Development Geography Notes- Shakti S the nature of development

• the use of indicators to illustrate spatial variations in the level and rate of development at a global scale• issues arising from these spatial patterns of development such as access to food, shelter, social support, health and educational opportunities• equity issues related to ethnicity, class and gender, and ecologically sustainable development. Development: a process of change that involves an improvement in the quality of life as perceived by the people undergoing change. The nature of development will vary depending on the context in which it is occurring. 

Explain why it is difficult to define the term development:Development has different meanings for different people, depending on what aspects of quality of life they value. The meaning of development is context specific, it varies from place to place and depends on the interests, culture and values of those who define it

Identify the essential elements of any definition of development: It is a process of change that results in improvements in quality of life (as experienced by the 

people experiencing change) The central focus of any change/development should be the reduction of absolute poverty The nature of the change will vary, depending on the context of the development process. In 

other words, the values and priorities of the community, region or country undergoing change should shape the nature of the change.

Explain why the meaning of development is said to be value specific? The meaning of development is value specific, as it has different meanings for different people, depending on what aspects of life they value. Basically, individuals have different priorities, different wants and needs the define their own perceived change to improve their quality of life.

4. Distinguish between a country's economic development and human development Many assume that the path of development lies in the pursuit of economic growth and 

modernisation. Economic growth considers our access to consumer goods and services [however all societies 

can benefit from the traditional values of many developing societies, such as strong family and community ties, sharing and cooperation and living in harmony with the environment]

UNDP 2007 on human development… is about creating an environment on which people can develop to their full potential and lead productive, creative lives in accordance with their needs and interest. People are the real wealth of nations. Development is thus about expanding the choices people have to lead lives that they value

Economic development is about enlarging peoples choices 

Development is an ongoing, dynamic process by which individual's identify themselves as a community and are collectively empowered to sustainably enhance community resources 

Defining poverty-  Poverty is…. Hunger Being sick Not having access to school and not knowing how to read

Not having a job A fear for the future Living one day at a time Losing a child to illness brought about by unclean water Powerlessness Lack of representation and freedom Lack of choice and opportunity Existing in both poor and rich countries eg. Australia

  Outcomes of development: Integration with the global economy People leading productive, creative lives in accord with their needs and interests Enlarges people's choices Individuals and communities are empowered  Future growth and sustainability

b] different processes of development that lead to these outcomes: Economic growth led by the private sector An ongoing dynamic process Empowerment with knowledge Sustainable development c] what do you think causes these different understandings about development?

Different views are bought upon by different contexts. A person who lives a affluent lifestyle with ostentatious wealth will define development differently to a person residing in a shanty town. It depends on the wants and needs of the individual, what they want to achieve through development. 

Characteristics of developing countries: There are a variety of issues that affect developing countries more than developed ones ^^ these issues can be regarded as defining characteristics of the world's poorer countries Some of the characteristic of poor countries are quantitative indicators to measure 

development. NOT all developing countries share similar characteristics. Eg- Thailand and Vietnam are 

commonly regarded as developing countries, however have high literacy levels- 92.6%, 90.3%  Poor health and low access to health services:

Eg. In Niger between 2000-04, they had 2 physicians per 100,000 people/ Belgium: 449/100,000

Low life expectancy at birth: = low availability of medical services in poor countries means people are less likely to survive diseases of poverty= more susceptible to preventable diseases with a lack of immunisation= more women and children dying thus^^= poor nutrition, unclean water, poor sanitation, inadequate supplies of food= sub-Saharan countries [Congo, Rwanda, Cameroon] lowest life expectancy= High-income OECD countries [aus, us, uk, spain, Norway, nz, japan, Israel, canada] highest life expectancies

3. High infant mortality rates:= they have decreased but are still high eg- 57/1000 in 2005= the under 5 mortality rates are particularly high in poor countries

4. Low per capita income:= usually developing countries have low per capita incomes

= middle of the 2000's, the richest 20% of the population shared 3/4 of the world's income, while the poorest 40% between them only consumed 5%.=^^ VERY poorest, 20% shared only 1.5%

5. Poverty and indebtness;= it is estimated that 2.8 billion people live on less than US$2 a day= developing countries have tended to be heavily indebted (owing money)= initiatives to 'forgive' debt in the last decade have reduced the debt burden of many countries=some countries were spending a lot of their GDP on servicing debt e.g.. Lebanon, 16.1% of GDP used for debt in 2005, 32.1% for Kazakhstan

6. High levels of illiteracy:= generally taken to be at 99% in developed countries= 76.7% in developing between 1995-05

7. High rates of population growth:= growing populations create additional demand and strain for employment, schooling, infrastructure, health and other services

8. Low levels of technology:= low levels of applied science in agriculture and industry= labour-intensive methods of production still tend to dominate in both agriculture and industry in the world's poorest countries

9. Emphasis on primary production:= more people are engaged in agriculture in developing nations

10. Dietary deficiencies:= ^^ result from inadequate food intake= maybe poor quality or insufficient=during 2001-03, a reported 854 million people were undernourished= 1 child dies of hunger every 5 seconds

11. Low levels of infrastructure:= low national incomes, low levels of infrastructure= e.g. in east Timor, only 36% of the population have access to sanitation= similar situations, east-south Asia and sub-Saharan Africa

12. Comparatively low levels of energy consumption:= developing countries use far less of the world's global energy supplies

  The number of planets needed to sustain the world at different countries' levels of 

consumption, 2005 US: 5 1/3 FRANCE: 3 BRAZIL: 2 INDIA: 1/3 MALAWI: 1/4 or 1/5

           Millennium Development Goals: 2007 Progress Chart  

 

 

 Factors affecting the rate of development:

When thinking about what my cause differential rates of development between countries, it is important to consider the following:= Scale: at the local level eg. Amongst indigenous minorities, such as abl aussies) factors contributing to poverty may not be the same as those responsible for poverty at the national level, or on the macro scale -very large scale= Internal or external: factors internal or external to a community or country may cause poverty and the characteristics common to poor countries= Complexity:

Complex interrelationships usually exist between factors that contribute to poverty and lack of development Internal factors influencing development:

The resource base:

HAVING RESOURCES: Wealth can be partially attributed to the resources available to particular countries and communities

Eg- UAE and Qatar, extract money form rich oil resources However, other countries only have limited supplies of resources When a country's biophysical environment (climate, soil and landforms)

are suitable for agriculture, a country can become self-sufficient in production of food resources

Eg. Selling apples: domestically only sell 80 and send 20 overseas to be sold.. Use the money made overseas to buy more machinery and resources to make more apples [any surplus can be exported to generate capital for investment in other areas]

NO RESOURCES: On the other hand, lack of fertile environment would mean, a country is forced to rely on costly imports to meet the needs of its people

NO RESOURCES, STILL MAKING MONEY- eg. Japan, was able to achieve a high level of development based on the importation of raw materials and the exportation of manufactured goods. Cars.  

Political instability: Economic and social development may be hampered and poverty caused by political 

instability Dating back in history, many of the world's colonies are among the world's poorest countries Internal political instability --> national borders (India and Pakistan) (Russia and Georgia) " " can carry a heavy cost burden, instead of funds being devoted to development-human 

development, they are often diverted to finance the activities of the military and police forces. 

^^ resulting in the destruction of infrastructure, people displaced and the economy disrupted Products of history, countries with current political instability: Rwanda, Cambodia, east Timor 

and sri lanka  

Population growth: A county's ability to provide medical and educational facilities, infrastructure and adequate 

food supplies is immediately affected by a rise in the number of births Many countries have tried to introduce national population policies eg- china Population growth and control is very controversial Many argue, that the population growth is largely to blame for the world's environmental

and development programs Other's argue that- poverty, indebtedness, inequities in access to land, and global

inequalities are the real causes of environmental degradation and poverty. Women groups argue that addressing population can be improved by empowering women

eg. Education and family planning services People in developing countries argue that the overconsumption of sources by developed

countries need to be addressed.   

Environmental Degradation: " " both a symptom of poverty and a factor contributing to ongoing poverty Locally- people are causing land degradation eg. The overuse of land for crops and wood for 

fire in Africa Land overuse results in reduction in soil fertility In developing countries to repay debt, Govt are encouraging mining and agriculture Eg- land overuse in Africa, led to desertification

There is a growing concern of climate change on the poor peopleEG. Drought and food insecurity in Niger 

Compounding the problems of developing countries- The symptoms of underdevelopment often contribute to the ongoing problems of developing

countries e.g.-argued that poor health can reduce the productivity of people in certain areas ^^ similarly, low levels of income, govts don’t have money to invest in health care services etc. The priorities of individual governments may also significantly determine the nature of

development within a country. E.g.. Some might direct money toward the military of wealthy elites

^^ so good governance is extremely important in the process of development 

Local culture and traditions are sometimes regarded as obstacles to development. Eg- Hindu's are often born into social classes and castes

^^ determines their occupation and status in life Such rigid social systems can hinder development for some social groups or communities

  Corruption is also frequently cited as an internal cause of poverty and thus of

underdevelopment Corruption is everywhere. India, Australia In poorer countries, people are more susceptible to the influence of corrupt individuals e.g..

Bureaucracies ^^ higher levels of illiteracy and less understanding of rights

 National Development and the impacts of external factors:Influences originating within developing countries are not the only causes of poverty. External causes of poverty can be historical

Legacy of history: Many of the world's poorest countries were once colonies, part of vast European empires In the years immediately after ww2, most colonial powers gave up, or were forced to give up 

their colonial territories However, colonialism has remained in some states influencing their paths to development Many of the colonies were used as markets for finished products and other surpluses 

produced ion the industrialised countries.  At the same time, the colonial countries supplied raw materials and foodstuffs needed by 

colonial power Restrictions were often placed on the ability of the colony to produce goods that were 

already produced by the colonial power, or to trade freely with countries other than the colonial power. 

Many trade relationships with wealthier countries have remained Many of the former colonies still suffer from economic  dependence

  Debt burdens: During the 1970's oil prices were high and developed countries suffered an economic 

recession--> due to high oil prices Recession in developed countries meant that demand for credit from the commercial banks 

declined Seeking to earn income on the reserves they held, the commercial banks began to look for 

new markets.  They saw a potential market in poor countries

Lending and loans offered through official aid programs to developing countries grew dramatically, as they wanted to industrialise

However, rising interest rates had a devastating effect on poor countries during the 1980's. Repayments on the debts began to cost more and more The recession in the developed world also meant that foreign investment in poor countries 

declined.  Under pressure to meet debt repayments, many developing countries attempted to increase 

export earnings by allowing the exploitation of natural resources, such as native forests and mineralsINITIATIVES: 

'Debt for nature swaps'- is a strategy to attempt to solve the problem of debt while ensuring the conservation of natural resources.

^^ first swap occurred in 1987, when CONSERVATION INTERNATIONAL bought out US$650,000 of Bolivian debt for US$100 000. the money saved was to be used for the management of several biological reserves. 

Other swaps in Philippines and Ecuador  Recognition of the burden that debt payments impose has led to concerted campaigns by 

nongovernmental development assistance organisations, advocacy groups, academics and the general public for debt forgiveness. 

Campaigns throughout the 1980's has meant that some countries have excused others from repaying debts. 

Eg. In 1995: Denmark, cancelled the debts of 5 very poor countries: Angola, Ghana, Nicaragua, Bolivia and Zimbabwe

Global make poverty history campaign- launched into `2005, has the support of nelson Mandela, Nicole Kidman and bono

The heavily indebted Poor countries (HIPC): set up in 1996 by the world bank and the international monetary fund. 

In the last decade, 22 countries have been excused with US$40 billion of debt cancelled  

Trade imbalances: Most developing countries are still net importers of manufactured goods= imports more 

goods than they export  Most developed countries are mostly next exporters= export more manufactured goods than 

they import  Many poor countries are still dependant on the industrialised, wealthy countries for 

numerous high-cost imported goods. Poor countries also rely heavily on agricultural products for their export earnings They have improved, but developing countries are usually at a disadvantage in world trade:

the value of their imports often exceeds the income earned from their exports--> thus incur on debt rather than surplus from trade

Many poor countries have encouraged the conversion of farmland from subsistence production to production of   cash crops. Can be devastating for poor local farmers

Subsistence agriculture is self-sufficiency farming in which farmers focus on growing enough food to feed their families. The typical subsistence farm has a range of crops and animals needed by the family to eat during the year.

Natural conditions --> droughts, floods--> are likely to influence the supply of cash crops and raw materials. And therefore the incomes received from their sale. 

Transnational corporations:  are large organisations with operations in several countries

Usually they have the parent company based in a developed country, TNC's frequently operate subsidiary companies in developing countries. 

Subsidiary companies- owned by bigger companies Parent company- the company owning the majority of the voting stock of another

corporation In the 1970's and 80's, many developing countries welcomed TNC's, believing they would 

bring employment, use raw materials and stimulate economic growth in the host country.  For TNC's, developing countries are an attractive base because of their abundant supply of 

cheap labour , lower cost of inputs (land and services), cheap raw materials  The profit generated from the selling of goods, belong to the parent company based in a 

developed country.   In reality, instead of putting money in the developing country, they take most of the profits 

to their developed, home country and distribute it between their employers.--> developing country, doesn’t get many benefits.

SWEAT SHOPS EG> NIKE 

Militarisation: After ww2, many of the newly independent countries of the developing world became 

involved in international power politics. In response to security scares and insecurity from elite forces, many developing countries 

accepted military and economic aid. Expenditure on armaments by developing countries has also contributed to their debt issues

  Dependency on development assistance; AID IS A BY-PRODUCT OF DECOLONISATION Aid was promoted as the means to stimulate economic growth In the poor world.  Aid is also known as: development assistance or development cooperation

3 major types of aid donation: Bilateral aid: provided by govts of developed countries to govts of developing countries Multilateral aid: given by multilateral institutions such as world bank and IMF, as loans Nongovernmental aid: distributed by NGO's, who receive their income from donations.  Some would argue that aid has had little impact on addressing the 'big issues', such as the 

imbalance in trade relationships, which perpetuate (keeps it going, BAD)poverty.  Creates a dependency on outside assistance from poor countries.  Grand infrastructure developments, has frequently been a feature of foreign aid programs.  In recent times, there has been a shift towards support of poverty focused projects that 

directly involve poor people in the design of projects intended to assist them to improve their own lives. = community consultation and self-determinationTOP 10 RECIPIENTS OF GROSS AUSTRALIAN ODA/OA

RANK COUNTRY US$MILLION

1 Indonesia 248

2 Papua new guinea 238

3 Iraq 150

4 Solomon islands 145

5 Vietnam 50

6 Philippines 48

7 East Timor 42

  

Equity issues and development Attempts being made to foster development in the world's poorer countries, and some of the 

impacts of those changes on people and places. This section focuses on equity issues associated with development, particularly those 

connected with ethnicity, gender, class, children and ownership of resources. 

Economic development and change: The view that economic growth would provide the 'key' to the successful development of 

poor countries was widely held throughout the 1950's and 60's.  It was generally believed that for poor countries to overcome problems of poverty and lack 

of development, their economic, political and social structures needed to be transformed. A change in structures from: traditional or underdeveloped to modern or developed Agricultural productivity seemed to offer limited prospects for the poorer countries to 

achieve prosperity. It was assumed that industrialisation was a desirable process for poor countries Injecting resources, (technology and expertise), in the form of aid into poor countries, would 

stimulate there economies It was not fully appreciated that the traditional lifestyles of some people can be sustainable, 

and many enable them to live independently. Trickle down effect: An economic theory which states that investing money in companies and giving them tax breaks is the best way to stimulate the economy.^^ money will soon trickle down to the rest of the population.

However, income generated by economic growth is rarely distributed equitably. In many countries, economic growth has done little to improve living conditions Furthermore, economic growth has often resulted in unintended consequences for some 

groups of people and for the environment. 

Modernisation, land ownership and landlessness: Some countries inherited systems of plantation agriculture, or cash cropping that had been 

introduced in the colonial period to provide commodities for the colonial powers. Cash cropping was encouraged- the growing of crops for sale as opposed to consumption.. Many government projects were aimed at agriculture and cash cropping, introducing 

fertilisers This change was bad for farmers, who could not afford fertilisers and other agricultural 

mechanisms.  Wealthier farmers benefited, at the expense of the poor Income gained from cash crops was unreliable, dependent on crop yields and susceptible to 

fluctuations in world markets prices ^^ poor farmers were forced to sell their land for basic necessities like food, or to repay debts Without access to land, many became labourers or joined the food migration to urban 

centres for work In addition, commercialisation of agriculture contributed to excessive land clearing, overuse 

of land, soil erosion and contamination of soils through the use of chemical inputs. Massive expenditure on pesticides

 CASE STUDY Of drought and debt:

Small farmers in northern Andhra Pradesh (India) are vulnerable to drought and commercial markets

After 2 months of drought, rain swept India in mid-October 2002. Smoke was rising of the ground and thatched houses Many crops they have managed to grow, are however destroyed. Eg-

cotton bolls are matted and soggy Many go to the big cities begging for food, in a hope to reach 1/6 of US$2 a

day. This district made news in 1998,with a spate of farmer suicides. ^^^ pesticide consumption Government subsidies for agriculture have been slashed, raising price.

 Urbanisation and the urban poor:

An estimated 90% of urbanisation from rural to urban will occur in developing nations Push factors to encourage rural-urban migration: Loss of land- land degradation Loss of job opportunities3. Rural poverty4. Famine5. Crop failure6. Natural and climatic disasters war and civil unrest Pull factors " ": Finding employment Achieving  a higher standard of living (SOL) Better access to education and health Enjoying entertainment facilities

  The push to  modernise agriculture in many countries, and the introduction of commercial 

cash cropping have displaced many subsistence farmers and rural labourers Creating a growing class of urban poor

 Case Study: Cities out of balance:

Biggest toll of urbanisation on the poorest residents In the absence of garbage collection, flushing toilets, running water, shanty town dwellers

around the world spend their days maintaining cramped homes, walking long distances to a menial job, accepting contaminated water, living in un-secure places

For example- squatter residents in Buenos Aires, inhabit polluted banks of rivers, which are over-run with rats, fleas. Less than 2km, some of the cities wealthiest residents live in gated communities

In Dhaka, Bangladesh- 40% of the people, are crammed into 5% of the land, as land is unaffordable

HEALTH PROBLEMS

 Article- the future for the urban poor [MUMBAI]

Vikas Sagar is a tiny squatter community in Mumbai, India. It was founded decades ago. But the nine women sitting on the floor of Mumtaz Sadik Shaikh’s house know that no matter how long they have been living here, the Government still considers them illegal. ‘Unless we take action, nothing will be granted to us,’ says Lali Penday.

Little more than a decade ago the women of Vikas Sagar were traditional housewives so controlled by their husbands that they seldom left their community. ‘When we started,’ remembers Sangita Duby, ‘we were not able to go out of our houses. We were illiterate and signed our names with a thumbprint. Now we are literate and sign our names in Hindi and English.’ The women of Vikas Sagar know who the local politicians are. And, more importantly, the politicians know who they are.

Most governments have responded to this massive migration with outrage, attempting to drive squatters out of the city. A year ago Mumbai embarked on a drive against squatters. It was part of a campaign that was marketed with the slogan ‘from Mumbai to Shanghai’ – sending the message that crowded Mumbai was a city open for development. Local officials sent the police to flatten 90,000 homes, leaving hundreds of thousands homeless.

Slum/Shack Dwellers International (SDI). The principle is simple: each squatter community that joins SDI creates a savings association.

Any family can join if they are willing to contribute a small amount every day. The pooled money is returned to the community in the form of small loans. ‘Through savings, we don’t have to demand that the politicians improve living conditions or economic conditions or homes,’  Gender issues and development:

The majority of poor are women The civil rights of women are often limited HOUSE-HOLD SUBSISTENCE WORK: growing just enough food for your own needs with 

nothing left over to sell. Women play an essential role in survival tasks, household tasks and income generation, yet 

have little control of their education, training or income. In many countries--> women do not share the same status as men Women have also been disadvantaged by development policies: encouraging cash-cropping 

and by-passing the traditional roles of women

National measures based on income, ignore the value of unpaid work.--> women's activities in relation to their reproductive role, caring for children, are not easily quantified

Overall, globally, about 60% of unpaid workers are women Many aid projects and development programs did not consider the needs of women.  Women's status, needs and personal aspirations vary tremendously within the poor world.

 Article women's workloads:

Women’s groups here tend to come about less through an awareness of marginalization or oppression by men than through manifest practical need.

domestic duties are well known but it is less recognized that in a subsistence farming community it is generally the women who need to find the money for all the small expenses required to keep a family going, from bits of meat or condiments to enliven the basic food, to money for clothes and even school fees

. The Kobenka women pay 50 francs (about 9 US cents) a month to be members, which effectively gives them access to microcredit, and all of them of have used this to fund their own business activities – usually selling a foodstuff like peanuts or haricot beans in the market.

Their goal, they say, is to cultivate their own field of peanuts – perhaps in two years’ time – and thereby generate more significant amounts of money that will make their lives easier.   Child labour-

Young women-collect firewood, carry water, mind animals and assist in agricultural tasks, care for siblings and complete domestic duties. 

Many children labour in cottage industries with their whole family- weaving carpets, making handicrafts

Children from urban slum areas are forced to work in factories for long hours with poor pay Eg. Tendai a young girl is working from 4 am to 9pm, but is

considered unproductive, unoccupied, and economically inactive.  Indigenous minorities and the impacts of change:

Lives disrupted by colonisers Estimated about 370 million indigenous persons today in about 70 countries Lived in harmony with the land Impacts of colonisation- dislocation and assimilation, 

 how global climate change threatens developing countries:

Increased variability of precipitation eg. Monsoons Extreme weather conditions, reduced crop yields Reduced water availability Increased destruction of coral reefs Increased exposure to vector-borne diseases6. Rising sea levels, 1m

 Conclusion:

o Processes of change have affected: women, children, indigenous minorities, the rural poor, urban poor, environment, quality of life

o These changes have given priority to the generation of export income through industrialisation and commercialisation of agriculture, particularly the introduction of modern forms of monoculture.

o ^^ frequently resulted In the destruction of traditional communities 

o Gains made by developing countries, are not shared on an equal basis.o Poor are the loserso National govts are caught in the trap of having to produce income to service debt, to 

generate income for public service provision and to maintain costly defence and security systems

o ^^ achieving development, may increase impoverishment 

o Some initiatives at the local level are based on the recognition of the worth of traditional values

o For some communities, lower levels of material affluence, accompanied by a return to traditional values of sharing and cooperation and harmonious existence with and within the biophysical environment, may be an appropriate development path. 

o About balancing the priorities of poorer communities 

o Recently, it has been recognised that perhaps the greatest challenge now facing the world's poorer countries is how they will be able to adapt to the threat posed by predictions about global climate change.

o Although they have least contributed to the problem, their people, will suffer the most from the ravaged of altered weather patterns. 

o Future development paths for the world's poor countries, depend in part on the wealthy countries.

o Their interdependence with poor countries through historical colonial relationships, through trade relationships, transfers of aid, and the international financial system suggests that they too could (and should) play a major part in addressing problems of global poverty and in stimulating ecologically sustainable development.