ACADEMIC WRITING

GGGB6012SEMESTER I 2013-2014

Lecture 1

What is academic writing?

Audience↕

Purpose↕

Organization↕

Style↕

Flow↕

Presentation

Audience

For whom are you writing? What are their expectations?What do they already know? --- What assumptions can you, the

writer, make about the reader/s?--- How familiar is the audience with

the content of your writing?--- Thus, how clear should the writer

be?The answers to these questions help

determine the content of your writing.

Purpose and Strategy

Audience, purpose, and strategy --- all interrelated

If reader/audience knows less than the writer -- writer’s purpose is instructional. E.g. a textbook

If reader knows more, the purpose is to show or demonstrate familiarity, expertise, and intelligence e.g. in graduate school writing

What are the strategies for successful display or demonstration of knowledge? E.g. how to present ideas to convince the reader such as summarizing and connecting particular ideas to wider issues.

Organization

Academic writing uses a variety of organizational patterns -- internal and external

e.g. chapters, sections, paragraphs -- external organizations

Information is to the audience systematically e.g. using a structured format

Most writings -- comprise regular, predictable patterns (so that the audience can follow the ideas)

Predictable patterns in writings can be observed, eg.letters – letter of rejection and acceptance (good news letter). Are they organized the same way?

Organization…

An example of a strategy in academic writing –

Problem-solution (four parts):

1.Describe a situation

2.Identify the problem

3.Describe the solution

4.Evaluate the solution

Organization…

Other ways of organization:Comparison-contrast (e.g. contrastive

definitions; comparative summaries)Cause-effect (one cause and multiple

effects – earthquakes; multiple causes and one effect – global warming)

Classification (e.g. “Earthquake effects on underground structures can be grouped into two categories: (1) ground shaking and (2) ground failure.

Research paper introductions follow an established organizational pattern.

Style

• Academic writing requires a specific style.

• Style of writing -- must be consistent and

appropriate (for the message conveyed

and the audience)

e.g. Formal research report written in

informal English – too simplistic although

the actual ideas/data are complex

Style…

• What is academic and non-academic style? Difficult to determine.

• Grammar check program on the computer – only finds spelling and basic grammar errors; no stylistic advice or may not be right for your writing

e.g. grammar checker may consider using passive voice as unacceptable – but, describing a process or procedure may allow this!

• What is acceptable academic style, may differ in one area of study and others e.g. Contractions are allowed in philosophy, but not in other areas.

Style…

• Beginning sentences with informal elements such as But, using imperatives (as in consider the case of…) and using first person “I” are becoming common in academic writing.

• Academic style is not used in all academic writing.

Academic and research speech --- more like casual conversation than written academic English. E.g. US lecturers use phrases such as stuff, things, bunch, or a whole lot of – all not appropriate for academic writing tasks. Often metaphors and vivid expressions are used to make speaking style lively.

Style…

Language Focus: The Vocabulary Shift

• A feature of academic writing style -- using the more formal form when selecting a verb, noun, or other parts of speech.

1. Verbs• To express an action or occurrence

in English, we often use a phrasal verb (verb +particle) or prepositional verb (verb + preposition) and a single verb

Style…

• In lectures and everyday speech, verb + preposition is used.

• In written academic style --- academic writers use a single verb.

• This is critical shift from informal to formal style.

Example:

(a) According to some psycholinguists,

coming up with clear proof of the role of

universal grammar for second language

learning has been problematic. (less

formal style)

Style…

(b) According to some psycholinguists,

offering clear proof of the role of

universal grammar for second language

learning has been problematic.

(academic style)

Style…

2. Nouns and Other Parts of Speech: Choosing the More Formal Alternative

• More than one way to express an idea using varied vocabulary.

• Choose words that are less informal and also precise.

Style…

Language Focus: Formal Grammar Style

1. In general, avoid contractions.

e.g. Export figures won’t improve until the economy is stronger. (will not)

2. Use formal negative forms.

e.g. not…any no

(a)The analysis didn’t yield any results.

(b)The analysis yielded no new results.

Style…

not…much little

1(a) The government didn’t allocate much funding for the program.

(b) The government allocated little funding for the program.

not…many few

2 (a)This problem doesn’t have many viable solutions.

(b) This problem has few viable solutions.

Style…

3. Limit use of “run-on” expressions, such as and so forth and etc.

(a)These semiconductors can be used in robots, CD players, etc.

(b)These semiconductors can be used in robots, CD players, and other electronic devices.

Style…

4. Avoid addressing the reader as you (unless you are writing a textbook or instructional materials).

e.g.

(a) You can see the results in table 1.

(b) The results cab be seen in Table 1.

(c ) You can classify individuals as Morning

Types (MT) or Evening Types (ET).

(d) Individuals can be classified as Morning Types (MT) or Evening Types (ET).

Style…

5. Be careful about using direct questions.

(a) What can be done to lower costs?

(b) It is necessary to consider how costs may be lowered.

Or

(c ) We now need to consider how costs may

be lowered.

6. Place adverbs within the verb.

Adverbs are often placed in mid-position rather than in the initial or final positions. In informal English, adverbs appear at the beginning or end of sentences.

Style…

Examples:

1.(a) Actually, very little is known about the general nature and prevalence of scientific dishonesty.

(b) Very little is actually known about the general nature and prevalence of scientific dishonesty.

2. (a)This model was developed by Krugman (1979) originally.

(b) This model was originally developed by Krugman (1979).

Style…

7. Think about whether you should split infinitives.

• Prescriptive grammar prohibits use of split infinitives (putting an adverbial modifier between to and the infinitive as in to sharply rise).

• Sometimes split infinitives are used to avoid ambiguity or awkwardness.

• Find out about reader’s preference.

Examples:

We need to adequately meet the needs of those enrolled in the program.

Style…

Neural networks have the ability to correctly classify new patterns.

9. Focus on the efficient use of words.

Use as many words you need to express your points; try to use no more than you really need (not too many or more than necessary).

Examples:

It may be difficult to make a decision about the method that we should use.

√ Choosing the proper method may be difficult.

Flow

For successful communication, you should consider “flow” – moving from one statement in a text to the next.

Language Focus:

1. Linking Words and Phrases• Linking words and phrases help

maintain flow and establish clear relationships between ideas.

Flow…

2. Punctuation

(a) Semicolons join two completely independent sentences. They work like a full stop.

e.g. √ The participants in the first study were paid; those in the second were unpaid.

(b) Semicolons can be used with sentence connectors.

e.g. Increasing the size of airports is one solution to traffic congestion; however, this is a long-term solution whose benefits may not be seen for many years into the future.

That’s all for today!