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Table of Contents

Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................... iv

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................1

Research Questions........................................................................................................................2

Definition of Concepts ...................................................................................................................3

Traditional Hinduism................................................................................................................3

Prostitution .................................................................................................................................5

Stigma .........................................................................................................................................6

Literature Review ......................................................................................................................... 7

Prostitution Stigma in India..................................................................................................... 7

Conceptualizing Stigma............................................................................................................ 8

Film Analysis and Stigma....................................................................................................... 12

The Hindu Womans Identity................................................................................................ 13

Hindu Nationality ................................................................................................................. 14The Hindu Womans Identity, Hindu Nationality, and Patriarchy....................................... 15

Negotiating Gender Roles: Sita ............................................................................................ 17Conclusions.............................................................................................................................. 20

Methodology ................................................................................................................................ 21

Case Selection.......................................................................................................................... 21

Methods and Thesis Structure............................................................................................... 22

CHAPTER 2: MANU AND SITA THE HINDU IDEAL OF FEMININITY .................... 26

Texts and Methodology .............................................................................................................. 28

Law of Manu ............................................................................................................................ 28

Ramayana................................................................................................................................. 29

Methods........................................................................................................................................ 34

Value Themes.............................................................................................................................. 38

Pativratadharma ...................................................................................................................... 38

Motherhood ............................................................................................................................. 42

Madhury ................................................................................................................................... 45

Self-Control ............................................................................................................................. 48

Self-Control and Wickedness: The Divine Dichotomy........................................................ 53

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Chastity.................................................................................................................................... 54

Conclusions.................................................................................................................................. 58

Chapter 3: BOLLYWOOD AND THE VESHYA

HINDI FILMS PORTRAYAL OF THE PROSTITUTE ...................................................... 61Methodology ................................................................................................................................ 64

The Films ................................................................................................................................. 64

Mausam................................................................................................................................. 64

Mandi .................................................................................................................................... 65Chingaari .............................................................................................................................. 66

Devdas .................................................................................................................................. 66Laaga Chunari Mein Daag: Journey of a Woman ............................................................... 68

Methods of Analysis................................................................................................................ 68

Conceptualizing the Prostitution Stigma.................................................................................. 74

Stereotyping: Associating Human Differences with Negative Attributes.......................... 74

A prostitute does not possess madhury................................................................................. 75

A prostitute is unchaste......................................................................................................... 79A prostitute has no self-control............................................................................................. 81

Separation: Separating Us from Them......................................................................... 83

The prostitute threatens the Indian identity....................................................................... 83

The prostitute threatens purity .............................................................................................. 86The prostitute threatens the patriarchal structure.................................................................. 89

Status Loss and Discrimination ............................................................................................. 90

Power: Dependence of Stigma on Power .............................................................................. 92

State, market, and civil society ............................................................................................. 92Family ................................................................................................................................... 96

Socio-economic status .......................................................................................................... 97

Rewriting the Prostitutes Story.............................................................................................. 100

Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 103

CHAPTER 4: CONCLUSION ................................................................................................ 104

WORKS CITED ....................................................................................................................... 110

FIGURES AND TABLES

Figure 1.1 The Caste System........................................................................................................ 4

Figure 1.2 Conceptualizing Stigma ........................................................................................... 23

Figure 2.1 Deepika Chikhalia as Sita in the 1987-88 television serial Ramayan............... 30

Figure 3.1 Conceptualizing Stigma ........................................................................................... 63

Figure 3.2 Kajli Before ............................................................................................................... 78

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Figure 3.3 Kajli After ................................................................................................................. 78

Figure 3.4 Vibha (center) in Vanaras before entering prostitution ....................................... 84

Figure 3.5 Vibha as the escort Natasha..................................................................................... 85

Figure 3.6 The goddess Durga ................................................................................................. 101

Figure 3.7 Basanti embodying the goddess Durga................................................................. 101

Table 2.1 Structure of Hindu Texts........................................................................................... 35

Table 2.2 Quantitative Breakdown of Value Themes in Texts ............................................... 37

Table 3.1 Film Analysis Questions ............................................................................................ 69

Table 3.2 Conceptualizing Stigma Analysis ............................................................................. 72

Table 3.3 Five Value Themes from theRamayana and theLaw of Manu ............................. 74

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Acknowledgements

To my thesis advisor, Lina Fruzzetti, I offer a great deal of gratitude. Not only were you

extremely understanding and patient throughout this process, you also encouraged me during oneof the most difficult times of my life. You mentored me in my efforts to be a better scholar as

well as a better person. Thank you so very much for investing into me for the past three years.

Thanks to my second reader, Jennifer Costanza. You were also very patient with me. Thank youfor sharing from your own writing experiences. It helped more than you know for me to hear

that I was not alone in my frustrations and setbacks. Thank you also for your extensive critiquesof my chapters. It made my thesis stronger and made me grow as a scholar.

Thank you to my unofficial thesis advisor, David Bell, PhD. I never let you read a page of this

until it was finished, but you kept with me throughout. I could not have completed this thesiswithout your prayers, empathy, encouragement, and admonishment. You critiqued and picked

apart my arguments and analysis whenever we spoke. You helped me make sense of thejumbled mess of data in my brain. You reminded me that there is more to this process than our

human eyes can perceive because God is at work in all things. I love you very much. Thank youDaddy.

To Sheila Bell, thank you for your prayers and support. Im glad to have you as my mother,

friend, and mentor. Thank you also to my brothers, David and Ian, my sister Marja, and mynephew Osi. When I needed a break from the pressures of writing I was glad to bask in my

familys love.

To my India family the Pauls, the Courage Homes team, and Tink I appreciate your supportwhile I was in that wonderful nation. The data I collected while with you all did not make it into

this research; however, this thesis would not be possible without your help during my stay there.You all were with me during one of the most wonderful and difficult years of my life. I am

grateful for the love and support you gave.

I want to thank my Christian brothers and sisters scattered across the globe that have beenpraying for me throughout this process. I have needed and appreciated every single one of those

prayers. And for those of you who could physically be with me at some point through theprocess, thank you for listening to my complaints and being patient when I holed up to write.

Finally I want to thank God. You kept from start to finish. I could not have done any of this

without You. Thank you, Papa. It has been quite an adventure and I am looking forward to thenext phase in our journey together.