliver

but also highlight the benefits you offer.





Checklist

Prior to submitting your tender, carefully check the document for the following:

Ensure that the tender is comprehensive and addresses all terms of the

specifications and conditions listed in the tender.

Include a cover letter and provide a listing of the contents of your document

The tender should look professional. It should be laid out clearly and spelling and

grammar should be double‐checked. Use a clear font that is easy to read (for

example, Arial, 10 or 12 point).

Ensure that the tender is submitted by the due date.





6. Plagiarism and attribution of work

What is plagiarism?

To plagiarise means to use the words or ideas of another person in a way that represents

them to the reader or listener as being your own original work. If you do not give any

indication that the work is that of another person then the reader or listener must assume

that you are saying it is your work.

How can plagiarism be avoided?

All students have the responsibility to adhere to the highest standards of integrity in the

preparation and submission of work for assessment. Students submitting work for

assessment must fully acknowledge all sources of information or support used in the

preparation of the work. All students are required to reference sources of information used

in the preparation and completion of work; this practice is called attribution. At NMIT, the

Harvard system is used for referencing work.

The principles of integrity apply to any kind of work submitted for assessment, including

text‐based work, music, choreography, visual presentations, art works, and designs. As part

of NMIT’s educational support services, Faculty Librarians are available to assist students to

avoid plagiarism through sound referencing practices and use of text‐matching software

where available.

Why are plagiarism and attribution important?

The author of words and/or creator of ideas deserves, as a matter of fairness, to be acknowledged for his or her work. It takes time and hard work to complete their work and it is dishonest for another person to come along and steal that work by saying it is their work.

If you use the work of others as your own you are also cheating yourself. In the Australian academic system the emphasis is on researching other people’s work to set up a foundation and then building on that foundation with your own work. The process of doing this is where the learning lies. By avoiding this work you miss the learning involved.

It is not fair to classmates if you get a good assessment based on the work of others while they struggle to ensure that it is their own work that is assessed.





Professionals in the area of study are concerned to ensure that what people write can be seen as their own work so that the area can be advanced. You will come across journals in which people publish their work. Most academic journals have referees who look at the work to ensure that it is up to the standards expected. These are called refereed journals. Plagiarism causes work to be unreliable and threatens proper development of knowledge.

The study that you undertake is towards a qualification that should equip you to work in a particular field. If a student has cheated his or her way through to completion it is highly likely that they will not be competent to work in the area. Clients, workers, industry and/or the profession will be worse off if this happens.

NMIT makes assessments that are accepted throughout Australia. If a student has cheated to gain that assessment, the reputation of NMIT is threatened and the national system of recognition is weakened.

TurnItIn

NMIT subscribes to a software program called TurnItIn, which can assist with identifying potential plagiarism in your work and may also help with highlighting deficiencies in attribution. TurnItIn, which is available to all higher education students, text‐matches written documents to a database of thousands of documents from Australian and international educational institutions. Your lecturers may recommend that you upload your written work to TurnItIn prior to submitting it, to ensure that your work is largely original in content.

TurnItIn is available on the Higher Education student portal, via the Higher Ed tab at the top

of the screen. For more information about TurnItIn, or to access the software, simply click

on the tab and follow the instructions

https://student.nmit.vic.edu.au/highered/Pages/TurnItIn.aspx

Information about the Higher Education Academic Integrity Policy is also available from this

screen.





7. Referencing (Harvard)

What is referencing?

Referencing is a system used to identify and acknowledge the ownership or source of words,

information or ideas that you have used in your assignment. The Harvard system is one of

the most common techniques for referencing.

You must reference in your assignment when you:

Quote another person's words exactly Copy tables, figures or diagrams Paraphrase by putting someone else's ideas into your own words Summarise by providing a short description of someone else's ideas

You need to acknowledge sources both within the text of your paper (in‐text referencing)

and at the end of your paper in a reference list and/or bibliography.

Why reference?

Referencing is essential to:

Avoid plagiarism. You must acknowledge any ideas or information you have used from other writers. If you do not, you are giving the impression that another person's words or ideas are your own. This is called plagiarism. Plagiarism can attract heavy penalties.

Verify the information you are using. Using other people's ideas and information will help you to validate the arguments and / or statements you are making in your assignment.

Follow up on information. Readers of your assignment may wish to follow up on the subject you are writing about by consulting some of the sources you used to research your assignment.





Harvard referencing examples

Books

The details required, in order, are:

Name of author(s), editor(s), compiler(s) or organisation responsible Year of publication Title (in italics with minimal capitalisation) Edition (if other than first, edition abbreviated to edn) Publisher Place of publication

Examples:

Luey, B 2010, Handbook for academic authors, 5th edn, Cambridge University Press, New York.

Dinsmore, P & Cabanis‐Brewin, J (eds) 2011, The AMA handbook of project management, 3rd edn, American Management Association, New York.

Society of Illustrators 2010, 51st Annual of American Illustrators, Collins Design, New York.

CCH Australia 2011, Australian master tax guide 2011, 48th edn, CCH Australia, Sydney.

Article

The details required, in order, are:

Name of author(s) of the article Year of publication Title of article (in single quotation marks and minimal capitalization) Title of periodical (italicised) Volume number Issue number Page number(s)

Example:

Mills, J 2004, ‘Working in music: becoming a performer‐teacher’, Music education research, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 245‐261.





Multimedia

Multimedia includes CD‐ROMs, videos, DVDs, films, television and radio programs. The

details required, in order, are:

Title (italicised) Date recorded Format (for example CD‐ROM, video recording, DVD, television program etc) Publisher Place of recording

Example:

How will this help me get a job? 2011, DVD, Video Education Australasia, Bendigo, Vic.

Electronic resources – articles and webpages

Electronic resources may include electronic journals from both databases or the Internet,

and other web resources. The details required are the same as for print resources plus:

The date you viewed the information The web address (or URL) or the name of the database from which the information

was retrieved.

Examples:

Australian Society of Authors 2011, Royalties: a small success, ASA, accessed 18th October 2011, http://www.asauthors.org/scripts/cgiip.exe/WService=ASP0016/ccms.r?PageId=10417

Okeda, D 2011, ‘Working conditions of animators: the real face of the Japanese animation industry’, Creative industries journal, vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 261‐271, accessed 18th October 2011, retrieved from Business Source Complete.





7a. In‐text referencing

In‐text referencing is used to acknowledge where someone else's words, thoughts or ideas

have been used in your work. In‐text referencing can refer to either direct quotations or

paraphrases.

For paraphrasing, you need two pieces of information: the author(s) surname and the date of publication. Example: Figures should be simple for maximum impact (Smyth, 2010). If there are more than 3 authors, list only the first mentioned author followed by 'et al.' which means 'and others'. Example:

The state of Melbourne’s public transport infrastructure is dismal (Rix et al. 2010)

If there is no identifiable author, use the title of the work instead. The title should be

italicised.

Example:

Moran allows 2 months for the design and prototyping of a new product (Manufacturing

and the product cycle: a case study of Moran furniture 2006)

For direct quotes, paraphrasing or summaries you also require page number(s). In addition,

direct quotes require quotation marks to be placed at the beginning and end of the passage.

Example:

‘Figure captions should be as concise as possible’ (Smyth 2011, p. 90).

Author names may be integrated into the text of your assignment, followed by the year of

publication in parentheses.

Example:

Foster (2009) maintains that the main advantage of a figure is its visual impact.

The full details of each reference are given at the end of your assignment in the reference

list and/or bibliography.





7b. Reference list and Bibliography

The words 'bibliography' and 'reference list' are often used interchangeably, however they

are different.

A reference list contains only the details of items you have referenced in your assignment.

A bibliography includes all items you used to research and write your assignment even if they are not directly referenced in your paper.

Both bibliographies and reference lists are placed at the end of your work and arranged

alphabetically by author, or where no author is given, by title. The most important rule in

referencing is to be consistent.

It is important you consult with your teacher to determine whether a reference list or

bibliography is required.





8. Oral presentations

The fear of public speaking is often regarded by people as their number one fear; the fear of dying is rated number seven! The origin of this figure is unknown, but it is commonly accepted that many people have some fear or anxiety when speaking in front of an audience. People can experience many nervous symptoms, including sweaty palms, accelerated heart rate, memory loss and even difficulty in breathing. Mark Twain is quoted to have said ‘There are two types of speakers: those that are nervous and those that are liars’ (Laskowski 1996).

While it is perfectly normal to be nervous about presenting, this level of anxiety can be greatly reduced by well‐prepared material, repeated rehearsal of the presentation, and knowledge of the equipment and software to be used. The following guidelines will help you to deliver a professional presentation, with confidence.

8a. Know your audience

Who are the participants? What do you want the audience to understand? Consider the background of audience members (ie. subject knowledge, experience) and decide how best to deliver the information.

Use the appropriate terminology and level of language for your audience

Your audience should influence the style and formality of your presentation; ie. if presenting to fellow students, a more informal style of presentation may be permitted. If you are presenting to an industry or professional group, it is better to have a more formal presentation. The type of audience should also determine your choice of clothing and personal appearance

8b. Format of your presentation

The format for oral presentations is not dissimilar to that of writing an essay.

Introduction

Capture your audience’s attention by beginning with a question, funny story or anything that will gain their attention. Note: the use of humour is dependent on the type of presentation you are delivering, your audience and your confidence in using humour. If you’re unsure about the appropriateness of humour, leave it out.

Introduce the topic of your presentation. For example, “I’m going to talk about…” or “This morning I want to explain….”

Present an outline of your talk. For example, “I will concentrate on the following points. First of all…..Then….This will lead to…..And finally…”.

Body

Present your main points in logical order

Use current information, examples or data to support each point

Pause at the end of each point to allow your audience time to grasp the information





Make it absolutely clear when you move to another point. For example, “The next point is that…”, “Of course, we must not forget that….”

Use language appropriate to the audience; avoid slang or colloquial language

Conclusion

Use phrases such as ‘to sum up’ or ‘finally’ to refocus your audience to the last few minutes of the presentation, and to provide a clear summary of all the points you have covered

Make it obvious that you have finished your presentation

You may want to finish your presentation with an interesting remark or an appropriate punch line

Any questions? Allow time for questions and discussion from the audience. This interaction between you and your colleagues will help to reinforce your topic, and will engage members of the audience. Prepare discussion questions, if appropriate, to illustrate the points you are making

8c. Use of visual aids and media

When using PowerPoint or other presentation software, follow these steps:

Use a title slide.

Make sure all slides are labelled and dated.

Use appropriate headings in a logical sequence.

Make sure your presentation addresses all the assessable components.

Slides should be simple and uncluttered; have no more than 3‐5 dot points

Use white or pale background and dark text or the reverse.

Think about font size – at least 20 point (Arial or Helvetica in bold).

Headings should be in a larger font size.

Use graphics, tables or pictures (for example) to highlight points.

If you are not confident or familiar with more advanced features of PowerPoint (eg. animation, sliding text, moving images) do not use them. They will add to your nervousness and overuse can be distracting to your audience.

Points to remember

Always have a backup of your presentation on another disc or USB.

Have a backup plan, for example, you lose power or your file will not open

Be prepare to present with just you as the visual aid

Ensure the screen‐saver is turned off or it may turn on while you’re speaking and make you nervous or flustered

Make sure email notifications are turned off





8d. Handouts

Handouts may be relevant to reinforce important points raised during your talk, as well as providing further sources of information should your audience wish to pursue the topic further. While handouts may be useful, remember that the preparation of these may require extra work for you.

Consider the best time to give out your handouts:

Before – your audience may stop paying attention to you and read the handout instead. They could read ahead and stop listening to you. Providing the handout before can be useful if you expect your audience to take notes

During – you can distribute handouts during the presentation, but this can be time‐consuming and may interrupt the flow of what you are delivering, which runs the risk of confusing your audience

After ‐ this is less disruptive, but remember to advise your audience at the beginning so they are aware if they need to make detailed notes. Consider leaving the handouts by the door for people to collect as they leave.

8e. Delivering your presentation

The key to delivering a professional performance on the day is practice. Organise your information into a logical structure with the key points written on cue cards or a single A4 sheet. Rehearse the entire presentation until you feel confident that you know the material well and are happy with the way it sounds. Rehearsing will allow you to reduce the number of times you use words like "um," "ah," and "you know” which make a speaker sound hesitant and unprepared. You can also edit your content as you practise to be sure you make your most important points in the time allotted.

Rehearse your talk a number of times out loud to yourself using a stopwatch or timer so that you know it fits comfortably in the time allowed.

Practise delivering your talk to a friend or family member and ask for their feedback.

Try practising in front of a mirror – this will allow you to monitor your body language.

Do not rush your speech; speak slowly and clearly. This will allow your audience to absorb the information.

It is important that you know the content of your topic well and have understood your research, so that you don’t fall victim to reading the entire presentation from your notes or cards.

Remember that when you know your talk well, you will deliver it well – and you may even enjoy the experience!





8f. Room and equipment set up

When possible, arrive early so that you have time to set up the equipment and open your presentation. You are less likely to become nervous and flustered during your delivery if you are prepared prior to your audience arriving.

Have the name and contact number of the technical support person in case something goes wrong with the equipment. Be prepared to present just with your notes if necessary. Make a joke if the equipment fails – “Oh well, they say you never can trust technology!” Then move on.

Take note of the layout of the room, and arrange furniture to suit both your presentation and the audience

Ensure that the set up of the room allows all members of your audience to clearly see the screen and/or other visual displays

If using visual aids, for example, posters, allow plenty of time to set them up.

If using a laptop try to elevate it so that you change screens easily without bending too much.

Try to avoid checking the image that appears on the screen every time you change slides – it can be very distracting to your audience.

Do not make transparencies from typewritten documents

Talk to the audience, not the screen, when using the data show





8g. Body Language and personal presentation

When presenting in front of a group of people, it is important to consider how you look and the way you use your body to communicate. Humans are very good at picking up non‐verbal signals or messages from each other through gestures, posture, the way we use our hands when we speak and especially through eye contact. Think about the following points when you are rehearsing your talk:

Is this a formal or informal presentation? Will you be presenting to a small group of classmates or to a larger unknown audience? You should dress appropriately for the audience, be well groomed and avoid distracting clothes or jewellery.

Think about your method of presentation; if you will be standing at a lectern to deliver your talk, you could use arm and hand gestures to illustrate a point and make your talk more lively and interesting. You might like to use a hand held pointer if your presentation involves explaining charts and graphs with PowerPoint.

When you are delivering the presentation, it is very important to make eye contact with the audience. Avoid constantly looking down at your notes. A good method is to sweep your eyes across the audience from left to right, and then settle them on one person or group for a period of time while you are making a point. Then when you move on to your next point or slide, focus on someone on the other side of the room. This will encourage your audience to feel engaged and involved in what you are saying.

If you don’t know what to do with your hands, try holding a pen or whiteboard marker in your hand while you speak.

Avoid placing your hands in your pockets – it looks sloppy and unprofessional.

Use your voice effectively for the size of the room and practise with a microphone if necessary. You need to speak loudly enough so that the audience at the back of the room can hear you clearly. Use some pauses throughout your talk, especially after making important points, so that the audience can absorb what has just been said.





8h. Dealing with nerves

Most people feel nervous about the thought of presenting in public. Remember that you are

not alone! If you have prepared and practised well, then you have every reason to be

confident. Follow these tips on the day of your presentation to calm any nerves:

Take a few deep breaths to relax – exhale slowly. Say to yourself: “I am relaxed and confident”.

Try to greet and make some small talk with the people who arrive first – this will loosen your voice and calm your nerves. This technique also helps you recognize that the audience is actually “on your side” – they want you to deliver a good presentation as much as you do.

Smile at your audience and say something like: “Good morning everyone, today I am going to talk to you about…”

Take a glass of water to sip from before or during your presentation – take care to place it on a table away from your notes.

Speak slowly and clearly and enjoy what you have to share with the audience.

Smile and be enthusiastic; this will relax both you and the audience

Slow down! Force yourself to take a breath at the end of each sentence until you feel more comfortable





9. Reflective/Research Journals

9a. What is a reflective/research journal?

A reflective journal (which may also be known as a research journal) is used to record your

thoughts, notes, personal comments, observations etc about your work. It not only assists

in developing your critical and analytical thinking skills, but it also identifies how different

aspects of your work interconnect. A journal can record:

where your inspiration comes from

how you make use of your ideas to develop your work

your awareness of the cultural context (setting) in which you work o this context includes: other artists’ work and their ideas; the ideas of critics

and theorists; social, political, aesthetic and ideological contexts.

The journal could include:

research notes

personal comments on your own work

notes/images from museum or gallery visits

quotes

extracts from lectures, tutorials, books, journals

photos/sketches (What is a reflective journal 2010)

9b. Why use a reflective/research journal?

These journals allow students to think critically about their learning and development while

undertaking an assignment, subject or program. Reflective journals are often assessed as a

component of a major work, and their inclusion allows students to contemplate their

perspective and opinion of the subject, as well as to reflect upon their progress. Students

can also use reflective journals to examine the application of research practices and

evaluate resources, and be able to better manage and organise the project at different

stages of its evolution. Teachers may use reflective journals to consider the efforts made in

researching widely and in refining their writing and working styles.





9c. Ways of keeping a reflective/research journal

Like any journal, it’s best to contribute to reflective journals on a regular basis. An ideal aim

is to contribute at least weekly, or more often depending on when thoughts and ideas arise

that you may wish to note. Even short entries are valuable and should be added. Reflective

journals do not need to be structured or formatted in any particular way.

Note: While freedom of expression is encouraged, typed entries are preferred to ensure

that the journals are legible to the assessor.

It is important to remember that these journals are not a description of your project or

course, but an analysis of your own strategy and the information and sources being used.

There is no restriction on what to include; a good reflective journal will encompass a range

of ideas, opinions and responses.

Basic headings in a reflective/research journal should include:

• The date

• Part of assignment you are working on

• Short relevant descriptions

• Major findings or issues

Broader areas to cover may include:

• Any questions you may have about the topic or assignment

• Points that you may have found especially interesting in the readings

and wish to follow up on

• Any major themes arising from the practice or research

• Any aspects of the project that may relate to your own personal or

work experience

• Research methods used and resources consulted, and how useful (or

not) they were

• Observations or comments from classmates or teachers about the

topic

• Goals and objectives of the project, for instance, whether you would

like to become proficient or knowledgeable in a particular area





9d. Advantages

There are many advantages in undertaking reflective writing when completing assignments

or courses. As well as improving the assessment, many longer‐term benefits are gained

from the process. Reflective/research journals allow students to:

• Think critically about the direction of their project and consider possible

alternative approaches

• Consider their own and others’ learning styles, and possibly incorporate

new methods gleaned from others into their own work

Examine their responses to, and the use of, information and sources

gathered

• Note any useful practices or methods used and adopt them for the

remainder of the project/course (and into the long‐term)

• Develop a systematic approach to the management and completion of

the assignment or course by outlining major themes, tasks, priorities and

deadlines

• Develop a broad view of the subject area and its major writers,

commentators

Improve skills in information literacy, such as being able to identify

websites that are accurate, authoritative and current

Enhance practices of information retrieval, for instance, understanding

which databases are most relevant and useful for the subject area

It is important that regular contributions are made to journals and not simply at the end of a

subject or topic. Regular entries will more clearly illustrate the various processes and

directions taken during the study of the subject, and this will be evident to the teacher.

When used correctly, a journal can be an invaluable tool to enhance self‐learning and

personal growth, and may assist in identifying opportunities for personal improvement.





10. Glossary of terms

Prior to researching or writing an essay or report, it is imperative that you understand what

is being asked of you. The following directive words describe how you should approach a

topic:

Analyse ‐ this requires an answer that takes apart an idea, concept or statement in order to

consider the elements it comprises. Answers of this type should be very methodical and

logically organised.

Argue ‐ an argument means to make clear or prove. You must have a particular point of

view and provide an answer to the question using evidence.

Assess ‐ this involves a judgment about an idea or subject. You may need to state whether

the idea or subject being discussed is valuable or relevant after acknowledging points for

and, against it. Your judgment should be influenced by other authors' views as well as your

own opinion of the merits of an idea or subject.

Compare ‐ this requires an answer that sets items side by side and shows their similarities

and differences. A balanced (fair, objective) answer is expected.

Contrast ‐ this requires an answer that points out only the differences between two or more

topics.

Criticise – to pass a judgement based on assessment of both good points and limitations

Define – to give to the exact meaning or definition

Describe ‐ this requires you to describe the attributes or characteristics of a subject.

Discuss ‐ this requires an answer which explains an item or concept, and then gives details

about it with supporting information, examples, points for and against, and explanations for

the facts put forward from various points of view. This can be one of the most difficult types

of essay question.

Evaluate – to study and assess an argument or proposition and make a judgement after

looking at the advantages and disadvantages





Examine – to investigate or research the topic

Explain – to make the meaning clear, looking in particular and reasons, causes and effects

Illustrate / Demonstrate ‐ this requires an answer that consists mainly of examples to

demonstrate or prove the subject of the question. It is often accompanied with further

instructions.

Interpret ‐ very similar to the task word Explain. An interpretation involves explaining what

your subject means. In an essay of this type, you should examine the key components of a

topic or idea and give an overall judgment or evaluation of it.

Investigate ‐ search, study and carefully survey all areas of the subject.

Justify ‐ this requires an answer that gives only the reasons for a position or argument.

Note, however, that the proposition to be argued may be a negative one. Remember, it

should convince the reader about your point of view. Mind map – a diagram used to represent ideas and words linked to, and arranged around, a central key word or idea. The use of a mind map can be useful to encourage a brainstorming approach to planning a report or essay Outline – to summarise the main ideas supported by secondary evidence

Prove – to convince your reader using logical arguments

Review – to go over or summarise, looking at important areas and criticising where

necessary

Summarise – to give a brief account of the main points, leaving out detail and example





11. Further information sources

The following resources may assist you with academic writing, and preparing resumes and

tenders. All the books listed below are a selection of resources available in the NMIT Library

network. The websites provide more detailed information on the relevant subjects.

Academic writing

Cite/write 2011, Queensland University of Technology, accessed 18th October 2011,

http://www.citewrite.qut.edu.au

Deane, M 2010, Academic research, writing and referencing, Pearson Education, New York.

Essay or report? 20aa, Monash University, accessed 18th October 2011,

http://www.monash.edu.au/lls/llonline/quickrefs/06‐essay‐report.xml

Glaser, J 2010, Understanding style: practical ways to improve your writing, 2nd edn, Oxford

University Press, New York.

Hood, S 2010, Appraising research: evaluation in academic writing, Palgrave Macmillan,

New York.

Luey, B 2010, Handbook for academic authors, 5th edn, Cambridge University Press, New

York.

Report writing FAQs 2011, University of New South Wales, accessed 18th October 2011,

http://www.lc.unsw.edu.au/onlib/report.html

Rolls, N & Wignell, P 2007, Communicating at university: skills for success, Charles Darwin

University Press, Darwin.

Rosen, L 2006, The academic writer’s handbook, Pearson Longman, New York.

Soles, D 2009, The essentials of academic writing, 2nd edn, Wadsworth Cengage Learning,

Australia.

Summers, J & Smith, B 2010, Communication skills handbook, 3rd edn, Wiley, Milton, Qld.





Turabian, K 2010, Student’s guide to writing college papers, 4th edn, University of Chicago

Press, Chicago, Ill.

Veit, R & Gould, C 2009, Writing, reading and research, 8th edn, Wadsworth Cengage

Learning, Boston, MA.

Wallwork, A 2011, English for writing research papers, Springer, New York.

Writing skills 2011, Curtin University of Technology, accessed 18th October 2011,

http://learningcentre.curtin.edu.au/skills/writing_skills.cfm

Oral Presentations

Angle, D 2007, Presentations: how to give good presentations, accessed 18th October 2011, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AzsPgsHLNT0

Atkins, M 2005, Finding your voice: ten steps to successful public speaking, Lothian, South Melbourne, Vic.

Bonetti, R 2001, Don't freak out speak out: public speaking with confidence, Words and Music, The Gap, Qld.

Brown, M 2003, Making presentations happen: a simple and effective guide to speaking with confidence and power, Allen & Unwin, Crows Nest, NSW.

Leigh, R & Blackmur, A 2004, Great public speaking: an audience in the palm of your hand [digital video disc], Video Education Australasia, Bendigo, Vic.

Monash University 2011, A guide to oral presentations, accessed 18th October 2011, http://www.monash.edu.au/lls/llonline/quickrefs/11‐oral‐presentations.xml Pennsylvania State University 2011, Information about oral presentations, accessed 18th October 2011, http://istudy.psu.edu/FirstYearModules/OralReports/ReportInfo.html Publicspeakingskills.com 2009, 90 minutes to killer presentation skills [digital video disc], 2nd edn, Autotrain.net, Chester Springs, Pa.

RMIT University Study and Learning Centre 2011, Oral presentations, accessed 18th October 2011, http://www.dlsweb.rmit.edu.au/lsu/content/2_AssessmentTasks/assess_pdf/oral_presentations.pdf Templeton, M 2010, Public speaking and presentation demystified, McGraw‐Hill, New York. University of Melbourne 2011, Oral presentations, accessed 18th October 2011, http://www.courseworks.unimelb.edu.au/researchandwriting/oralpresentations.php





Microsoft Powerpoint 2007

Curran, M 2008, How to use Microsoft PowerPoint 2007 [DVD], Video Education Australasia, Bendigo, Vic.

Muir, N 2007, Microsoft Office PowerPoint 2007 plain & simple, Microsoft Press, Redmond, Washington.

Tips for effective presentation skills: Power Point 2010, Let’s Talk Institute, accessed 31st October 2011, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dbNKjp2Qxd4&feature=related.

Wempen, F 2007, PowerPoint 2007 bible, Wiley, Indianapolis, IN.

Referencing

Amiry, N & Haaq, D 2004, Avoiding plagiarism [DVD], Schlessinger Media, Wynnewood, PA.

Dean, M 2010, Academic research, writing and referencing, Pearson Education, New York.

Neville, C 2010, The complete guide to referencing and avoiding plagiarism, 2nd edn, Open

University Press, Maidenhead.

Referencing 2011, NMIT Library, accessed 18th October 2011,

http://library.nmit.vic.edu.au/cgi‐bin/spydus.exe/MSGTRN/OPAC/REFERENCE

Resume writing

Breitenmoser, K & Preston, L 2008, Job application: looking good on paper [DVD], Video

Education Australasia, Bendigo, Vic.

Brown, L 2007, Resume writing made easy: a practical guide to resume preparation and job

search, 8th edn, Pearson/Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.

Collins, C & Harding, B 2006, Powerful resumes, [DVD], Video Education Australasia,

Bendigo, Vic.

How to write a resume 2011, Youth Central, accessed 18th October 2011,

http://www.youthcentral.vic.gov.au/Jobs+&+Careers/Applying+for+jobs/How+to+write+a+r

esume

Madero, F 2004, The resume guide: how to write a winning resume, New Holland, Frenchs

Forest, NSW.





Mills, C 2009, You’re hired! CVs: how to write a brilliant CV, Trotman, Richmond, Vic.

Seidman, E 2011, How to tailor your resume to specific jobs, eHow, accessed 18th October

2011, http://www.ehow.com/how_2343733_tailor‐resume‐specific‐jobs.html#

Shrank, L 2006, Effective resumes & job applications [DVD], Learning Seed (US).

Study Skills resources

Study skills 2009, Study Skills Advisory Service, NMIT, accessed 18th October 2011,

https://staff.nmit.vic.edu.au/corporateservices/ss/StudySkills/Pages/default.aspx

Tender writing

Lewis, H 2007, Bids, tenders and proposals: winning business through best practice, 2nd edn,

Kogan Page, London.

Overton, R 2003, Tenders and proposals made simple, Martin Books, Sydney.

Victor, A 2008, ‘How to write a winning tender’, Ezine articles, accessed 18th October 2011,

http://ezinearticles.com/?How‐to‐Write‐a‐Winning‐Tender&id=971969&opt=print

Victor, A 2008, ‘How to write a tender proposal’, Ezine articles, accessed 18th October 2011,

http://ezinearticles.com/?How‐to‐Write‐a‐Tender‐Proposal&id=965234





12. Bibliography

Atkins, M 2005, Finding your voice: ten steps to successful public speaking, Lothian, South Melbourne.

Barrass, R 2006, Speaking for yourself: a guide for students, Routledge, Abingdon [England].

Bonetti, R 2001, Don’t freak out, speak out: public speaking with confidence, Words & Music, The Gap, Qld.

Cite/write 2011, Queensland University of Technology, accessed 18th October 2011,

http://www.citewrite.qut.edu.au/write/essayquestions.jsp

ELSSA Centre UTS 2011, Reflective journal, UTS, accessed 18th October 2011,

http://www.elssa.uts.edu.au/resources/writing/reflective.html

How to write a resume 2011, Youth Central, accessed 18th October 2011,

http://www.youthcentral.vic.gov.au/Jobs+&+Careers/Applying+for+jobs/How+to+write+a+r

esume

Judd, N 2011, How to write a reflective journal, E‐How, accessed 18th October 2011,

http://www.ehow.com/how_4610609_write‐reflective‐journal.html

Laskowski, L 1996, Overcoming speaking anxiety in meetings & presentations, LJL Seminars, accessed 18th October 2011, http://www.ljlseminars.com/anxiety.htm

Learning Centre UNSW 2010, Reflective writing, UNSW, accessed 18th October 2011,

http://www.lc.unsw.edu.au/onlib/reflect.html

Presentation tips for public speaking 2009, A Research Guide for Students, accessed 18th October 2011, http://www.aresearchguide.com/3tips.html.

Referencing 2011, NMIT Library, accessed 18th October 2011,

http://library.nmit.vic.edu.au/cgi‐bin/spydus.exe/MSGTRN/OPAC/REFERENCE.

Seidman, E 2011, How to tailor your resume to specific jobs, eHow, viewed 18th October

2011, http://www.ehow.com/how_2343733_tailor‐resume‐specific‐jobs.html#.

Students’ guide to assessment 2009, Health & Community Studies Department, NMIT, Preston, Vic.

Study guide, Melbourne Consulting and Custom Programs, University of Melbourne,

Hawthorn, Vic.

Study skills 2011, Study Skills Advisory Service, NMIT, accessed 18th October 2011,

https://staff.nmit.vic.edu.au/corporateservices/ss/StudySkills/Pages/default.aspx





Tips for a great oral presentation 2009, Department of Education and Early Childhood Development , accessed 18th October 2011, http://www.education.vic.gov.au/languagesonline/toolkit/communication/docs/tips for a great oral presentation.doc.

Victor, A 2008, ‘How to write a winning tender’, Ezine articles, accessed 18th October 2011,

http://ezinearticles.com/?How‐to‐Write‐a‐Winning‐Tender&id=971969&opt=print

Victor, A 2008, ‘How to write a tender proposal’, Ezine articles, accessed 18th October 2011,

http://ezinearticles.com/?How‐to‐Write‐a‐Tender‐Proposal&id=965234

What is a reflective journal 2010, University of Southampton, accessed 18th October 2011,

http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:xU8ozk0aLk4J:www.soton.ac.uk/

edusupport/ldc/docs/New%2520reflective%2520journal.doc+what+is+a+reflective+journal

&cd=6&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=au.

academic writing style guide

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