This manual is a collaborative effort involving a number of people, including the following:

Researchers and writers: Judith Bartlow (TVA), Kristine Johnson (NPS), Melodie Kertis (NPS),Thomas Remaley (NPS), Susan Ross (NPS), Elizabeth Simet (NPS), Terri Smith (TVA), Dana Soehn(NPS), Glenn Taylor (NPS).

Contents reviewers: Leon Bates (TVA retired), Brian Bowen (TDEC), Margret Brown (BrevardCollege), Leo Collins (TVA), Melinda McCoy (Garden Clubs of America), Larry Nash (US Corps ofEngineers), Lee Patrick (Warner Park Nature Center), Janet Rock (NPS), Andrea Shea (TDEC), andTerri Smith (TVA).

Technical editors: Ellen Bean (TVA) and Linnea McClellan.

Publication specialists: Coralie Bloom and Steve Kemp, both with the Great Smoky MountainsNatural History Association.

Artwork: Nancy O'Hare

Acknowledgements

Table of Contents

Introduction 1

Memorandum from the President of the United States 4

TN-EPPC Resolution 6

List of Invasive Exotic Pest Plants in Tennessee 7

Species Descriptions

TreesMimosa (Albizia julibrissin Durazz) 12Princess tree (Paulownia tomentosa (Thunb.) Sieb. & Zucc. Stevd.) 16Tree-of-heaven (Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle) 22

ShrubsAutumn olive (Elaeagnus umbellata Thunb.) 28Bush honeysuckles (Lonicera spp.) 32Japanese barberry (Berberis thunbergii DC.) 38Multiflora rose (Rosa multiflora Thunb. ex Murr.) 42Privet (Ligustrum spp.) 48

Herbaceous PlantsEurasian water-milfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum L.) 52Garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata (M. Bieb.) Cavara & Grande) 56Japanese grass (Microstegium vimineum (Trin.) A. Camus) 60Japanese knotweed (Polygonum cuspidatum Sieb. & Zucc.) 64Japanese spiraea (Spiraea japonica L. f.) 68Musk thistle (Carduus nutans L.) 72Purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria L.) 76

VinesClimbing euonymus (Euonymus fortunei (Turcz.) Hand. -Mazz.) 82Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica Thunb.) 88Japanese wisteria (Wisteria floribunda (Willd.) DC.) 94Kudzu (Pueraria montana (Lour.) Merr.) 98Oriental bittersweet (Celastrus orbiculata Thunb.) 104

Glossary of Botanical Terms 110

Recommended Application Methods 114

Herbicide Use Guide 116

Additional References 117

Metric Conversion Chart 119

Introduction

1

The problem of biological pollution is a relatively new notion to the public. It has only recently becomea defining management issue for foresters, recreational specialists, resource managers, ecologists,native plant enthusiasts, and to some extent public policy makers who have in some states passed lawsto ban the continued introduction of exotic pest species. While public awareness is lagging, more recog-nition of this issue is steadily filtering down into the professional ranks as these impacts have causedserious management concerns. As the significance of this issue becomes more urgent, professionalassociations and land managing agencies are attempting to educate their members through profes-sional journals, symposia, and conferences about this threat.

In Tennessee, a statewide coordinated effort to educate the public, natural resource professionals, andpublic policy makers has been on-going since 1994 with the establishment of the Tennessee Exotic PestPlant Council (TN-EPPC), an affiliate of the National Association of Exotic Pest Plant Councils. Thiseffort has been maintained through annual symposiums, membership newsletters, workshops, thedevelopment of an exotic pest plant list for the state, and educational brochures. Since its inception,TN-EPPC has recognized a need for providing resource managers with information to help control andmanage exotic pest plants in Tennessee's natural areas (as defined generically). Through the coopera-tion of many of the professional affiliates of TN-EPPC, this Tennessee Exotic Plant ManagementManual has been developed to accomplish that goal. Sponsorship for this manual and much of thetechnical information contained in it have come from the National Park Service (NPS). TN-EPPC rec-ognizes NPS as an important participating member and is appreciative of its commitment. Much of therecent work in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park on controlling and managing exotic pestplant species has been very important in developing many of these management guidelines.

Statement of ProblemRecently the native vegetation throughout Tennessee has been severely impacted by introduced plantspecies that are invasive. These plants are called exotics because they are introduced into a region byhumans either deliberately or accidentally. While not all exotics are invasive, those that naturalize maybecome prolific reproducers and rampantly spread throughout natural areas. Since they lack the nat-ural controls that keep them in check in their native range, invasive exotics outcompete and displacenative vegetation. This effect drastically changes the composition of native plant communities anddegrades the ecological significance of native habitats. When ecosystems are severely degraded, theintegrity of the natural area is lost. If control and management does not occur, many sites becomemonocultures of exotics, destroying biological diversity.

Statement of PurposeThis vegetation management manual provides the information to implement control and managementtechniques of some invasive exotic pest plant species. The most effective approach is to remove themas quickly as possible long before populations become established. Unfortunately, this is often not pos-sible due to limited resources, especially when managing large or numerous areas. In many cases, how-ever, exotics go unnoticed simply because of general lack of awareness of the problem. It is when infes-tation levels become obvious that management considerations are taken into account. This makes thetask of implementing successful management actions even more challenging, requiring greater use ofresources, and causing difficult management choices. The effectiveness of control and management isaccomplished through a proactive management approach. The intent of this manual is to provide theprescribed methods to accomplish the goal of control and management whenever possible.

The management recommendations in this manual primarily derive from field tested applications inTennessee and from literature reviews of research, life histories, and management efforts in otherstates. Any observations (data) that might amend these control and management recommendations are

Introduction

2

welcomed. Site conditions differ across Tennessee's physiographic provinces, and site variability acrossthe state may influence results. Future changes to this vegetation manual including additional controland management for new species will be available on-line on the World Wide Web under the TennesseeExotic Pest Plant Council's Home Page (webriver.com/tn-eppc).

Tennessee Exotic Pest Plant List of Invasive ExoticsThe 20 species in this manual were selected from species listed as severe or significant threats to nat-ural areas from the Invasive Exotic Pest Plants in Tennessee list developed by TN-EPPC. This compre-hensive statewide list identifies and ranks invasive exotics that impact natural areas. Management rec-ommendations for other species not included in this manual will be added as resources and manage-ment information become available. The list derives from the evaluations, observations and commentsof resource managers, ecologists, and botanists across Tennessee. It is a tool to help resource managersbe aware of the many other invasive exotic pest plants known to occur in Tennessee. It will be period-ically reviewed and updated. Prior to this release, the list has been reviewed twice for comment bybotanists statewide.

Useful information this manual providesIdentifying invasive exotics early in the process is an important first step which should lead to anassessment of the problem so appropriate management steps can be taken to prevent high infestationlevels from occurring. The manual provides information to help identify 20 of Tennessee's most inva-sive exotic pest plant species with color photos, line drawings, and botanical descriptions. Additionalinformation, such as life history, origin and distribution of exotics, and habitat information for eachspecies is described. Similar native species that might be confused with these exotics are also describedto minimize the chance of misidentification. Each exotic species account includes a bibliography of ref-erence for those interested in more information about particular species.

A tool for resource managers to implement integrated pest management practices This manual is not a management plan for exotic plant control, but rather, it is a tool for resource man-agers to develop such plans. The philosophy of this manual reflects that of the Tennessee Exotic PestPlant Council and represents an approach based on integrated pest management (IPM) and ecologicalrestoration. IPM is a multiple track approach that may require more than one type of action for suc-cessful results. IPM utilizes cultural, ecological, mechanical, chemical, and biological control. Thedegree of infestation, sensitivity of an area (occurrence of rare elements), and availability of resourcesoften determines the choice of action and the level of management response.

Chemical use is only recommended when other efforts are ineffective or when infestation must bereduced to attain manageable levels by other means. The chemicals used in natural areas should beapplied as recommended. These chemicals are considered to be safe when used according to the rec-ommendations. All precautions should be made to minimize the impact on non-target species. In manycases, when degradation is so extensive, chemical application is inappropriate. Management may notbe feasible, or only possible if approved biological control agents are available. Chemical control offersshort-term results and is considered a stop gap measure. These chemicals are referenced by their activeingredients. The tradenames for these chemicals are not given.

Understanding ecological function is an important management need in natural resource managementplanning. Management actions that restore the necessary ecological processes is often a critical compo-nent of exotic species control. The absence of these ecological processes (fire, hydrology, etc.) createsfavorable conditions for exotic species invasion. Frequently the degree of impact of invasive exotics issymptomatic of unhealthy ecosystems that have been disrupted from their natural disturbance regime

Introduction

3

or severely fragmented ecosystems where exotic species invasion occurs because of excessive edgeeffect.

Managing exotics does not necessarily result in complete eradication but may only accomplish controlmeasures. Managing problem areas requires a long-term commitment, and planning that incorporatesa monitoring program to prevent recolonization. Soils often retain viable seeds that will germinate formany years after removal. Sites beyond the immediate management zone where seeds and other dis-persal propagules originate should also be targeted. Efforts to educate neighbors and adjacent proper-ty owners about how invasive exotics spread is desirable. Raising awareness about the spread ofexotics is an important goal of the Tennessee Exotic Pest Plant Council and is critical in stopping futureintroductions.

Prevention is our best solutionWhile the focus of this manual is natural area management, these recommendations can also be appliedto any other land management units from interstate rights-of-way to private residences. The control ofexotic pest plants outside of preserve boundaries is critical in preventing their dispersal into the pre-serve. Stopping the continued introduction and spread of invasive exotics throughout Tennesseebegins with prevention. There are unlimited species of native plants that can be used instead of exoticsfor roadside landscaping, wildlife habitat improvement, erosion control, mining reclamation, and otherpurposes. We strongly encourage federal and state nursery systems that provide plant materials forpublic land use to help in this endeavor by eliminating exotics from their inventories. It would be high-ly desirable for these nurseries to propagate and grow quality native plants that can be used for land-scaping and restoration purposes by public land managers.

TN-EPPC endorses the Resolution for Responsible Landscaping Practices introduced by the TennesseeRecreation and Parks Association in 1990 and recommends using native plants especially in landscap-ing situations that may affect natural areas. The use of native species on public lands demonstratesresponsible stewardship practices. This practice was mandated on April 26,1994 as President Clintonsigned an executive directive for federal agencies and all non-federal agencies (who use federal dollars)to landscape with native plants. Other rules and laws important in Tennessee prohibit the introductionof exotic plants on state lands designated as state natural areas, scenic rivers, and the state trail systemunder the Rules for Management of Tennessee Natural Resource Areas.

As a proactive organization, TN-EPPC has developed alternative native plant lists as substitutes forinvasive exotics. These lists are published as brochures "Landscaping with Native Plants" for each ofthe grand regions of Tennessee. They are available upon request. It is our hope that native plants willbecome more available in nurseries as public demand grows. In raising awareness about the invasiveexotic pest plant issue, TN-EPPC also promotes the use of native plants.

Brian Bowen, President Tennessee Exotic Pest Plant Council September 1996

Memorandum from the President

4

The White House

Office of the Press Secretary

For Immediate Release April 26, 1994

Memorandum for the Heads of Executive Departments and Agencies

Subject: Environmentally and Economically Beneficial Practices on Federal Landscaped Grounds

The Report of the National Performance Review contains recommendations for a series of environ-mental actions, including one to increase environmentally and economically beneficial landscapingpractices at Federal facilities and federally funded projects. Environmentally beneficial landscapingentails utilizing techniques that complement and enhance the local environment and seek to minimizethe adverse effects that the landscaping will have on it. In particular, this means using regionally nativeplants and employing landscaping practices and technologies that conserve water and prevent pollu-tion.

These landscaping practices should benefit the environment, as well as generate long-term cost savingsfor the Federal Government. For example, the use of native plants not only protects our natural her-itage and provides wildlife habitat, but also can reduce fertilizer, pesticide, and irrigation demands andtheir associated costs because native plants are suited to the local environment and climate.

Because the Federal Government owns and landscapes large areas of land, our stewardship presents aunique opportunity to provide leadership in this area and to develop practical and cost-effective meth-ods to preserve and protect that which has been entrusted to us. Therefore, for Federal grounds, Federalprojects, and federally funded projects, I direct that agencies shall, where cost-effective and to theextent practicable:

(a) use regionally native plants for landscaping;

(b) design, use, or promote construction practices that minimize adverse effects on the natural habitat;

(c) seek to prevent pollution by, among other things, reducing fertilizer and pesticide use, using integrated pest management techniques, recycling green waste, and minimizing runoff. Landscaping practices that reduce the use of toxic chemicals provide one approach for agencies to reach reduction goals established in Executive Order No. 12856, "Federal Compliance with Right-To-Know Laws and Pollution Prevention Requirements;"

(d) implement water-efficient practices, such as the use of mulches, efficient irrigation systems, audits to determine exact landscaping water-use needs, and recycled or reclaimed water and the selecting and siting of plants in a manner that conserves water and controls soil erosion. Landscaping practices, such as planting regionally native shade trees around buildings to reduce air conditioning demands, can also provide innovative measures to meet the energy consumption reduction goal established in Executive Order No. 12902, "Energy Efficiency and Water Conservation at Federal Facilities;" and

Memorandum from the President

5

(e) create outdoor demonstrations incorporating native plants, as well as pollution prevention and water conservation techniques, to promote awareness of the environmental and economic benefits of implementing this directive. Agencies are encouraged to develop other methods for sharing information on landscaping advances with interested nonfederal parties.

In order to assist agencies in implementing this directive, the Federal Environmental Executive shall:

(a) establish an interagency working group to develop recommendations for guidance, includingcompliance with the requirements of the National Environmental Policy Act,42 U.S.C. 4321, 4331-4335, and 4341-4347, and training needs to implement this directive. The recommenda-tions are to be developed by November 1994; and

(b) issue the guidance by April 1995. To the extent practicable, agencies shall incorporate this guidance into their landscaping programs and practices by February 1996.

In addition, the Federal Environmental Executive shall establish annual awards to recognize outstand-ing landscaping efforts of agencies and individual employees. Agencies are encouraged to recognizeexceptional performance in the implementation of this directive through their awards programs.

Agencies shall advise the Federal Environmental Executive by April 1996 on their progress in imple-menting this directive.

To enhance landscaping options and awareness, the Department of Agriculture shall conduct researchon the suitability, propagation, and use of native plants for landscaping. The Department shall makeavailable to agencies and the public the results of this research.

WILLIAM J. CLINTON

Whereas, the 1990s has been proclaimed the "decade of the environment" mandating that all citizensact in an environmentally responsible manner. It is essential that we recognize the need to protect nat-ural areas, scenic aquatic systems, and greenspace corridors.To preserve the integrity of these places ofnatural heritage and biodiversity, it is imperative that a land ethic be realized that promotes environ-mentally responsible landscaping practices.

Whereas, some exotic plants that have been introduced into our landscapes are now known to causedevastating damage to our ecosystems. The introduction of aggressive exotic plant species changes thespecies composition of plant communities, reduces the native plant community diversity by stressingnative plants beyond the limits of their tolerance (out competing them for space, sunlight, water, nutri-ents, etc.), and becomes difficult or impossible to eradicate or control (i.e., kudzu-vine, Pueraria lobata);and

Whereas, by introducing plant species from other countries or regions into our landscapes, our land-scapes become vulnerable to invasively aggressive exotics. Even those exotics that naturalize and donot become aggressive have an undesirable effect on our native plant communities by changing theircomposition. Furthermore, it is impossible to predict whether a naturalized species which is seeming-ly neutral will remain neutral once it has successfully adapted over a long period of time; and

Whereas, there is overwhelming evidence that the foals of landscaping for the purposes of: (1) wildlifehabitat improvement (2) reforestation (3) soil conservation and (4) wind-breaks and other highwayplantings can be accomplished by using native indigenous pants and thus, protecting our natural her-itage; then

Therefore, be it resolved that the Tennessee Exotic Pest Plant Council endorses the use of native indige-nous plant species to promote environmentally responsible landscaping practices. Let it be furtherresolved that the Tennessee Exotic Pest Plant Council encourages government agencies (local, state andfederal), businesses, and landowners to consider the content of this resolution when planning a land-scape. If planned landscapes cannot be entirely native, exotics should not be used that are on theInvasive Exotic Pest Plants in Tennessee list published by TN-EPPC.

Resolution Promoting Environmentally Responsible Landscaping Practices

6

7

Severe Threat (Rank 1) - exotic plant species which possess characteristics of invasive species, spreadeasily into native plant communities, and displace native vegetation. Includes species which are orcould become widespread in Tennessee.

Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle - tree-of-heavenAlliaria petiolata (M. Bieb.) Cavara & Grande - garlic mustardArthraxon hispidus (Thunb.) Makino - hairy jointgrassCarduus nutans L. - musk thistle, nodding thistleElaeagnus umbellata Thunb. - autumn oliveEuonymus fortunei (Turcz.) Hand.- Maz. - climbing euonymousHydrilla verticillata (L.f.) Royle - hydrillaLespedeza cuneata (Dum. Cours.) G. Don - sericea lespedezaLigustrum sinense Lour. - privetLigustrum vulgare L. - common privetLonicera japonica Thunb. - Japanese honeysuckleLonicera maackii (Rupr.) Maxim. - Amur bush honeysuckle*Lonicera morrowii A. Gray - Morrow's bush honeysuckleLythrum salicaria L. [all varieties and cultivars] - purple loosestrifeMicrostegium vimineum (Trin.) A. Camus - Nepalgrass, Japanese grassMyriophyllum spicatum L. - Eurasian water-milfoilPaulownia tomentosa (Thunb.) Sieb. & Zucc. ex Steud. - Princess tree**Phalaris arundinacea L. - canary grass**Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud. - common reedPolygonum cuspidatum Seib. & Zucc. - Japanese knotweed, Japanese bambooPueraria montana (Willd.) Ohwi - kudzuRosa multiflora Thunb. ex Murray - multiflora roseSolanum viarum Dunal - tropical soda appleSorghum halepense (L.) Pers. - Johnson grass

Significant Threat (Rank 2) - exotic plant species which possess some invasive characteristics, buthave less impact on native plant communities. These plants may have the capacity to invade naturalcommunities along disturbance corridors, or to spread from stands in disturbed sites into undisturbedareas, but have fewer characteristics of invasive species than Rank 1 above.

Albizia julibrissin Durazz. - mimosaAllium vineale L. - field garlicAlternathera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griesb. - alligatorweedArtemisia vulgaris L. - mugwortArundo donax L. - giant reed, elephant grassBerberis thunbergii DC. - Japanese barberryBromus inermis Leyss. - Hungarian bromegrassBromus japonicus Thunb. ex Murray - Japanese bromegrassBromus secalinus L. - bromegrassBromus tectorum L. - thatch bromegrassCelastrus orbiculatus Thunb. - Oriental bittersweetCentaurea maculosa Lam. - spotted knapweedChrysanthemum leucanthemum L.- ox-eye daisyCirsium arvense L. (Scop.) - Canada thistle

Invasive Exotic Pest Plants in Tennessee

Invasive Exotic Pest Plants in Tennessee

8

Cirsium vulgare (Savi) Ten. - bull thistleClematis terniflora DC. - leatherleaf clematisCoronilla varia L. - crown vetchDioscorea batatas Decne. - air-potato*Dipsacus fullonum L. - Fuller's teasel Egeria densa Planch. - Brazilian elodeaElaeagnus pungens Thunb. - Russian oliveEuonymus atropurpureus (Thunb.) Seib. - burning bushFestuca elatior Huds. - tall fescueHedera helix L. - English ivyHesperis matronalis L. - dame's rocketLespedeza bicolor Turcz. - bicolor lespedezaLonicera fragrantissima Lindl. & Paxton - January jasmineLudwigia uruguayensis (Camb.) H. Hara - hairy water-primroseLysimachia nummularia L. - moneywortMelilotus alba Medik. - white sweet cloverMelilotus officinalis (L.) Lam. - yellow sweet cloverMiscanthus sinensis Anderss. - zebra grassMosla dianthera (Buch. Ham. ex Roxb.) Maxim. - miniature beefsteakMurdannia keisak (Hassk.) Hand.-Maz. - Asian spiderwortMyriophyllum aquaticum (Vell.) Verdc. - parrotfeather, watermilfoilNasturtium officinale R.Br. - watercressPolygonum caespitosum Blume - bunchy knotweed*Polygonum sachalinense F. Schmidt ex Maxim.Potamogeton crispus L. - curly pondweedSetaria pumila (Poir.) Roem. & Schult. - smooth milletSetaria viridis (L.) P. Beauv. - green milletSpiraea japonica L.f. - Japanese spiraeaTorilis arvensis (Huds.) Link - hedge-parsleyTribulus terrestris L. - puncturevineTussilago farfara L. - coltsfootVerbascum thapsus L. - common mulleinVinca major L. - large periwinkleVinca minor L. - common periwinkleWisteria floribunda (Willd.) DC. - wisteraWistera sinensis (Sims) Sweet - Chinese wisteria

Lesser Threat (Rank 3) - exotic plant species which seem to principally spread and remain in disturbedareas, but do not readily invade natural areas. This list also includes some agronomic weeds.

Bromus catharticus Vahl - bromegrassBromus commutatus Schrad. - bromegrassBromus hordeaceus L. - bromegrassBromus sterilis L. - bromegrassBroussonetia papyrifera (L'Her. ex Vent.) - paper mulberryBupleurum rotundifolium L. - hound's-earCardiospermum halicacabum L. - balloonvineCentaurea cyanus L. - bachelor's button

Invasive Exotic Pest Plants in Tennessee

9

Cichorium intybus L. - chicoryConium maculatum L. - poison hemlockCosmos bipinnatus Cav. - cosmosCosmos sulphureus Cav. - cosmosDaucus carota L. - wild carrot, Queen Anne's-laceEschscholtzia californica Cham. - California poppyEuphorbia humistrata Engelm. ex A. Gray - spreading spurgeFatoua villosa (Thunb.) Nakai - hairy crabweedHibiscus syriacus L. - rose of SharonKummerowia stipulacea (Maxim.) Makino - Korean cloverKummerowia striata (Thunb.) Schlindl. - Japanese cloverLithospermum arvense (L.) I.M. Johnson - corn gromwellMacleaya cordata (Willd.) R. Br. - plume-poppy, tree celandineMelia azedarach L. - ChinaberryMentha spicata L. - spearmintMentha X piperita L. - peppermintMuscari neglectum Boiss. & Reut. - grape hyacinthMuscari botryoides (L.) Mill. - grape hyacinth*Muscari comosum (L.) Mill Ornithogalum umbellatum L. - star of BethlehemPapaver dubium L. - poppyPastinaca sativa L. - parsnip Phalaris canariensis L. - canary grass Polygonum orientale L. - Prince's featherPolygonum persicaria L. - lady's thumbPopulus alba L. - white poplarRubus phoenicolasius Maxim. - wineberrySenecio vulgaris L. - ragwortSenna obtusifolia (L.) H.S. Irwin & Barneby - sicklepod senna Senna occidentalis (L.) Link - coffee senna Setaria faberi Herrm. - nodding foxtail-grassSetaria italica (L.) Beauv. - foxtail-milletSolanum dulcamara L. - bittersweetStachys floridana Shuttlw. ex Benth. - hedge nettleTragopogon dubius Scop. - yellow goats-beardUlmus pumila L. - dwarf elmUrtica dioica L. - stinging nettle Xanthium spinosum L. - spiny cockleburXanthium strumarium L. - common cocklebur

Watch List (may be a problem elsewhere; more information needed)Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn. - sticky alderEchium vulgare L. - viper's bugloss Hypericum perforatum L. - goatweed, St. John's-wortNajas minor All. - water nymphRhamnus frangula L. - alder buckthorn

Invasive Exotic Pest Plants in Tennessee

10

* Listed by reason of similarity of appearance** A native species, however, introduced "races" are invasive

Taxonomy and nomenclature taken from:

Wofford, B. E.; Kral, R. Checklist of the Vascular Plants of Tennessee; 1993.

Sida, Botanical Miscellany No. 10.

Kartesz, J. T. A synomized checklist of vascular flora of the U. S., Canada, and Greenland. Secondedition, Timber Press; 1994.

Invasive Exotic Pest Plants in TennesseeResearch Committee of the Tennessee Exotic Pest Plant CouncilJune, 1996

11

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V+Y?

Mimosa Leaf

2 cm

Mimosa Flower

2 cm

Albizia julibrissin is commonly known as mimosa, silk tree, or silky acacia. This hardytree is a popular ornamental because of its fragrant and showy flowers. The tree seedsprolifically and resprouts quickly when cut. It inhabits many of the cut-and-fill slopesalong roads as well as disturbed areas and stream banks throughout Tennessee.

Height: Mimosa can reach heights of 6-12 m (20-40 ft). Sprouts can grow over onemeter (3 ft) in a season. Trunks may be single or multiple stems.

Bark: The thin, light brown bark is nearly smooth.

Twigs: Moderately slender to stout twigs are somewhat fluted below nodes, and havemany light-colored lenticels. Buds are superimposed and a terminal bud is absent.

Leaves: Feathery, fernlike deciduous leaves are 12.5-20.0 cm (5-8 in) long. Leaves arebipinnately compound with 10-25 pinnae and 40-60 leaflets per pinnae. Leaflets areasymmetric, with the midrib near one margin and parallel to it.

Flowers: Showy pink blossoms are 3.8-5.0 cm (1.5-2 in) long and arranged in panicu-late heads at the ends of branches. They are composed of 15-25 sessile flowers withnumerous, conspicuous stamen filaments. Their fragrance is strong and sweet.Blooms May-August.

Fruit: Flat, light brown, oval seeds are about 1.2 cm (0.5 in) long. They are borne inflat, linear, straw-colored pods about 15 cm (6 in) long that form large clusters. Thepods ripen August-September and begin to disintegrate soon after, but remain on thetrees into winter.

Life History Mimosa seeds have impermeable seed coats that allow them to remain dormant foryears. One study showed 90% viability after five years; another Albizia species had33% germination of seeds after 50 years in open storage. The trees grow rapidly undergood conditions but have weak, brittle wood and are short-lived. They resproutquickly if cut or top-killed.

Origin and There are about 50 species of the genus in subtropical and tropical Asia, Africa, andDistribution Australia. Mimosa is native to Asia, from Iran to China and was introduced to the U.S.

in 1745. It is established from Virginia to Louisiana, and in California.

Similar Species Mimosa can be confused with other bipinnately compound legumes, especially in thesmaller seedling stages. Sensitive brier, Schrankia microphylla (Dry. ex Sm.) J.F. Machr.,is a weakly arching perennial vine with prickly stems. Partridge pea, Chamaecrista fas-ciculata (Michx.) Greene, is a non-woody, evenly pinnate, annual herb.

13

MimosaAlbizia julibrissin Durazz

Habitat Mimosa takes advantage of disturbed areas, often spreading by seed from ornamen-tals nearby or from seed brought in on fill dirt. It prefers full sun and is often seenalong roadsides and open vacant lots in urban/suburban areas. Mimosa can toleratepartial shade but is seldom found in forests with full canopy cover, or at higherelevations (above 900 m or 3,000 ft), where cold-hardiness is a limiting factor. It can,however, become a serious problem along riparian areas, where it becomes estab-lished along scoured shores and its seeds are easily transported in water. Like manysuccessful exotics, it is capable of growing in a wide range of soil conditions.

Management Mechanical ControlsRecommendations Cutting: Cut trees at ground level with power or manual saws. Cutting is most effec-

tive when trees have begun to flower to prevent seed production. Because mimosaspreads by suckering, resprouts are common after treatment. Cutting is an initial con-trol measure and will require either an herbicidal control or repeated cutting forresprouts.

Girdling: Use this method on large trees where the use of herbicides is impractical.Using a hatchet, make a cut through the bark encircling the base of the tree, approxi-mately 15 cm (6 in) above the ground. Be sure that the cut goes well into or below thecambium layer. This method will kill the top of the tree but resprouts are common andmay require follow-up treatments for several years until roots are exhausted.

Hand Pulling: Mimosa is effectively controlled by manual removal of youngseedlings. Plants should be pulled as soon as they are large enough to grasp, butbefore they produce seeds. Seedlings are best pulled after a rain when the soil is loose.The entire root must be removed since broken fragments may resprout.

Biological ControlsMimosa Wilt: Fusarium oxysporum f. perniciosum is a fungus that attacks mimosa in theU.S. and is transferred through the soil. It infects its host through the root system andmay be fatal to the tree. It is not used at present and further research is needed.

Herbicidal ControlsFoliar Spray Method: This method should be considered for large thickets of mimosaseedlings where risk to non-target species is minimal. Air temperature should beabove 65°F to ensure absorption of herbicides.

Glyphosate: Apply a 2% solution of glyphosate and water plus a 0.5% non-ionicsurfactant to thoroughly wet all leaves. Use a low pressure and coarse spray pat-tern to reduce spray drift damage to non-target species. Glyphosate is a non-selective systemic herbicide that may kill non-target partially-sprayed plants.

Triclopyr: Apply a 2% solution of triclopyr and water plus a 0.5% non-ionic sur-factant to thoroughly wet all leaves. Use a low pressure and coarse spray patternto reduce spray drift damage to non-target species. Triclopyr is a selective herbi-cide for broadleaf species. In areas where desirable grasses are growing under oraround mimosa, triclopyr can be used without non-target damage.

Mimosa

14

Cut Stump Method: This control method should be considered when treating indi-vidual trees or where the presence of desirable species preclude foliar application.Stump treatments can be used as long as the ground is not frozen.

Glyphosate: Horizontally cut stems at or near ground level. Immediately apply a50% solution of glyphosate and water to the cut stump, covering the outer 20% ofthe stump.

Triclopyr: Horizontally cut stems at or near ground level. Immediately apply a50% solution of triclopyr and water to the cut stump, covering the outer 20% ofthe stump.

Basal Bark Method: This method is effective throughout the year as long as theground is not frozen. Apply a mixture of 25% triclopyr and 75% horticultural oil to thebasal parts of the tree to a height of 30-38 cm (12-15 in) from the ground. Thoroughwetting is necessary for good control; spray until run-off is noticeable at the groundline.

Bibliography Bonner, F. T.; Hooda, M. S.; Singh, D. P. Moisture determination on seeds of honeylo-cust and mimosa. Tree Plant Note, USDA Forest Service 43(3):72-75; 1992.

Bransby, D. I.; Sladden, S. E.; Aiken, G. E. Mimosa as a forage plant: a preliminaryevaluation. Proceedings of the Forage Grasslands Conference. Georgetown, Texas;American Forage and Grassland Council 1:28-31; 1992.

Gleason, H. A.; Cronquist, A. Manual of vascular plants of northeastern United Statesand adjacent Canada. 2nd ed. The New York Botanical Garden; 1991.

Hartel, P. G.; Haines, B. L. Effects of potential plant CO2 emissions of bacterial growth

in the rhizosphere. Journal of Soil Biological Biochemistry and Science 24(3); 1992.

Panizzi, A. R.; Slansky, F., Jr. Suitability of selected legumes and the effect of nymphaland adult nutrition in the southern green stink bug (Hemiptera: Heteroptera:Pentatomidea). Journal of Economic Entomology 84(1):103-113; 1991.

Petrides, G. S. A field guide to trees and shrubs: The Peterson field guide series. 2nded. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company; 1972.

Radford, A. E.; Ahles, H. E.; Bell, C. R. Manual of the vascular flora of the Carolinas.Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press; 1968.

Rehder, A. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs. Vol. 1. Portland, OR: DioscoridesPress; 1983.

Sinclair, W. A.; Lyon, H. H.; Johnson, W. T. Diseases of trees and shrubs. Ithaca, NY:Comstock Publishing Associates, 378-379; 1987.

USDA Forest Service. Woody plant seed manual. Washington, DC. Misc. Pub. 654;1948.

Mimosa

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I4@@0M

2 cm

2 cm

Princess Tree Flower

Princess Tree Leaf

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?W2@@@@0?@M?f?@f?W&@)K ?O&@@0Mhe?@fO&@@V@6K ?

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Princess tree, also known as royal paulownia or empress tree, is a showy, aggressiveornamental introduced from East Asia. It grows rapidly in disturbed areas, includingsteep rocky slopes that may also be habitats for rare plants. Recently it has also beengrown in plantations and harvested for export to Japan where its wood is highly val-ued.

Height: Paulownia grows 9-19 m (30-60 ft) tall.

Bark: Trunk has rough, gray-brown bark with interlaced smooth areas that are oftenshiny. The smooth brown bark of young branches has prominent white lenticels.

Twigs: Stout, brittle twigs are markedly flattened at nodes, and olive brown to darkbrown in color. They are mostly glabrous except at the tip, around buds and alongupper edges of leaf scars. Lenticels are pale, prominent, and elongated longitudinally.Pith can be chambered or hollow. Terminal leaf buds are absent. Lateral leaf buds aresuperimposed. Leaf scars are circular.

Leaves: Deciduous leaves are opposite and broadly ovate, acuminate and cordate inshape. Leaf margins are entire or shallowly lobed, and may be toothed on smallplants. Leaves of adult trees are 15-40 cm (6-16 in) long and 10-30 cm (4-8 in) wide,though leaves of stump sprouts may be twice as large. Surfaces are pubescent anddull, light-green above, and pale-green and tomentose beneath.

Flowers: Large , showy , fragrant blossoms are borne in upright clusters 15-30 cm (6-12 in) long at the ends of stout, hairy twigs. Corolla is 5 cm (2 in) long, bell-shaped,and pale violet with yellow stripes inside, ending with five round, unequal lobes.Blooms in April-May before the leaves emerge from round, brown, hairy buds formedduring the previous summer.

Fruit: Brown, woody, beaked, ovoid capsules are 4 cm (1.5 in) long, borne in terminalclusters. The seed pod has four compartments that contain as many as 2,000 tinywinged seeds. The capsules mature in autumn, open to release the seeds and thenremain attached all winter. One tree is capable of producing twenty million seeds thatare easily transported in water or wind.

Life History Paulownia can reproduce from seed or from root sprouts; the latter can grow to over5m (15 ft) in a single season. The root branches are shallow and horizontal without astrong taproot. Seed-forming pollen is fully developed before the onset of winter, andin spring the flowers are pollinated by insects. Seeds germinate within a few days onsuitable substrate; seedlings grow quickly and flower in 8-10 years. Mature trees areoften structurally unsound and rarely live more than 70 years.

17

Princess TreePaulownia tomentosa (Thunb.) Sieb. & Zucc. ex Steud.

Origin and Paulownia is native to western and central China where historical records describe its Distribution medicinal, ornamental, and timber uses as early as the third century B.C. It has been

cultivated for centuries in Japan where it is valued in many traditions. It was import-ed to Europe in the 1830s by the Dutch East India Company and brought to NorthAmerica a few years later. Paulownia has been naturalized in the eastern U.S. for morethan 150 years and is also grown on the west coast. USDA hardiness zones 7-10 aremost favorable.

Similar Species Paulownia belongs to the Scrophulariaceae (Figwort) family, which in North Americais otherwise composed of herbaceous species. It resembles the native catalpa tree(Catalpa speciosa [Warder ex Barney]) in size, leaf and flower structure. Notable differ-ences are found in pith, leaves, and seed pods. Paulownia has a hollowed or cham-bered pith, while that of the catalpa is solid and whitish. Catalpa leaves are whorledand more distinctly pointed at the tip than paulownia leaves, which are not whorledand have a less elongated tip. Catalpa fruits are long, slender pods measuring 20-46cm (8-18 in). Fruits of the princess tree measure only 3-8 mm (1.5 in) and appear inclusters of round capsules. Catalpa flowers have a two-lipped calyx and appear on thecurrent year's growth; paulownia has a five-lobed calyx and flowers on the secondyear's growth.

Habitat Paulownia trees are often found on roadsides, stream banks, and disturbed habitats,including fire sites, forests defoliated by pests (such as gypsy moths) and landslides.Its ability to sprout prolifically from adventitious buds on stems and roots allows it tosurvive fire, cutting, and even bulldozing in construction areas. Paulownia can alsocolonize rocky cliffs and scoured riparian zones where it may compete with rareplants in these marginal habitats. It tolerates high soil acidity, drought, and low soilfertility.

Management Mechanical ControlsRecommendations Cutting: Cut trees at ground level with power or manual saws. Cutting is most effec-

tive when trees have begun to flower to prevent seed production. Because paulowniaspreads by suckering, resprouts are common after treatment. Cutting is an initial con-trol measure and will require either an herbicidal control or repeated cutting forresprouts.

Girdling: Use this method on large trees where the use of herbicides is impractical.Using a hand-axe, make a cut through the bark encircling the base of the tree, approx-imately 15 cm (6 in) above the ground. Be sure that the cut goes well into or below thecambium layer. This method will kill the top of the tree but resprouts are common andmay require a follow-up treatment with a foliar herbicide.

Hand Pulling: Paulownia is effectively controlled by manual removal of youngseedlings. Plants should be pulled as soon as they are large enough to grasp but beforethey produce seeds. Seedlings are best pulled after a rain when the soil is loose. Theentire root must be removed since broken fragments may resprout.

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Herbicidal ControlsFoliar Spray Method: This method should be considered for large thickets of paulow-nia seedlings where risk to non-target species is minimal. Air temperature should beabove 65°F to ensure absorption of herbicides.

Glyphosate: Apply a 2% solution of glyphosate and water plus a 0.5% non-ionicsurfactant to thoroughly wet all leaves. Use a low pressure and coarse spray pattern to reduce spray drift damage to non-target species. Glyphosate is a non-selective systemic herbicide that may kill non-target partially-sprayed plants.

Triclopyr: Apply a 2% solution of triclopyr and water plus a 0.5% non-ionic sur-factant to thoroughly wet all leaves. Use a low pressure and coarse spray patternto reduce spray drift damage to non-target species. Triclopyr is a selective herbi-cide for broadleaf species. In areas where desirable grasses are growing under oraround paulownia, triclopyr can be used without non-target damage.

Cut Stump Method: This control method should be considered when treating indi-vidual trees or where the presence of desirable species preclude foliar application.Stump treatments can be used as long as the ground is not frozen.

Glyphosate: Horizontally cut stems at or near ground level. Immediately apply a25% solution of glyphosate and water to the cut stump making sure to cover theouter 50% of the stump.

Triclopyr: Horizontally cut stems at or near ground level. Immediately apply a50% solution of triclopyr and water to the cut stump making sure to cover theouter 20% of the stump.

Basal Bark Method: This method is effective throughout the year as long as theground is not frozen. Apply a mixture of 25% triclopyr and 75% horticultural oil to thebasal parts of the tree to a height of 30-38 cm (12-15 in) from the ground. Thoroughwetting is necessary for good control; spray until run-off is noticeable at the groundline.

Hack and Squirt Method: Using a hand-axe, make cuts at 6.5 cm (3 in) intervalsaround the trunk of the tree between 15-45 cm (6-18 in) above the ground. Be sure thateach cut goes well into or below the cambium layer. Immediately treat the cut with a50% glyphosate or triclopyr and water herbicide solution.

Bibliography Cunningham, T. R.; Carpenter, S. B. The effect of diammonium phosphate fertilizer onthe germination of Paulownia tomentosa seeds. Tree Planter’s Notes 31:6-8; 1980.

Hu, Shiu-Ying. A monograph of the genus Paulownia. Quarterly Journal of the TaiwanMuseum 7(1&2):1-54; 1959.

Langdon, K. R.; Johnson, K. D. Additional notes on invasiveness of Paulownia tomen-tosa in natural areas. Natural Areas Journal 14 (2):139-140; 1994.

Melhuish, J. H., Jr.; Gentry, C. E.; Beckjord, P. R. Paulownia tomentosa seedling growth

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at differing levels of pH, nitrogen, and phosphorus. Journal of EnvironmentalHorticulture 8:205-207; 1990.

Niemeier, J. I had to kill the empress. Arbor Bulletin. Arbor Foundation. SeattleUniversity, Washington 47(2):21-23; 1984.

Petrides, G. S. A field guide to trees and shrubs. The Peterson Field Guide Series. 2nded. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co; 1972.

Rehder, M. A. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs. (Vol. 1) Portland, OR:Dioscorides Press; 1983.

Sand, S. The empress tree. American Horticulturist 71:27-29; 1992.

Sanderson, K. C. Effect of photoperiod on the growth of empress tree, Paulowniatomentosa seedlings. Alabama Agriculture Experiment Station Horticultural Service18:10-11; 1972.

Sticker, O.; Lahloub, M. F. Phenolic glycosides of Paulownia tomentosa bark. Journal ofMedicinal Plant Research 46:145-148; 1982.

Swanson, R. E. A field guide to the trees and shrubs of the southern Appalachians.Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press; 1994.

Williams, C. E. The exotic empress tree, Paulownia tomentosa: an invasive pest offorests. Natural Areas Journal 13(3):221-222; 1983.

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Ailanthus, also known as tree-of-heaven or Chinese sumac, is a persistent and aggres-sive weed throughout much of Europe and North America. It belongs to theSimaroubaceae (Quassia) family, which is primarily tropical or subtropical. Ailanthusgrows quickly and can reach a height of 2.5 m (8 ft) in its first year.

Height: Ailanthus can grow rapidly to 25-30 m (80-100 ft).

Leaves: Deciduous leaves are odd-pinnately compound with 11-41 leaflets. Shape islanceolate, acuminate and entire except for 1-5 basal teeth, each leaflet with a promi-nent dark green gland on the underside near the apex. Both surfaces have minutehairs and glands. Leaflets are each 7.5-12.5 cm (3-5 in) long and 2.5-5.0 cm (1-2 in)wide. Crushed foliage has an acrid odor. Leaf scars are large and triangular withnumerous bundle scars.

Twigs: Light brown twigs are very stout and covered with fine hairs when young.Pith is continuous and yellowish in color. Buds are relatively small and solitary.Terminal buds are absent.

Bark: The smooth, striped, gray-brown or light brown bark cracks with age andexhibits light-colored grooves.

Flowers: Male and female flowers are 0.5 cm (0.25 in) long and form large, light greenterminal panicles. They are radially symmetrical with 5 or 6 petals. The trees may bepolygamous, but most individuals are unisexual. Male flowers have a foul scent.Each tree may produce up to several hundred inflorescences a year. Blooms late Maythrough early June.

Fruit: Fruit is a 3-8 cm (1.0-1.5 in) long schizocarp with 2-5 samaroid mericarps. Eachfruit contains a single seed. Seeds mature in late summer or early fall and form dense,showy pink clusters that persist through the winter. Each cluster may contain hun-dreds of seeds.

Life History Ailanthus reproduces from both seed and root sprouts. Seeds are easily windblownand a high percentage are viable. True seedlings are smaller and thinner-stemmedthan root sprouts and have trifoliate leaves. Sprouts will have a cluster of leaves withvariable numbers of leaflets. When pulled from the ground, seedlings will reveal thin,branching roots while sprouts will be firmly connected to a thick, rope-like root.Sprouts may emerge up to 15 m (50 ft) from the nearest existing stem. Most stemsbegin to reproduce at 10-20 years, though two-year old sprouts can produce fruit, andfirst-year seedlings have been observed flowering. Ailanthus is intolerant of shade; innatural stands reproduction is primarily by sprouting. The trees are typically short-lived (30-50 years), though some have survived for over 150 years.

23

Tree-of-HeavenAilanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle

Origin and Ailanthus, native to China, was introduced to Europe and then to the United StatesDistribution in the late eighteenth century. An early Chinese saying refers to spoiled children as

"good for nothing ailanthus sprouts." It was, nevertheless, widely planted in Europeand North America until recently. Botanists in the late 1800s noted that it was wide-spread and naturalized in Tennessee.

Similar Species Ailanthus may be confused with other trees having compound leaves and manyleaflets; particularly black walnut (Juglans nigra L.), butternut (Juglans cinerea L.), andsome species of sumac (Rhus spp.). The leaf margins of these trees have small teeth(except for winged sumac), while those of ailanthus are smooth. The gland-tippedleaflet lobes are unique to ailanthus, as is the foul odor produced by crushed foliageand scraped bark. In winter ailanthus may be distinguished by the stout twigs, largeleaf scars with numerous bundle scars, and false end buds.

Habitat Ailanthus is adapted to a wide variety of soil conditions. It tolerates drought androcky conditions to the extent of growing out of pavement cracks. The tree is com-mon in urban areas and disturbed sites throughout its range, and it is a pioneer insuccession with limited ability to compete in a closed-canopy forest. It can, however,take advantage of forests defoliated by insects (e.g., gypsy moth) or impacted byslides, windstorms, or other natural disasters. Ailanthus forms dense, clonal thicketsthat displace native species. A few trees along a fencerow or forest edge can rapidlyinvade adjacent meadows. In addition to its prolific vegetative reproduction, ailan-thus has allelopathic effects on many other tree species and may consequently inhib-it succession.

Management Mechanical ControlsRecommendations Cutting: Cut trees at ground level with power or manual saws. Cutting is most effec-

tive when trees have begun to flower to prevent seed production. Because ailanthusspreads by suckering, resprouts are common after treatment. Cutting is an initial con-trol measure, and success will require either an herbicidal control or repeated cuttingfor resprouts.

Girdling: Use this method on large trees where the use of herbicides is not practical.Using a hand axe, make a cut through the bark encircling the base of the tree, approx-imately 15 cm (6 in) above the ground. Be sure that the cut goes well into the cambi-um layer. This method will kill the top of the tree but resprouts are common, and mayrequire follow-up treatments for several years until roots are exhausted.

Hand Pulling: Ailanthus is effectively controlled by manual removal of youngseedlings. Plants should be pulled as soon as they are large enough to grasp, butbefore they produce seeds. Seedlings are best pulled after a rain when the soil isloose. The entire root must be removed since broken fragments may resprout.

Herbicidal ControlsFoliar Spray Method: This method should be considered for large thickets of ailan-thus seedlings where risk to non-target species is minimal. Air temperature shouldbe above 65 °F to ensure absorption of herbicides.

Tree-of-Heaven

24

Glyphosate: Apply a 2% solution of glyphosate and water plus a 0.5% non-ionicsurfactant to thoroughly wet all leaves. Use a low pressure and coarse spray pat-tern to reduce spray drift damage to non-target species. Glyphosate is a non-selective systemic herbicide that may kill non-target partially-sprayed plants.

Triclopyr: Apply a 2% solution of triclopyr and water plus a 0.5% non-ionic thor-oughly wetting all leaves. Use a low pressure and coarse spray pattern to reducespray drift damage to non-target species. Triclopyr is a selective herbicide forbroadleaf species. In areas where desirable grasses are growing under or aroundailanthus, triclopyr can be used without non-target damage.

Cut Stump Method: This control method should be considered when treating largeindividual trees or where the presence of desirable species preclude foliar applica-tion. Stump treatments can be used as long as the ground is not frozen.

Glyphosate: Horizontally cut stems at or near ground level. Immediately apply a50% solution of glyphosate and water to the cut stump making sure to cover theouter 20% of the stump.

Triclopyr: Horizontally cut stems at or near ground level. Immediately apply a50% solution of triclopyr and water to the cut stump making sure to cover theouter 20% of the stump.

Basal Bark Method: This method is effective throughout the year as long as theground is not frozen. Apply a mixture of 25% triclopyr and 75% horticultural oil tothe basal parts of the tree to a height of 30-38 cm (12-15 in) from the ground.Thorough wetting is necessary for good control; spray until run-off is noticeable atthe ground line.

Hack and Squirt Method: Using a hand axe, make cuts at 6.5 cm (3 in) intervalsaround the trunk of the tree between 15-45 cm (6-18 in) above the ground. Be sure thateach cut goes well into or below the cambium layer. Immediately treat the cut with a50% glyphosate or tricloypr herbicide solution.

Bibliography Clair-Maczulajtys, D.; Bory, G. Influence of reproductive effort on foliar morphologystructure and functioning in Ailanthus altissima. Phytomorphology (Delhi:International Society of Plant Morphologists) 40(1⁄2):131-143; 1990.

Fuller, T. C.; Barbe, G. D. The Bradley method of eliminating exotic plants from nat-ural preserves. Fremontia 13(2):24-26; 1985.

Heisey, R. M. Allelopathic and herbicidal effects of extracts from tree-of-heaven(Ailanthus altissima). American Journal of Botany 77(5):662-670; 1988.

Heisey, R. M. Evidence for allelopathy by tree-of-heaven (Ailanthus altissima). Journalof Chemical Ecology 16: in press; 1990.

Hoshovsky, M. C. Element stewardship abstract for Ailanthus altissima. San Francisco:The Nature Conservancy; 1986.

Tree-of-Heaven

25

Hu, S. Y. Ailanthus. Arnoldia 39(2):29-50; 1979.

Hunter, J. C. Ailanthus altissima: its biology and recent history. CalEPPC News 3(4):4-5; 1995.

Lev-Yadun, S.; Aloni, R. The role of wounding and partial girdling in differentiationof vascular rays. International Journal of Plant Science 153(3, pt.1):348-357; 1992.

Little, S. Ailanthus altissima. Schopmeyer, C.S., ed. Seeds of Woody Plants of theUnited States. USDA, Agriculture Handbook 450. Washington, DC. 201-202; 1974.

Merger, F. A toxic principle in the leaves of ailanthus. Botanical Gazette 121:32-36;1959.

Miller, J. H. Ailanthus altissima. Burns, R. H.; Honkala, B. B. eds. Silvics of NorthAmerica. USDA, Agriculture Handbook 654. Washington, DC, 2:101-103; 1990.

Newton, E. Arboreal riffraff or ultimate tree. Audubon 99(4):12-19; 1986.

Patterson, D. T. The history of five exotic weeds in North Carolina. Castanea41(2):177-180; 1976.

Peigler, R. A defense of ailanthus. American Horticulturalist 72:38-43; 1993.

Petrides, G. A. A field guide to trees and shrubs. Boston: Houghton-MifflinPublishing Company; 1972.

Radford, A. E.; Ahles, H. E.; Bell, C. R. Manual of the vascular flora of the Carolinas.Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press; 1968.

Sargent, C. S. The Ailanthus. Garden and Forest 1888:1385-1386; 1888.

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Autumn olive is an introduced, fast-growing woody shrub in the Elaeagnaceae(Oleaster) family. Used extensively for wildlife habitat, strip mine revegetation, andshelter belts, autumn olive thrives in disturbed areas open to full sun. It is adaptive,competitive, and vigorous, especially on open, sunny sites and it produces abundantfruit crops.

Height: Autumn olive grows to a height of 6 m (20 ft). Its growth habit is bushy witha spreading crown.

Leaves: Deciduous leaves are alternate, short-petioled, elliptic to ovate, and oblong.They are glabrous, dark green above, conspicuously silvery beneath.

Twigs: The silvery or golden brown twigs often have prominent spines.

Flowers: Fragrant flowers are axillary, pedicellate, tube-shaped, and yellowish-white,with 4 sepals and 4 stamens. Blooms May-June.

Fruit: Fruits are abundant, juicy, round drupes up to 1 cm (0.4 in) in length. Silveryfruit turns to red as it matures and is speckled with brown to silvery scales. MaturesSeptember-October.

Life History Elaeagnus spp. are among the few non-legumes that fix nitrogen in the soil by meansof bacterial root nodes. Plants flower and develop fruits annually after reaching threeyears of age. An individual can produce up to 3.6 kg (8 lbs) of fruit that are consumedand spread by birds and small mammals.

Origin and Autumn olive was introduced into the United States in 1830 from China and Japan. ItDistribution has been actively promoted by state and federal agencies for shelter belts, erosion con-

trol, strip mine reclamation, wildlife habitat, and was widely marketed as an orna-mental. The shrub has now become naturalized in suitable habitats scattered through-out the eastern and Midwestern U.S.

Similar Species Several other Elaeagnus species have become naturalized in the U.S. A native speciesE. commutata (Bernh.) is found in the far northern states and Canada. Minnie bush(Menziesia pilosa [Michx. ex Lam] Jussieu ex Pers.), a high elevation, southernAppalachian endemic, is somewhat similar but has glands, not scales, on the midrib.

Habitat Autumn olive grows well in disturbed areas, open fields, margins of forests, road-sides, and clearings. Being tolerant of drought, it does not grow well in wet sites. It is

29

Autumn OliveElaeagnus umbellata (Thunb.)

intolerant of shade and will not invade areas of dense forest. Because the fruits areeaten by a variety of wildlife, the seeds may be distributed into forest openings oropen woodlands.

Management Mechanical ControlsRecommendations Cutting: Cut trees at ground level with power or manual saws. Cutting is most effec-

tive when trees have begun to flower to prevent seed production. Because autumnolive spreads by suckering, resprouts are common after treatment. Cutting is an ini-tial control measure, and success will require either an herbicidal control or repeatedcutting of resprouts.

Girdling: Use this method on large trees where the use of herbicides is not practical.Using a hand-axe, make a cut through the bark encircling the base of the tree, approx-imately 15 cm (6 in) above the ground. Be sure that the cut goes well into or below thecambium layer. This method will kill the top of the tree but resprouts are common,and may require follow-up treatments for several years until roots are exhausted.

Hand Pulling: Autumn olive is effectively controlled by manual removal of youngseedlings. Plants should be pulled as soon as they are large enough to grasp, butbefore they produce seeds. Seedlings are best pulled after a rain when the soil is loose.The entire root must be removed since broken fragments may resprout.

Herbicidal ControlsFoliar Spray Method: This method should be considered for large thickets of autumnolive seedlings where risk to non-target species is minimal. Air temperature should beabove 65°F to ensure absorption of herbicides.

Glyphosate: Apply a 2% solution of glyphosate and water plus a 0.5% non-ionicsurfactant to thoroughly wet all leaves. Use a low pressure and coarse spray pat-tern to reduce spray drift damage to non-target species. Glyphosate is a non-selective systemic herbicide that may kill non-target, partially-sprayed plants.

Triclopyr: Apply a 2% solution of triclopyr and water plus a 0.5% non-ionic sur-factant to thoroughly wet all leaves. Use a low pressure and coarse spray patternto reduce spray drift damage to non-target species. Triclopyr is a selective herbi-cide for broadleaf species. In areas where desirable grasses are growing under oraround autumn olive, triclopyr can be used without non-target damage.

Cut Stump Method: This control method should be considered when treating indi-vidual trees or where the presence of desirable species preclude foliar application.Stump treatments can be used as long as the ground is not frozen.

Glyphosate: Horizontally cut stems at or near ground level. Immediately apply a50% solution of glyphosate and water to the cut stump, covering the outer 20% ofthe stump.

Triclopyr: Horizontally cut stems at or near ground level. Immediately apply a50% solution of triclopyr and water to the cut stump, covering the outer 20% ofthe stump.

Autumn Olive

30

Basal Bark Method: This method is effective throughout the year as long as theground is not frozen. Apply a mixture of 25% triclopyr and 75% horticultural oil to thebasal parts of the tree to a height of 30-38 cm (12-15 in) from the ground. Thoroughwetting is necessary for good control; spray until run-off is noticeable at the groundline.

Bibliography Eckardt, N. Autumn olive: element stewardship abstract. The Nature Conservancy,Minneapolis, MN; 1987.

Kuhns, L. J. Controlling autumn olive with herbicides. Proceedings 40th AnnualMeeting. Northeast Weed Science Society. 289-294; 1986.

Rehder, A. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs. Vol. 1, 2nd ed. Portland, OR:Dioscorides Press; 1990.

Symonds, G. The shrub identification book. New York, NY: William Morrow & Co.,262-263; 1963.

Szafoni, R. E. Vegetation management guideline: autumn olive, Elaeagnus umbellataThunb., Natural Areas Journal 11(2):121-123; 1991.

Autumn Olive

31

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@?

2 cm

Bush Honeysuckle Flower

Bush Honeysuckle Stem

2 cm

The four species of bush honeysuckle that cause most invasive problems (Amur,Morrow's, Tartarian, and Belle) will be referred to as bush honeysuckle. Belle honey-suckle is a hybrid cross between Tartarian and Morrow's honeysuckles and has manycharacteristics of both parents. These shrubs are frequently used for landscaping andto improve wildlife habitats; they have become naturalized in many areas ofTennessee. All are members of the Caprifoliaceae (Honeysuckle) family.

Height: All four species of bush honeysuckles grow to heights of 1.8-6.0 m (6-20 ft).

Twigs: The twigs of all the bush honeysuckles are generally glabrous, thornless, andhave a hollow brown pith when mature. The leaf scars are small and inconspicuous.The buds are blunt to acute.

Leaves: Leaves of all these species are opposite, narrowly elliptic, ovate, to lance-ovate. The significant differences between individual species are dependent on thepresence of pubescence.

Flower: The differences between the flowers of these four species are dependent oncorolla and pedicel length. Tartarian honeysuckle is typically pink but may vary fromred to white. Amur and Morrow's honeysuckle flowers are white, changing to yellow.Belle honeysuckle may vary between the character of both parents. Blooms May-June.

Fruit: The globose berries are typically dark red, occasionally yellow, and found inpairs in the axils of the leaves. They may remain on the shrub through winter. Eachberry contains 2-6 seeds. Fruit matures September-October.

For a detailed description of individual species refer to Rehder, A. Manual of culti-vated trees and shrubs. 1986.

Life History The distribution of bush honeysuckle seeds is primarily accomplished by birds andsmall mammals. Following a period of cold stratification, seeds germinate in areas ofsparse vegetation and can tolerate moderate shade but produce more seeds in fullsun. It is suspected that bush honeysuckle produces an allelopathic chemical that sup-presses the growth of surrounding vegetation. Leaves appear early in the spring andremain into late fall, giving bush honeysuckle a competitive advantage over nativeplants.

Origin and Bush honeysuckles are native to Asia and western Europe. Tartarian honeysuckle wasDistribution first cultivated in North America in 1752. Morrow's and Amur honeysuckles were

introduced into the U.S. in 1875 and 1855 respectively. Bush honeysuckle has beenpromoted by state and federal agencies to improve wildlife habitat and as a popularornamental. They are present throughout Tennessee, the Northeast, and the Midwest.

33

Bush HoneysucklesLonicera maackii (Rupr.) Maxim; L. morrowii (Gray); L. tatarica (L.); L. X bella (Zabel)

Similar Species The bush honeysuckles are similar to Canadian honeysuckle (Lonicera canadensisBartr.), red honeysuckle (Lonicera dioica L.), yellow honeysuckle (Lonicera flava Sims.),grape honeysuckle (Lonicera reticulata Raf.), coralberry (Symphoricarpos orbiculatusMoench), and bush-honeysuckle (Diervilla sessilifolia Buckl.). Canadian honeysucklegrows at high elevations and reaches a maximum height of 2 m (6.5 ft). The remain-der of the native honeysuckles are twining vine species and morphologically distinct.Coralberry has slender purple to brown twigs and the leaves of D. sessilifolia (Buckl.)are lanceolate and finely toothed.

Habitat The bush honeysuckles are tolerant of a variety of edaphic and environmental condi-tions. Typical habitats include disturbed successional communities, wetlands, prairie,woodland edges, and partially closed forests. Most communities found in naturalareas have the potential to support a population of one of the bush honeysucklespecies. These shrubs are moderately shade tolerant, taking advantage of canopy gapscreated by wind throw or insect defoliation. Honeysuckle bushes are commonlyfound growing under trees, tall shrubs, and along fence rows that act as perch sites forbirds.

Management Mechanical ControlsRecommendations Grubbing: This method is appropriate for small initial populations or environmental-

ly sensitive areas where herbicides cannot be used. Using a pulaski or similar diggingtool remove the entire plant, including all roots. Juvenile plants can be hand pulleddepending on soil conditions and root development. Larger stems, up to 6 cm (2.5 in),can be removed using a Weed Wrench or similar uprooting tools. Any portions of theroot system not removed may resprout. All plant parts, including mature fruit, shouldbe bagged and disposed of to prevent reestablishment.

Herbicidal ControlsFoliar Spray Method: This method should be considered for large thickets of bushhoneysuckle where risk to non-target species is minimal. Air temperature should beabove 65°F to ensure absorption of herbicides.

Glyphosate: Apply a 2% solution of glyphosate and water plus a 0.5% non-ionicsurfactant to thoroughly wet all leaves. Use a low pressure and coarse spray pat-tern to reduce spray drift damage to non-target species. Glyphosate is a non-selective systemic herbicide that may kill non-target partially-sprayed plants.

Triclopyr: Apply a 2% solution of triclopyr and water plus a 0.5% non-ionic sur-factant to thoroughly wet all leaves. Use a low pressure and coarse spray patternto reduce spray drift damage to non-target species. Triclopyr is a selective herbi-cide for broadleaf species. In areas where desirable grasses are growing under oraround bush honeysuckle, triclopyr can be used without non-target damage.

Cut Stump Method: This control method should be considered when treating indi-vidual bushes or where the presence of desirable species precludes foliar application.This treatment is effective as long as the ground is not frozen.

Bush Honeysuckles

34

Glyphosate: Horizontally cut bush honeysuckle stems at or near ground level.Immediately apply a 25% solution of glyphosate and water to the cut stump, cov-ering the outer 20% of the stump.

Triclopyr: Horizontally cut bush honeysuckle stems at or near ground level.Immediately apply a 25% solution of triclopyr and water to the cut stump, cov-ering the outer 20% of the stump.

Basal Bark Method: This method is effective throughout the year as long as theground is not frozen. Apply a mixture of 25% triclopyr and 75% horticultural oil to thebasal parts of the shrub to a height of 30-38 cm (12-15 in) from the ground. Thoroughwetting is necessary for good control; spray until run-off is noticeable at the groundline.

Bibliography Anderson, B. D. Bush honeysuckle: vegetation management manual guideline.Illinois Nature Preserves Commission; 1990.

Gleason, H. A.; Cronquist, A. Manual of vascular plants of northeastern United Statesand adjacent Canada. 2nd ed. The New York Botanical Garden; 1991.

Harlow, W. M. Fruit key and twig key to trees and shrubs. New York, NY: DoverPublications; 1959.

Luken, J. O.; Thieret, J. W. Amur honeysuckle, its fall from grace. Bioscience 46(1):18-24; 1996.

Patrick, L. Exotic species profile: Amur honeysuckle. TN-EPPC News. 2(3):4,6; 1995.

Pringle, J. S. Lonicera maackii (Caprifoliaceae) adventive in Ontario. Canadian FieldNaturalist 87(1):54-55; 1973.

Radford, A. E.; Ahles, H. E.; Bell, C. R. Manual of the vascular flora of the Carolinas.Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press; 1968.

Rehder, A. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs. Portland, OR: Dioscorides Press;1986.

Rietveld, W. J. Allelopathic effects of juglone on germination and growth of severalherbaceous and woody species Juglans nigra, Lonicera maackii, Lespedeza cuneata,Trifolium incarnatum, Alnus glutinosa, Elaeagnus umbellata. Journal of Chemical Ecology9(2): 295-308; 1983.

Sharp, W. C.; Belcher, C. R. ‘Rem-red’ Amur honeysuckle — a multipurpose landscapeshrub Lonicera maackii. American Nurseryman 153(12):7, 94-96; 1981.

Swanson, R. E. A field guide to the trees and shrubs of the southern Appalachians.Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press; 1994.

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Luken, J. O. Population structure and biomass allocation of the naturalized shrubLonicera maackii (Rupr.) Maxim in forest and open habitats. American MidlandNaturalist 119:258-267; 1988.

Luken, J. O.; Mattimiro, D. T. Habitat-specific resilience of the invasive shrub Amurhoneysuckle (Lonicera maackii) during repeated clipping. Ecological Applications1:104-109; 1991.

Luken, J. O. Forest and pasture communities respond differently to cutting of exoticAmur honeysuckle. Restoration and Management Notes 8:122-123; 1990.

Williams, C. E.; Ralley, J. J.; Taylor, D. H. Consumption of seeds of the invasive Amurhoneysuckle, Lonicera maackii (Rupr.) Maxim, by small animals. Natural Areas Journal12(2): 86-89; 1992.

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5 cm

2 cm

Japanese Barberry Flower

Japanese Barberry Stem

Japanese barberry poses a significant threat to natural areas due to its popularity as alandscape shrub, ability to tolerate full shade, and the dispersal of its prolific seeds bybirds. It belongs to the Berberidaceae (Barberry) family, which is represented by onegenus in our area.

Height: This multi-branched dense shrub grows to 2.5 m (8.2 ft). Seedlings may grow2-4 ft in one season.

Leaves: The semi-evergreen leaves are alternate, or grow in alternate clusters. Theyare entire, and 1-3 cm (0.4-1.2 in) long. Leaves are bright green to burgundy, andwedge-shaped at the base.

Stems: Twigs are brown, three-ridged downward from the node, with simple thorns.Inner bark and wood are yellow.

Flowers: Flowers are solitary or in umbel-like clusters, corolla yellow, 8-10 mm(0.3-0.4 in) broad. Blooms March-April.

Fruits: Berries are red, ellipsoid to globular, 8-10 mm (0.3-0.4 in) long, and often pre-sent through winter. Fruit matures May-September.

Life History Japanese barberry reproduces from prolific seeds, rhizomes, or layering. Seeds have agermination rate as high as 90%, and are distributed by birds including ruffed grouse,bobwhite, pheasant, and wild turkey. Because barberry is shade tolerant, an extensivepopulation can become established in a short time under a closed forest canopy.Severe drought or extreme winters have little effect on overall mortality or seed pro-duction. Deer avoid barberry while often browsing surrounding vegetation, whichmay effectively increase barberry's competitive advantage.

Origin and Barberry was introduced to the United States in 1864 as an ornamental. It is prevalentDistribution in the northeastern states, but can be found from Nova Scotia and Michigan to North

Carolina, Missouri, and throughout Tennessee. It continues to be a popular landscapeplant with several varieties sold to the public.

Similar Species Japanese barberry resembles American barberry (Berberis canadensis P. Mill.), whichgrows in dry woods or bluffs. Distinguishing features are the sharply toothed leavesand three pronged spines of American barberry. In most habitats, Japanese barberryis easily recognizable because of its distinctive coloration.

39

Japanese BarberryBerberis thunbergii DC.

Habitat Barberry tolerates a variety of habitats from damp lowlands to dry roadsides andwaste places. Populations do not expand rapidly into oak-dominant forests or onextreme north- facing slopes. Because it is widely dispersed by the nursery industry,barberry has the potential to impact most natural area ecosystems throughoutTennessee.

Management Mechanical ControlsRecommendations Hand Pull: This method of control is effective for small populations of Japanese bar-

berry, since plants pull up easily in most forested habitats. Hand-pulling is anextremely effective method of reducing population and seed productivity; this can bedone during most of the year. Barberry is especially easy to see in the winter and earlyspring before deciduous plants leaf out. If plants have fruit present, they should bebagged and disposed of to prevent seed dispersal. Care should be taken to minimizesoil disturbance.

Mowing/Cutting: This method is appropriate for initial small populations or envi-ronmentally sensitive areas where herbicides cannot be used. Repeated mowing orcutting will control the spread of Japanese barberry but will not eradicate it. Stemsshould be cut at least once per growing season as close to ground level as possible.Hand-cutting of established clumps is difficult and time consuming due to the longarching stems and prolific thorns.

Herbicidal ControlsFoliar Spray Method: This method should be considered for large thickets of barber-ry where risk to non-target species is minimal. Air temperature should be above 65°Fto ensure absorption of herbicides.

Glyphosate: Apply a 2% solution of glyphosate and water plus a 0.5% non-ionicsurfactant to thoroughly wet all leaves. Use a low pressure and coarse spray pat-tern to reduce spray drift damage to non-target species. Glyphosate is a non-selec-tive systemic herbicide that may kill non-target partially-sprayed plants.

Triclopyr: Apply a 2% solution of triclopyr and water plus a 0.5% non-ionic sur-factant to thoroughly wet all leaves. Use a low pressure and coarse spray patternto reduce spray drift damage to non-target species. Triclopyr is a selective herbi-cide for broadleaf species. In areas where desirable grasses are growing under oraround Japanese barberry, triclopyr can be used without non-target damage.

Cut Stump Method: This control method should be considered when treating indi-vidual bushes or where the presence of desirable species precludes foliar application.Stump treatments can be used as long as the ground is not frozen.

Glyphosate: Horizontally cut barberry stems at or near ground level.Immediately apply a 25% solution of glyphosate and water to the cut stump, cov-ering the outer 20% of the stump.

Triclopyr: Horizontally cut barberry stems at or near ground level. Immediatelyapply a 25% solution of triclopyr and water to the cut stump, covering the outer20% of the stump.

Japanese Barberry

40

Bibliography Anonymous. ‘Crimson velvet’ barberry quarantine in force. American Nurseryman167 (12):13; 1988.

Core, E. L.;. Ammons, N. P. Woody plants in winter. Pacific Grove, CA: BoxwoodPress; 182-183; 1992.

Laferriere, J. E. Berberidaceae: barberry family. Journal of Arizona Nevada AcademyScience 26(1):2-4; 1992.

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Japanese Barberry

41

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2 cm

Multiflora Rose Leaf

Multiflora Rose Flower

Multiflora rose was introduced more than 40 years ago for high quality wildlife cover,living farm fences, and windbreaks. In some states, multiflora rose was used as acrash barrier along highways. Multiflora rose spreads rapidly into adjacent fields andundisturbed areas, often forming monotypic thickets. Many states list it as a noxiousweed. It belongs to the Rosaceae (Rose) family.

Height: Multiflora rose grows to 4 m (13 ft). The first 1.5-2.0 m (5.0-6.5 ft) of the stemare typically erect with the tips arching back to the ground.

Leaves: Pinnately compound leaves are divided into 7-9 leaflets. Leaflets are less than4.0 cm (1.5 in) long, obovate to elliptic, glabrous, and finely serrate.

Stems: Stems are glabrous, erect, and arching with curved, flattened, broad-basedthorns.

Flowers: Flowers are white to pinkish-white with 1.0-1.5 cm (0.4-0.6 in) long petals.The five sepals are lanceolate and glabrous to puberulent. Blooms May - July.

Fruit: Rose hips are red, 6-9 mm (0.2-0.4 in) long, ovoid, and fleshy. Eventually theybecome firm and remain on the plant into the winter months. A medium-sized bushis capable of producing 500,000 to 1,000,000 seeds. Fruit matures September-October.

Life History Multiflora rose reproduces by seed, root sprouts, and layering (rooting from the tipsof arching branches). Flowers emerge from May to July and the fruits (rose hips)develop in September through October. Its prolific seeds are eaten and spread by birdsand other animals. Seeds may remain viable in the soil for 10-20 years. Seedlingsdevelop within 60 days at soil temperatures above freezing. Plants grow slowly forthe first one or two years followed by rapid expansion through layering and rootsprouts.

Origin and Multiflora rose was introduced from Japan, Korea, and eastern China in 1886 as rootDistribution stock for ornamental roses. In the 1930s it was widely promoted as a "living fence" for

soil conservation and in wildlife programs. Present distribution is throughout theUnited States with the exception of the southeastern coastal plains, Rocky Mountains,and western desert areas. In Tennessee, multiflora rose occurs throughout the statealong fence rows, successional fields, and pastures. It may invade natural areas, espe-cially fields, flood plains, and light gaps in forests.

Similar Species There are three native roses that resemble multiflora rose: prairie rose (Rosa setigeraMichx.), swamp rose (Rosa palustris Marsh.), and Arkansas rose (Rosa arkansana Por-

43

Multiflora RoseRosa multiflora (Thunb. ex Murr.)

ter.). Prairie rose is distinguished from multiflora rose by longer, trailing, and archingstems, larger (2-3 cm; 0.8-1.2 in) white flowers in a pyramidal inflorescence, and small-er fruit. Swamp rose is distinguished from multiflora rose by having a shorter overallheight (2 m; 79 in) and solitary flowers. Arkansas rose stems are densely covered byslender, straight thorns and shorter overall stature (rarely over 1 m or 39 in).

Habitat Multiflora rose will tolerate a wide range of edaphic and environmental conditions. Itgrows well in full sun or shade, loamy soils to eroded clay pans, and on moist to drysites. Once established, multiflora rose grows rapidly forming dense, impenetrablethickets.

Management Mechanical ControlsRecommendations Mowing/Cutting: This method is appropriate for small initial populations or environ-

mentally sensitive areas where herbicides cannot be used. Repeated mowing or cut-ting will control the spread of multiflora rose, but will not eradicate it. Stems shouldbe cut at least once per growing season as close to ground level as possible. Hand cut-ting of established clumps is difficult and time consuming due to the long archingstems and prolific thorns.

Biological ControlsRose Rosette Disease (RRD): Rose rosette disease is an endemic disease in the Mid-western states and affects several species of roses. The pathogen appears to be a virusor mycoplasma-like organism spread by the eriophyid mite (Phyllocoptes fructiphilusKeifer). Once infected, most plants die within one or two years with large plants sur-viving up to four years. Although multiflora rose seems to be the primary host, nativeand ornamental roses are susceptible. Current research indicates that commerciallyimportant relatives such as apples, plums, cherries, etc. are not susceptible to roserosette disease.

RRD has spread into west and middle Tennessee and is likely to reach the eastern por-tion of the state in the foreseeable future. Its use as a biological control is not feasibleuntil further research verifies the causal agent and some reliable protection is avail-able for native and cultivated rose species.

Rose Seed Chalcid (Megastigmus aculeatus var. nigroflavus [Hoffmeyer]): The rose seedchalcid was imported from Japan with multiflora rose seed in 1917. The wasp depositsits eggs into the developing rose ovule just after petal-fall. The larvae develop in theovules, consuming the contents of the seeds and killing them. Surveys conducted inWest Virginia found 50% of viable seed infested with chalcid oviposits. Dispersal is bymovement of seed by birds, which may explain the relatively low colonization rate. Itis estimated that 90% of the multiflora rose in West Virginia and surrounding stateswill be infested by this wasp in the next 20 years or more.

Herbicidal ControlsFoliar Spray Method: This method should be considered for large thickets of multi-flora rose where risk to non-target species is minimal. Air temperature should beabove 65°F to ensure absorption of herbicides.

Multiflora Rose

44

Glyphosate: Apply a 2% solution of glyphosate and water plus a 0.5% non-ionicsurfactant thoroughly wetting all leaves. Use a low pressure and coarse spray pat-tern to reduce spray drift damage to non-target species. Glyphosate is a non-selec-tive systemic herbicide that may kill non-target partially-sprayed plants.

Triclopyr: Apply a 2% solution of triclopyr and water plus a 0.5% non-ionic sur-factant to thoroughly wet all leaves. Use a low pressure and coarse spray patternto reduce spray-drift damage to non-target species. Triclopyr is a selective herbi-cide for broadleaf species. In areas where desirable grasses are growing under oraround multiflora rose, triclopyr can be used without non-target damage.

Cut Stump Method: This control method should be considered when treating indi-vidual bushes or where the presence of desirable species preclude foliar application.This treatment remains effective at low temperatures as long as the ground is notfrozen.

Glyphosate: Horizontally cut multiflora rose stems at or near ground level.Immediately apply a 25% solution of glyphosate and water to the cut stump mak-ing sure to cover the entire surface.

Triclopyr: Horizontally cut multiflora rose stems at or near ground level.Immediately apply a 25% solution of triclopyr and water to the cut stump mak-ing sure the entire surface is covered.

Basal Bark Method: This method is effective throughout the year as long as theground is not frozen. Apply a mixture of 25% triclopyr and 75% horticultural oil to thebasal parts of the shrub to a height of 30-38 cm (12-15 in) from the ground. Thoroughwetting is necessary for good control; spray until run-off is noticeable at the groundline.

Bibliography Amrine, J. W., Jr.; Hindal, D. F.; Stasny, T. A. Transmission of the rose rosette disease agent to Rosa multiflora by Phyllocoptes fructiphilus. Entomological News 99(5):239-252;1988.

Amrine, J. W., Jr.; Stasny, T. A. Biocontrol of multiflora rose. In Biological Pollution:The Control and Impact of Invasive Exotic Species. Indianapolis: IN Academy ofScience, 9-21; 1993.

Amrine, J. W., Jr.; Hindal, D. F.; Williams, R. Rose rosette as a biocontrol of multiflorarose. Proceedings of the Southern Weed Science Society 43:316-319; 1990.

Amrine, J. W., Jr.; Hindal, D. F. Rose rosette: a fatal disease of multiflora rose. Circular147, West Virginia University Agricultural and Forestry Experiment Station,Morgantown; 1988.

Bryan, W. B.; Mills, T. A. Effect of frequency and method of defoliation and plant size on the survival of multifloral rose. Biological Agriculture and Horticulture 5:209-214;1988.

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Dugan, R. F. Multiflora rose in West Virginia. West Virginia Agricultural ExperimentStation Bulletin 447, 1-32; 1960.

Epstein, A. H. Rose rosette disease: an all American malady of rose. The AmericanRose Magazine, February; 1992.

Gleason, H. A.; Cronquist, A. Manual of vascular plants of northeastern United Statesand adjacent Canada. 2nd ed. The New York Botanical Garden; 1991.

Hindal, D. F.; Wong, S. M. Potential biocontrol of multiflora rose, Rosa multiflora. WeedTechnology 2:122-131; 1988.

Radford, A. E.; Ahles, H. E.; Bell, C. R. Manual of the vascular flora of the Carolinas.Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press; 1968.

Scott, R. F. Problems of multiflora rose spread and control. Transactions of 30th NorthAmerican Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference 30:360-378; Washington, DC;Wildlife Management Institute; 1965.

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Multiflora Rose

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2 cm

Privet Fruit

Privet Stem

Several species of privet have been widely planted in Tennessee, primarily as a hedgein landscaping. They are difficult to distinguish and include common privet (L. vul-gare L.), Chinese privet (L. sinense Lour.), and Japanese privet (L. japonicum Thunb.).All belong to the Oleaceae (Olive) family and easily escape cultivation to invade adja-cent areas and form dense monocultural thickets.

Height: Privet can grow up to 5 m (16 ft) tall and to a diameter of 2.5-25 cm (1-10 in).

Bark: Privet bark is whitish-tan to gray in color and smooth in texture. Young branch-es are minutely hairy.

Twigs: Slender twigs are straight, rounded or four-angled below the nodes, and gray-green in color. Terminal buds are present.

Leaves: These deciduous or half-evergreen plants hold foliage into winter, but drop itbefore spring. Leaves are elliptic to ovate in shape. They are oppositely arranged onslender twigs and have 4-5 pairs of indistinct veins. Privet leaves are less than 6 cm(2.5 in) long, glabrous, leathery and thick, with a glossy cuticle on upper surface.

Flowers: The perfect flowers are small and white. Bloom time is June-July.

Fruit: The black, berrylike fruits contain 1-4 seeds and are borne in terminal clusters.Fruits are subglobose or ovoid and are 6-8 mm (0.25 in) long. The fruit clusters ripenduring September and October and persist through the winter. Mature specimens canproduce hundreds of fruit.

Life History Privet is a perennial shrub that readily grows from seed or from root and stumpsprouts. Privet escapes cultivation by movement of seed, which is eaten and subse-quently transported by wildlife, particularly birds. The seeds are reported to have alow germination rate: 5%-27% in two tests.

Origin and The privets are native to Europe, North Africa, and Asia. This ornamental landscapeDistribution plant has been cultivated since ancient times and has been developed into several hor-

ticultural varieties. Date of introduction to the United States is unknown as is anyrecord of introduction to Tennessee. Current range maps show L. vulgare (L.) in fourcentral and six eastern Tennessee counties and L. sinense (Lour.) in three central andtwo eastern Tennessee counties; however both species are suspected to have widerdistributions.

49

PrivetLigustrum spp. L.

Similar Species The leaves of the native shrub coralberry, Symphoricarpos orbiculatus (Moench.), aresimilar in shape to common privet. Coralberry is distinguished by its very slendertwigs, deciduous leaves, red berries borne in axillary clusters, and the lack of a termi-nal bud.

Habitat Privet is often seen along roadsides and other areas of disturbed soil at elevations lessthan 915 m (3000 ft). Privet also becomes established in old fields and landscapes thathave abundant sunlight. Blunt-leaved privet, L. obtusifolium (Sieb. and Zucc.), wasfound invading an old field succession site in Illinois. The field had an average ofmore than 6,082 plants per ha (2.5 acres). Privet can also spread into forests, though itdoes not produce fruit in low light.

Management Mechanical ControlsRecommendations Mowing/Cutting: This method is appropriate for small initial populations or envi-

ronmentally sensitive areas where herbicides cannot be used. Repeated mowing orcutting will control the spread of privet, but will not eradicate it. Stems should be cutat least once per growing season as close to ground level as possible.

Hand Pulling: Privet is effectively controlled by manual removal of young seedlings.Plants should be pulled as soon as they are large enough to grasp but before they pro-duce seeds. Seedlings are best pulled after a rain when the soil is loose. Larger stems,up to 6 cm (2.5 in), can be removed using a Weed Wrench or similar uprooting tools.The entire root must be removed since broken fragments may resprout.

Biological Controls Privet has no known biological controls. A foliage-feeding insect native to Europe,Macrophya punctumalbum, is a known pest. Privet is also susceptible to a fungal leafspot, Pseudocercospora ligustri, and a common root crown bacteria, Agrobacterium tume-faciens.

Herbicidal ControlsFoliar Spray Method: This method should be considered for large thickets of privetwhere risk to non-target species is minimal. Air temperature should be above 65°F toensure absorption of herbicides. The ideal time to treat is in late fall or early springwhen many native species are dormant.

Glyphosate: Apply a 2% solution of glyphosate and water plus a 0.5% non-ionicsurfactant to thoroughly wet all leaves. Use a low pressure and coarse spray pat-tern to reduce spray-drift damage to non-target species. Glyphosate is a non-selective systemic herbicide that may kill non-target partially-sprayed plants.

Triclopyr: Apply a 2% solution of triclopyr and water plus a 0.5% non-ionic sur-factant, to thoroughly wet all leaves. Use a low pressure and coarse spray patternto reduce spray-drift damage to non-target species. Triclopyr is a selective herbi-cide for broadleaf species. In areas where desirable grasses are growing under oraround privet triclopyr can be used without non-target damage.

Privet

50

Cut Stump Method: This control method should be considered when treating indi-vidual bushes or where the presence of desirable species preclude foliar application.This treatment is effective as long as the ground is not frozen.

Glyphosate: Horizontally cut privet stems at or near ground level. Immediatelyapply a 25% solution of glyphosate and water to the cut stump making sure tocover the entire surface.

Triclopyr: Horizontally cut privet stems at or near ground level. Immediatelyapply a 25% solution of triclopyr and water to the cut stump making sure theentire surface is covered.

Basal Bark Method: This method is effective throughout the year as long as theground is not frozen. Apply a mixture of 25% triclopyr and 75% horticultural oil to thebasal parts of the shrub to a height of 30-38 cm (12-15 in) from the ground. Thoroughwetting is necessary for good control; spray until run-off is noticeable at the groundline.

Bibliography Core, E. L.;. Ammons, N. P. Woody plants in winter. Pacific Grove, CA: BoxwoodPress. 182-183; 1992.

Ebinger, J. E. Exotic shrubs: a potential problem in natural area management inIllinois. Compendium on Exotic Species. Mukwonago, WI. The Natural AreasAssociation. Article 17, 1-3; 1992.

Faulkner, J. E. The use of prescribed burning for managing natural and historicresources in the Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park. Knoxville,TN: The University of Tennessee. Thesis. 1987.

Johnson, W. T.; Lyon, H. H. Insects that feed on trees and shrubs. Ithaca, NY: CornellUniversity Press; 1988.

Radford, A. E.; Ahles, H.; Bell, C. R. Manual of the vascular flora of the Carolinas.Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press; 1968.

Rehder, A. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs hardy in North America. 2nd ed.Portland, OR: Dioscorides Press, 783-784; 1986.

Sinclair, W. A.; Lyon, H. H.; Johnson, W. T. Diseases of trees and shrubs. Ithaca, NY:Cornell University Press, 86-88,156; 1987.

Swanson, R. E. A field guide to the trees and shrubs of the southern Appalachians. Baltimore MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 357-358; 1994.

USDA Forest Service. Woody Plant Seed Manual. Misc. Pub. No. 654. Washington,DC.; 1948.

Wofford, B. E. Range maps for the vascular plants of Tennessee. Knoxville, TN: TheUniversity of Tennessee. Unpublished.

Privet

51

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2 cm

Eurasian Water-milfoil Flower

Eurasian Water-milfoil Stem

2 cm

Eurasian water-milfoil is a perennial, aquatic, submersed herb that was accidentallyintroduced from Eurasia, probably in the 1940s. This plant can form large mats offloating vegetation on the water surface preventing light penetration thus outcompet-ing native plants and impeding water traffic. The preferred habitat for Eurasian water-milfoil is fresh or brackish water of fish ponds, lakes, slow-moving streams, reservoirs,and canals. Dispersal is primarily by fragmentation. It belongs to the primarily aquat-ic Haloragaceae family.

Height: The plant usually grows between 1-4 m (3.3-9.8 ft) but can extend up to 10 m(33 ft). The stems grow to the surface of the water and frequently form dense mats.

Stem: Stems are long, slender, branching, glabrous, and become leafless toward thebase. Each floating node can become established if it comes in contact with mud.

Leaves: The grayish-green leaves are in whorls of three or four with 12-16 pairs of fine,thin leaflets up to 35 mm (1.4 in) long. These leaflets give the leaves a feathery appear-ance that is a distinguishing feature.

Flowers: The yellow flowers are on a spike that is produced 5-10 cm (2-4 in) above thewater surface. The spike appears essentially naked and interrupted. Bracts are incon-spicuous with the lower bracts usually toothed, sometimes entire, mostly exceedingthe flowers. Stamen number is eight. Blooms July-September.

Seeds: Fruit is a schizocarp containing four seeds. Matures late July-September.

Life History Seeds are usually viable, but are unimportant as a means of dispersal. Most regenera-tion is from rhizomes, fragmented stems, and axillary buds that develop throughoutthe year. Plant fragments can attach to objects in the water such as boats, trailers, oranimals and be moved from one body of water to another. Motor boats can producemany fragments when traveling through the water. Flower spikes often stand abovethe water until after pollination and then re-submerge.

Similar Species Several members of the Haloragaceae family are native to the southeastern UnitedStates, and a number of exotic milfoils are now widely naturalized. M. spicatum L. isdistinguished by its distinctly whorled leaves, bracts, and flowers, and its deepbranching.

Origin and Eurasian water-milfoil is a native of Eurasia and Africa. It occurs in thirty-three statesDistribution east of the Mississippi River. It is abundant in the Chesapeake Bay, the tidal Potomac

River, and several Tennessee Valley reservoirs. Two theories exist as to how it entered

53

Eurasian Water-milfoilMyriophyllum spicatum L.

North America—it either escaped from an aquarium, or was released in shipping. Thisexotic aquatic plant species has been considered a problem in the United States sincethe 1940s. In the Tennessee Valley Authority reservoir system, a resort owner isthought to have introduced water-milfoil in 1953.

Habitat Typical water-milfoil habitat includes fresh to brackish water of fish ponds, lakes,slow-moving streams, reservoirs, and canals. It is tolerant of many water pollutants.Eurasian water-milfoil does not spread rapidly into habitats where native plants arewell established and tends to exist in habitats where native species grow poorly orcannot adapt. By altering waterways, we have created an unnatural, disturbed envi-ronment where milfoil thrives. Although short-term habitat improvement in habitatfor fish and waterfowl has been experienced in disturbed habitats, the long-termeffects are considered to be more damaging.

Management Mechanical ControlsRecommendations Harvesting: Large equipment exists to mechanically remove milfoil in larger areas. A

sturdy handrake can be used for smaller areas, such as around docks, swimming areasand harbors. For the single harvest, harvesting should take place just before peak bio-mass is obtained. There may be substantial regrowth if done too early. Better resultsappear with multiple harvests in the same growing season. If multiple harvests are notpossible, then sustaining annual harvests is an option. All fragments of milfoil plantsmust be removed to achieve adequate control.

Water Levels: Where water levels are under manual control, raising or lowering of thewater can have an effect on the milfoil. By raising the water level, plants can be"drowned" by not having access to enough light. By lowering the water level, plantscan be dehydrated and, at the right time of the year, frozen to death. This type of con-trol is usually used in conjunction with herbicides and shade barriers.

Herbicidal ControlsFluridone: Fluridone is a selective herbicide for milfoil and several other exotic aquat-ic weeds. There are no restrictions on swimming, fishing, or drinking after applicationand season-long control can be achieved with one application. Fluridone is availablein liquid or granular form and can be used as a spot treatment or on an entire water-way. For best results, applications should be made before or during the early stages ofactive growth. Granular 2,4-D: This method is appropriate for large unmanageableareas of milfoil. This herbicide is formulated to release the active ingredient over sev-eral days. Apply granules at a rate of 100 lbs per acre of water. The herbicide granuleswill sink to the root zone and kill the plant.

Liquid DMA 2,4-D: Application of liquid DMA 2,4-D may be used for milfoil controlin areas with low dilution potentials such as ponds and lakes. Application ratesshould be less than 2.0 parts per million (ppm). Subsurface application rate has to beadjusted proportionately for varying water depths.

Other ControlsHeat: The viability of milfoil fragments is severely reduced after being subjected to

Eurasian Water-milfoil

54

temperatures between 45-50°C in the cooling systems of thermal electricity generatingsystems.

Light: The amount of light reaching the plant can be limited by changing water levelsusing bankside plantings or floating plant species, light limiting dyes, or shade barri-ers.

Booms: Barriers are used to prevent the movement and spread of aquatic weeds inponds and lakes. Usually the barrier is a suspended blocking screen that hangs verti-cally from a cable to a depth of about 4 meters, and the cable is suspended by drumfloats. This will not eradicate milfoil, but it can limit its spread.

Bibliography Aiken, S. G.; Newroth, P. R.; Wile, I. The biology of Canadian weeds. 34. Myriophyllumspicatum L. Canadian Journal of Plant Science 59:201-215; 1979.

Anonymous. Eurasian water-milfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum). Internet on the GreatLakes Information Network Gopher; 1995.

Couch, R.; Nelson, E. Myriophyllum spicatum in North America. Proceedings FirstInternational symposium on water-milfoil and related Haloragaceae species. AquaticPlant Management Society. Vancouver, British Columbia, 1985.

Godfrey, R. K.; Wooten, J.W. Aquatic and wetland plants of southeastern UnitedStates: Dicotyledons. Athens, GA: The University of Georgia Press; 1981.

Hotchkiss, N. Common marsh, underwater and floating-leaved plants of the UnitedStates and Canada. 1st ed. New York, NY: Dover Publications, Inc.; 1972.

Lorenzi, H. J.; Jeffery, L. S. Weeds of the United States and their control. New York, NY:Van Nostrand Reinhold Company; 1987.

Pieterse, A. H.; Murph, K. J. Aquatic weeds: the ecology and management of nuisanceaquatic vegetation. New York: Oxford University Press; 1990.

Tennessee Valley Authority. Aquatic plant management program: current status andseasonal work plan. Resource Group/Water Management/Clean Water Initiative;1994.

Eurasian Water-milfoil

55

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2 cm

Garlic Mustard Flower

Garlic Mustard Stem

Garlic mustard gets its name from its characteristic odor of garlic when the plant iscrushed and its mustard-like appearance. It is a naturalized European biennial herbthat poses a significant threat to lowland natural areas as well as gardens and fieldcrops. It belongs to the Brassicaceae (Mustard) family.

Height: First-year rosettes extend to 10 cm (4 in) high. Flowering stems may reach0.6-1.1 m (2.0-3.5 ft).

Leaves: First-year leaves (which remain the second year) are round to kidney-shapedand are on stems approximately 5.0-6.5 cm (2-3 in) tall. Leaves on flowering plants arealternate and are larger near the base of the stem. They are large-toothed, triangularin shape, and approximately 2.54 cm (1 in) long and 5.0-7.5 cm (2-3 in) wide.

Flowers: Flowers grow in clusters at the end of the stems. Each flower has four whitepetals (0.5 cm or 0.2 in long). Blooms in spring, usually in late April to May.Occasionally, some plants will bloom again in July-August.

Fruit: Fruit is a long 2.5-6.3 cm (1.0-2.5 in) green capsule called a silique, and containsmany seeds. Siliques are produced summer to early fall. The capsules burst openwhen mature and ballistically disperse seeds several meters.

Seeds: Small, black seeds grow in a row inside the silique. Seeds may remain viablefor up to 5 years. Plants can produce up to 868 seeds depending on habitat and pop-ulation density. Seeds are dispersed by human/animal vectors or by water in ripari-an areas.

Life History Garlic mustard is a cool-season obligate biennial herb. Seeds germinate in early spring(April-May) of the first year resulting in initially high seedling densities. Natural mor-tality during the first year results in only 2%-4% of the plants surviving to flower thefollowing spring. Garlic mustard is self- or cross-pollinated and a single plant canpopulate an entire site. Adult plants set and disperse seed in late spring (May-June)the second year and produce an average of 165-868 seeds. The seeds are dormant for20 months germinating in early spring of year four.

Origin and Garlic mustard was introduced from Europe as food or a medicinal herb. It was firstDistribution recorded in the U.S. in 1868 in Long Island, New York. By 1991, this exotic plant had

spread to 28 midwestern and northeastern states. As of 1995, garlic mustard is foundthroughout Tennessee, although no formal statewide weed surveys have been con-ducted.

57

Garlic MustardAlliaria petiolata (M. Bieb.) Cavara & Grande

Similar Species Garlic mustard is distinguished from other woodland herb species by its characteris-tic garlic odor. As the odor gradually dissipates by autumn, first-year rosettes may bemistaken for violets (Viola spp.) or immature white avens (Geum canadense [Jacquin]).Garlic mustard can be distinguished by its slender white taproot with a crook or “S”shape just below the base of the stem.

Habitat Garlic mustard occurs most frequently in forested communities under partial shade.However, plants will grow on sites ranging from full shade to full sun, moist flood-plains to dry, sandy forests, and in a wide variety of soils. Garlic mustard is associat-ed with calcareous soils and is intolerant of acidic substrates. Disturbed forest andriparian communities are most susceptible to garlic mustard invasion and may dom-inate the herb strata within ten years. Garlic mustard will spread from disturbed areasto colonize undisturbed sites. Floodplain areas are particularly vulnerable since seedsare easily transported in water.

Management Mechanical ControlRecommendations Hand Pull: This method of control is effective for small populations of garlic mustard,

since plants pull up easily in most forested habitats. Hand-pulling is an extremelyeffective method of reducing population and seed productivity. Hand-pulling ofplants can be done during most of the year. If plants have seed capsules present, theyshould be bagged and disposed of to prevent seed dispersal. Care should be taken tominimize soil disturbance. Resprouts are uncommon but may appear from matureplants not entirely removed.

Cutting: This method is effective for medium- to large- sized populations dependingon available time and labor resources. Cut stems when in flower (late spring/earlysummer) at ground level either manually or with a mechanical brush-cutter. This tech-nique will result in almost total mortality of existing plants. Dormant seeds in the soilare unaffected by this technique. Treatments should be continued annually until theseedbank is exhausted.

Herbicidal ControlsGlyphosate Foliar Spray: This method is effective on populations where mechanicalcontrol measures are not feasible or are impractical. Apply a 2% solution ofglyphosate and water plus a non-ionic surfactant using a tank or backpack sprayer tothoroughly cover all leaves. Do not apply so heavily that herbicide drips off the leafsurface. Glyphosate is a non-selective herbicide requiring caution not to spray non-target species. Treatments should be done in the early spring when most other non-target vegetation is dormant. Refer to manufacturer's label for specific informationand restrictions regarding use.

Prescribed FireIn fire-tolerant communities, prescribed burning can be effective either alone or inconjunction with herbicide. Mid-intensity spring burns appear to reduce density ofadult plants somewhat more effectively than fall burns. A program of repeated sea-sonal burning over several years is most effective in deterring garlic mustard andenhancing growth of native ground-layer vegetation.

Garlic Mustard

58

Bibliography Anderson, R. C.; Dhilion, S. S. Acclimatization of garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata) tovaried levels of irradiance. American Journal of Botany: 78 (Supplement to No. 6):129-130; 1991.

Babonjo, A.; Dhilion, S. S.; Anderson, R. C. Flora biology and breeding system of gar-lic mustard (Alliaria petiolata). Transactions from the Illinois State Academy ofScience:83 (suppl.):32; 1990.

Byers, D. L.; Quinn, J. A. Plant size as a factor in determining flowering time andreproductive output in Alliaria petiolata. American Journal of Botany 75:71; 1988.

Byers, D. L. The effect of habitat variation in Alliaria petiolata on life history character-istics. American Journal of Botany 74:647; 1987.

Cavers, P. B.; Heagy, M. I.; Kokron, R. F. The biology of Canadian weeds. 35. Alliariapetiolata (M Bieb.) Cavara and Grande. Canadian Journal of Plant Science 59:217-229;1979.

Kelley, T.; Anderson, R. C. Examination of the allelopathic properties of garlic mustard(Alliaria petiolata). Transactions from the Illinois State Academy of Science 83 (suppl.):31-32; 1990.

Lhotska, M. Notes on the ecology of germination of Alliaria petiolata. FoliaGeobotanica Phytotaxonomica 10:179-183; 1975.

Nuzzo, V. A. Current and historic distribution of garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata) inIllinois. The Michigan Botanist 32:23-33; 1993.

Nuzzo, V. A. 1991. Experimental control of garlic mustard in northern Illinois usingfire, herbicides, and cutting. Natural Areas Journal 11(3):158-167.

Garlic Mustard

59

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????????????

2 cm

Japanese Grass or Eualia

Microstegium is an annual colonial grass that spreads rapidly into dis-turbed lowland areas. Inconspicuous at first, populations may go unno-ticed until they have displaced native communities. It is a C-4 shade tol-erant plant that can survive and reproduce under a closed forest canopy.

Height: Microstegium is a decumbent and branched annual grass reach-ing a height of 60-100 cm (24-39 in).

Stem: Culms are 1.5 m (59 in) long with glabrous nodes and internodes.

Leaves: Cauline leaves are alternate, lanceolate, 10 cm (4 in) long,2-15 mm (0.08-0.6 in) wide, and sparsely pubescent on both surfaces withciliate margins.

Flowers: Racemes are terminal and may be solitary or in a set of two orthree. Spikelets are in pairs, one sessile and one pedicellate, and 4.5-5mm(0.17-0.2 in) long. Blooms August-September.

Seeds: Grain is yellow to red, ellipsoid, 2.8-3.0 mm (0.1-0.12 in) long.Seeds mature over a period of about two weeks in September-October.

Life History Microstegium is an annual C-4 shade tolerant grass in the Poaceae fami-ly. It is colonial in nature, rooting from the nodes, and may form densemonotypic stands. Reproduction is exclusively from seed. Each plantmay produce from 100-1,000 seeds that remain viable in the soil for fiveor more years. Seed dispersal is primarily by animals, flooding, anddeposition with fill dirt. This plant spreads rapidly into disturbed areasbut can invade undisturbed areas by forming satellite populationsbrought in by animals or flooding. On fertile mesic sites Japanese grasscan replace competing ground vegetation within 3-5 years.

Microstegium is adapted to low light conditions. At 18% of full sunlightdry matter production is not significantly reduced from production in fullsunlight. It will grow and produce seed in light levels as low as 5% of fullsunlight.

Origin and Microstegium is native to Japan, Korea, China, Malaysia, and India. ItDistribution was first identified in the U.S. at Knoxville, Tennessee in 1919, and in 1933

was collected in western North Carolina. By 1964, the grass had spread to35 counties in North Carolina. By 1972, it had been identified in 14 east-

61

Japanese Grass or EualiaMicrostegium vimineum (Trin.) A. Camus.

ern states, and in 1978, it was collected in Arkansas. Microstegium can be foundthroughout the state of Tennessee, primarily in previously disturbed mesic areas.

Similar Species Microstegium may be confused with cutgrass (Leersia virginica Willd.) or knotweed(Polygonum persicaria L.). Cutgrass has distinctly longer leaves (1.5 dm [6.0 in]) andshorter spikelets (2.5-3 cm [1.0-1.2 in]) than microstegium. Knotweed is distinguishedfrom microstegium by pale to dark pink calyx and glossy black nutlets.

Habitat Alluvial soil found in flood plains and stream sides is ideal habitat for microstegium.Other typical habitats include damp fields, lawns, mesic woodland edges, roadsides,and ditches. It is commonly found in areas of natural (e.g., flood scouring) or artificial(e.g., mowing, tilling) disturbance, but can invade undisturbed areas. Microstegiumhas been observed growing at an elevation of 1,200 m (3,840 ft), but typically is notfound on upland sites. Deer avoid microstegium, which allows it a competitive advan-tage in over browsed areas.

Management Mechanical Control Recommendations Mow plants as close to the ground as possible using a weedeater or similar grass cut-

ting tool. Treatments should be made when plants are in flower and before seeds areproduced. Treatments made earlier may result in plants producing new seed heads inthe axils of lower leaves.

Herbicidal Control Herbicide treatments should be made late in the growing season but, before the plantsset seed. Treatments made earlier in the growing season may allow a second cohort ofplants to produce seeds.

Glyphosate: Apply a 2% solution of glyphosate and water plus a 0.5% non-ionicsurfactant to thoroughly wet all foliage. Do not spray to the point of runoff.Ambient air temperature should be above 65°F to ensure translocation of the her-bicide to the roots. Do not apply if rainfall is expected within two hours follow-ing application.

Sethoxydin: Apply a 1.5% solution of sethoxydin and water plus a 1% nonphyto-toxic vegetable-based oil to all foliage on a spray-to-wet basis. Do not spray to thepoint of runoff. Ambient air temperature should be above 65°F. Do not apply ifrainfall is expected within one hour following application.

Bibliography Barden, L. S. Invasion of Microstegium vimineum (Poaceae), an exotic, annual,shade-tolerant, C-4 grass, into a North Carolina floodplain. American MidlandsNature Journal 118(1):40-45; 1987.

Fairbrothers, H. L; Gray, J. R. Microstegium vimineum (Trin) A. Camus (Graminaceae)in the United States. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 99:97-100; 1972.

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Gleason, H. A.; Cronquist, A. Manual of vascular plants of northeastern United Statesand adjacent Canada. 2nd ed. The New York Botanical Garden; 1991.

Goel, A. K.; Uniyal, B. P. On the occurrence of a few grasses in Pakistan and Nepal(Ischaemum impressum, Ischnochloa falconeri, Microstegium vimineum, Puccinellia tenuiflo-ra). Journal of Economic and Taxonomic. Botany: 4(3): 43; 1983

Hunt, D. M.; Zaremba, R. E. The northeastward spread of Microstegium vimineum(Poaceae) into New York and adjacent states. Rhodora 94(878):167-170; 1992.

Radford, A. E.; Ahles, H. E.; Bell, C. R. Manual of vascular flora of the Carolinas.Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press; 1968.

Redman, D. Distribution and habitat types for Nepal microstegium (Microstegiumvimineum [Trin.]Camus) in Maryland and the District of Columbia. Castanea 60(3):270-275; 1995.

Winter, K.; Schmitt, M. R.; Edwards, G.E. Microstegium vimineum, a shade adapted C-4 (carbon pathway) grass (comparison of growth with Digitaria sanguinalis andSporobolus airoides). Plant Science Letter 24(3):311-318; 1982.

Woods, F. Southeast Region Resource Activity Report GSMNP. USDI National ParkService Agreement # CA-5460-5-8004. Research on Japanese Grass and Princess Trees;1987.

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2 cm

1 cm

Japanese Knotweed Stem

Japanese Knotweed Seed

Japanese knotweed, commonly known as crimson beauty, Mexican bamboo, Japanesefleece flower, or Reynoutria, was probably introduced to the U.S. as an ornamental.Initially useful for erosion control, as an ornamental, and for landscape screening,Japanese knotweed spreads quickly to form dense thickets that can alter naturalecosystems or interfere with landscaping. It is a semi-woody, bushy perennial and amember of the Polygonaceae (Knotweed) family.

Height: Japanese knotweed can grow 1-3 m (3-10 ft) tall.

Stem: The stout stems are glaucous, and erect, swelling at leaf axils.

Leaves: The broadly ovate leaves are petiolate, truncate to somewhat triangular, andpointed at the tip. Length is generally 5-15 cm (2-6 in) long, and 5-12 cm (2-5 in) wide,with a prominent basal angle.

Flowers: Minute greenish-white flowers appear in axillary panicles with three stylesand minute stigmas. Outer sepals are narrowly winged along the midrib. BloomsAugust- September.

Fruit: The fruiting calyxes are wing-angled, 8-9 mm long (0.3 in). Achene is triangular,shiny, 3-4 mm (0.1-0.15 in) long.

Life History Knotweed spreads rapidly from stout long rhizomes. Seeds are distributed by waterin floodplains, transported with fill dirt, and to a lesser extent are wind-blown.Populations escaped from neglected gardens, and discarded cuttings are commonurban paths of distribution. Once established, populations are quite persistent and canoutcompete existing vegetation.

Origin and Japanese knotweed, native to Japan, was introduced into the United States prior toDistribution 1890. By the turn of the century, it was established in the eastern United States and was

reported naturalized around Philadelphia, PA, Schenectady, NY, and AtlanticHighlands, NJ. Knotweed was collected in the Tennessee region in the 1940s and isnow found throughout the state. In 1966, it was considered “one of the most persis-tent and aggressive of all perennial weeds.” Current distribution is fromNewfoundland to Ontario, in many parts of the north and southeastern U.S., and westto Minnesota and Iowa.

Similar Species There are several native species of Polygonum that resemble Japanese knotweed in theseedling stage. Japanese knotweed is distinguished by greater overall height, and vig-orous growth of stout rhizomes. This plant is a popular ornamental, and many culti-

65

Japanese KnotweedPolygonum cuspidatum (Sieb. & Zucc.)

vated varieties are produced by the nursery industry. Varieties may be difficult to dis-tinguish, but most share the same invasive characteristics and will respond to thesame treatment as the parent plant.

Habitat Japanese knotweed can tolerate a variety of adverse conditions including full shade,high temperatures, high salinity, and drought. It is found near water sources, in low-lying areas, waste places, utility rights of way, and around old homesites. It can quick-ly become an invasive pest in natural areas after escaping from cultivated gardens. Itposes a significant threat to riparian areas, where it can survive severe floods. It israpidly colonizing scoured shores and islands.

Management Mechanical ControlRecommendations Grubbing: This method is appropriate for small initial populations or environmental-

ly sensitive areas where herbicides cannot be used. Using a pulaski or similar diggingtool, remove the entire plant including all roots and runners. Juvenile plants can behand-pulled depending on soil conditions and root development. Any portions of theroot system not removed will potentially resprout. All plant parts, including maturefruit, should be bagged and disposed of in a trash dumpster to prevent reestablish-ment.

Herbicidal ControlCut Stump Treatment: Use this method in areas where vines are established within oraround non-target plants or where vines have grown into the canopy. This treatmentremains effective at low temperatures as long as the ground is not frozen.

Glyphosate: Cut the stem 5 cm (2 in) above ground level. Immediately apply a25% solution of glyphosate and water to the cross-section of the stem. A subse-quent foliar application of glyphosate may be required to control new seedlingsand resprouts.

Triclopyr: Cut the stem 5 cm (2 in) above ground level. Immediately apply a 25%solution of triclopyr and water to the cross-section of the stem. A subsequentfoliar application may be necessary to control new seedlings.

Foliar Spray Method: Use this method to control large populations. It may be neces-sary to precede foliar applications with stump treatments to reduce the risk of dam-aging non-target species.

Glyphosate: Apply a 2% solution of glyphosate and water to thoroughly wet allfoliage. Do not apply so heavily that herbicide will drip off leaves. The ideal timeto spray is after surrounding vegetation has become dormant (October-November) to avoid affecting non-target species. A 0.5% non-ionic surfactant isrecommended in order to penetrate the leaf cuticle, and ambient air temperatureshould be above 65°F.

Triclopyr: Apply a 2% solution of triclopyr and water to thoroughly wet allfoliage. Do not apply so heavily that herbicide will drip off leaves. The ideal time

Japanese Knotweed

66

to spray is after surrounding vegetation has become dormant (October-November) to avoid affecting non-target species. A 0.5% non-ionic surfactant isrecommended in order to penetrate the leaf cuticle, and ambient air temperatureshould be above 65°F.

Bibliography Ahrens, J. F. Preliminary results with glyphosate for control of Polygonum cuspidatum.Proceedings of the Northeast Weed Control Conference 29:326; 1975.

Child, L. E.; De Wall, L. C.; Wade, P. M.; Palmer, J. P. Control and management ofReynoutria species (knotweed). Aspects of Applied Biology 29:295-307; 1992.

Figueroa, P. F. Japanese knotweed herbicide screening trial applied as a roadsidespray. Proceedings of the Western Society of Weed Science 42:288-298; 1989.

Garcia de Arevalo, R. C.; Lusarreta, C. A.; Neyra, C. B.; Sanchez, M A.; Algarra, P. J. H.Chemical control of annual weeds in field beans (Vicia faba) in central Spain. WeedScience 40(1):96-100; 1992.

Gleason, H. A.; Cronquist, A. Manual of vascular plants of northeastern United Statesand adjacent Canada. 2nd ed. The New York Botanical Garden; 1991.

Hirose, T.; Kitajima, K. Nitrogen uptake and plant growth. I. Effect of nitrogenremoval on growth of Polygonum cuspidatum Annals of Botany 58(4):479-486; 1986.

Jennings, V. M.; Fawcett, R. S. Weed control: Japanese polygonum (Polygonum cuspida-tum Sieb. and Zuce.). PM Iowa State Univ. Science Technol. Ames. Coop. Ext. Serv. 762,2; 1977.

Muenscher, W. C. Weeds. 2nd ed. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., 167; 1992.

Patterson, D. T. The history and distribution of five exotic weeds in North Carolina.Castanea 41:177-180; 1976.

Pridham, A. M. S.; Bing, A. Japanese bamboo (Polygonum cuspidatum, Polygonum sacha-linens). Plants Garden 31(2):56-57; 1975.

Radford, A. E.; Ahles, H. E.; Bell, C. R. Manual of vascular flora of the Carolinas.Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press; 1968.

Scott, R.; Marrs, R. H. Impact of Japanese knotweed and methods of control. Aspectsof Applied Biology 291-296; 1984.

Steffey, J. The buckwheat family. American Horticultural Society 59(7):10-11; 1980.

Young, R. G.; Balogh, R. A.; Sitler, T. R.; Aharrah, E. C. An investigation of Japanesefleeceflower (Polygonum cuspidatum) planted on strip mines in Clarion and Venangocounties, Pennsylvania. Proceedings 1982 Symposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology,Sedimentology, and Reclamation. Office of Engineering Services, University ofKentucky, 143-152; 1982.

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2 cm

Japanese Spiraea Flower

Japanese Spiraea Stem

2 cm

Japanese spiraea is one of more than eighty species of spiraea found in the temperateregion of the northern hemisphere. Most of the species have been introduced into cul-tivation and are popular garden shrubs planted for their decorative flowers. It belongsto the Rosaceae (Rose) family.

Height: Japanese spiraea is a small shrub with slender erect stems to 2 m (6.5 ft) tall.

Stem: Brown to reddish-brown stems are round and glabrous to densely pubescent onbranchlets. Buds are very small, rounded to triangular and somewhat flattened.

Leaves: The leaves are alternate, lanceolate to lance-ovate, simply or doubly serrate,acute at base, 8-12 cm (3.0-4.5 in) long, 3-4 cm (1.2-1.6 in) wide, and glabrous.

Flowers: Inflorescence is a compound corymb with wide spreading branches. Flowersare pale to deep pink, 5 mm (0.2 in) wide, with stamens much longer than the 2-3 mm(0.07-0.11 in) petals. Blooms June-July.

Fruit: The 2.2-2.4 mm (0.09-0.1 in) long seeds are borne in a glabrous, smooth, and lus-trous capsule. Blooms July-August.

Life History Japanese spiraea is a perennial deciduous shrub. It is adapted to disturbed areas andcommonly found along streams and rivers. Each plant produces hundreds of smallseeds that are naturally dispersed by water and deposited along stream banks wherearboreal competition is limited. Seeds distributed with fill dirt establish new popula-tions that may expand rapidly in the highly disturbed soil of construction sites.

Origin and Japanese spiraea is native to Japan and was first cultivated in 1870. Introduced as anDistribution ornamental landscape plant, spiraea spread from the northeast U.S. and is naturalized

in much of the southeast and Midwest, including Tennessee.

Similar Species There are two native species of spiraea that are similar to Japanese spiraea: S. vigini-ana (Britt.) and S. betulifolia (Pallas). Both of these species are rare in Tennessee; S. vig-iniana is listed as a threatened species by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Japanesespiraea is distinguished by dense pubescence on the branchlets and inflorescence,lanceolate leaves, and pink flowers.

Habitat Spiraea will tolerate a wide range of edaphic conditions. It grows well in full sun butmay endure partial shade. Ideal habitats include riparian areas, successional fields,roadsides, power line rights of way, and forest edges. Once established, spiraea grows

69

Japanese SpiraeaSpiraea japonica L. f.

rapidly forming dense stands that may invade canopy gaps and defoliated areas ofadjacent woodlands.

Management Mechanical ControlsRecommendations Mowing/Cutting: This method is appropriate for small initial populations or envi-

ronmentally sensitive areas where herbicides cannot be used. Repeated mowing orcutting will control the spread of spiraea, but it may not eradicate it. Stems should becut at least once per growing season prior to seed production and as close to groundlevel as possible.

Herbicidal ControlsFoliar Spray Method: This method should be considered for large thickets of Japanesespiraea where risk to non-target species is minimal. Air temperature should be above65°F to ensure absorption of herbicides.

Glyphosate: Apply a 2% solution of glyphosate and water plus a 0.5% non-ionicsurfactant to thoroughly wet all leaves. Use a low pressure and coarse spray pat-tern to reduce spray-drift damage to non-target species. Glyphosate is a non-selective systemic herbicide that may kill partially-sprayed non-target plants.

Triclopyr: Apply a 2% solution of triclopyr and water plus a 0.5% non-ionic sur-factant to thoroughly wet all leaves. Use a low pressure and coarse spray patternto reduce spray-drift damage to non-target species. Triclopyr is a selective herbi-cide for broadleaf species. In areas where desirable grasses are growing under oraround spiraea, triclopyr can be used without non-target damage.

Cut Stump Method: This control method should be considered when treating indi-vidual bushes or where the presence of desirable species preclude foliar application.This treatment is effective as long as the ground is not frozen.

Glyphosate: Horizontally cut spiraea stems at or near ground level. Immediatelyapply a 25% solution of glyphosate and water to the cut stump making sure tocover the entire surface.

Triclopyr: Horizontally cut spiraea stems at or near ground level. Immediatelyapply a 25% solution of triclopyr and water to the cut stump making sure theentire surface is covered.

Bibliography Carter, J. Spiraea. The Iowa Review 23(1):57-61; 1993.

Chamberlain, S. Hedges, screens and espaliers: how to select, grow and enjoy. Tucson,AZ: HP Books; 1983.

Dirr, M. A. Spiraeas of the japonica group are summer garden aristocrats. AmericanNurseryman 163:54-56; 1986.

Gleason, H. A.; Cronquist, A. Manual of vascular plants of northeastern United Statesand adjacent Canada. 2nd ed. The New York Botanical Garden; 1991.

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70

Gorbunov, V. D.; Sheichenko, V. I.; Ban'kovskii, A. I. A new alkaloid from Spiraea japon-ica. Chemical Natural Compound 12(1):119-120; 1976.

Komazaki, S. Overwintering of the spirea aphid, Aphis citricola Van der Goot(Homoptera: Aphididae) on citrus and spirea plants. Applied Entomology Zoology18(3): 301-307; 1983.

Marczynski, S.; Jankiewicz, L. S. The effect of controlled temperature and humidity onthe effectiveness of chemical defoliation of Ligustrum vulgare L. and Spiraea bumaldaBurv. Shrubs. Acta Agrobotany 31(1⁄2):181-193; 1978.

Marczynski, S. The chemical defoliation to aid transplantation of Ligustrum vulgare L.and Spiraea X arguta Zab. Shrubs in nursery. Acta Agrobotany 30(1):103-119; 1977.

Ogle, D. W. Spiraea virginiana Britton: I. Delineation and distribution. Castanea56(4):287-296; 1991.

Ogle, D. W. Spiraea virginiana Britton: II. Ecology and species biology. Castanea56(4):297-303; 1991.

Radford, A. E.; Ahles, H. E.; Bell, C. R. Manual of vascular flora of the Carolinas.Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press; 1968.

Rehder, A. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs. Portland, OR: Dioscorides Press;1986.

Swanson, R. E. A field guide to the trees and shrubs of the southern Appalachians.Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins University Press; 1994.

Wiesner, M. B. Virginia spiraea. American Horticulturist 73(August 1994): 9; 1994.

Williamson, M. A.; Bernard, E. C. Life cycle of a new species of Blumeriella(Ascomycotina: Dermateaceae), a leafspot pathogen of Spiraea. Canadian Journal ofBotany 66(10): 2048-2054; 1988.

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2 cm

Musk Thistle

Musk thistle is an aggressive biennial plant with large, showy pink flowers on longmulti-branched stems. Native to Europe and Asia, it was introduced into the U. S.more than ninety years ago and is declared a noxious weed in many states. It is amember of the Asteraceae (Aster) family.

Height: Thistle stems are commonly 0.5-2.0 m (1.5-6 ft) tall, multi-branched and spiny.

Leaves: The dark green leaves are coarsely lobed, elliptic to lanceolate, with a smoothwaxy surface, and a yellowish to white spine at the tip. Dimensions average 1.5-4.0 cm(0.5-1.5 in) wide, and 5-12 cm (2-5 in) long.

Flowers: Disk-shaped terminal flowers are 4-9 cm (1.5-3.5 in) wide, solitary, involu-cres and corollas are purple, outer bracts squarrose with spines. Flowers will droop toa 90-degree angle from the stem when large, giving musk thistle its common nick-name, nodding thistle.

Seeds: Each plant may produce thousands of yellowish-brown or straw-colored seedswith attached plumose bristles.

Life History Musk thistle is usually a biennial but may germinate and flower in a single year.Seedlings emerge in mid to late July and develop into a rosette of up to 1.2 m (4 ft) indiameter. Plants overwinter in the rosette stage until they begin to bolt in mid-March.During the bolting stage plants form multi-branched stems to a height of 1.8 m (6 ft)The number of seed heads per plant is site dependent ranging from 241-561 on favor-able sites to 1-18 heads on less favorable sites. Flowers emerge in early May to Augustand may produce 1200 seeds per head and 120,000 seeds per plant. Seed dissemina-tion occurs approximately one month after the flowers form and seeds may be windblown for miles. Seeds may remain viable in the soil for over ten years.

Origin and A native of western Europe, musk thistle was introduced into the eastern UnitedDistribution States in the early 1900s. It was discovered in Davidson County, Tennessee in 1942 and

spread quickly throughout the state. Currently musk thistle is present in forty states.It is widespread on railroad, highway, and power line rights-of-way, which become alarge seed source for invasion of crop and pasture lands as well as open natural areas.

Similar Species Musk thistle is similar to Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense [L.] Scop.) and bull thistle(Cirsium vulgare [Savi.]), both of which are also non-native. There is some evidence ofhybridization occurring between musk thistle and non-native plumeless thistle(Carduus acanthoides [L.]). Musk thistle is distinguished from other thistles by the usu-ally large disk-shaped flowers.

73

Musk ThistleCarduus nutans L.

Habitat Establishment of an extensive population of musk thistle is dependent on the avail-ability of light and water. It can grow from sea level to about 2500 m (8000 ft) and inneutral to acidic soil. It spreads rapidly in disturbed areas and is sensitive to compe-tition. Pasture- land is particularly vulnerable because the drainage is good, and live-stock will avoid thistle due to its spiny leaves and stems. Although musk thistle isinfrequently found in dense forests, it can impact natural areas by colonizing areas ofnatural disturbance such as land slides or areas of frequent flooding. Meadows,prairies, grassy balds, and other open areas are susceptible to invasion.

Management Mechanical ControlsRecommendations Hand Pulling: This method is most effective on small populations. Hand pulling can

be done throughout the year, but is most effective prior to the development of seeds.Flowers or seed heads should be bagged and disposed of to prevent seed dispersal.Minimizing soil disturbance will help prevent germination of seeds already present inthe soil.

Biological ControlsTwo weevils have been introduced as a biological control for musk thistle: thistle headfeeding weevil (Rhinocyllus conicus Froelich) and the rosette weevil (Trichosirocalus hor-ridus Panzer). Although both weevils have been successful, establishment may takeseveral years, thistle populations must be relatively dense, and native thistles may beaffected.

Herbicidal ControlsFoliar Spray Method: Apply a 2% solution of glyphosate or triclopyr and water plusa 0.5% non-ionic surfactant wetting all leaves and stems. A low pressure and coarsespray pattern will limit drift and damage to non-target species. Treatments should beapplied during the rosette stage or prior to flowering.

Bibliography Beck, K. G.; Wilson, R. G.; Henson, M. A. The effects of selected herbicides on muskthistle (Carduus nutans) viable achene production. Weed Technology, 4:482-486; 1990.

Heidel, B. Carduus nutans: element stewardship abstract. The Nature Conservancy,Arlington, VA; 1985.

Hull, A. C., Jr.; Evans, J. O. Musk thistle (Carduus nutans) an undesirable range plant.Journal of Range Management 26(5):383-385; 1973.

Kok, K. T.; Surles, W. W. Successful biocontrol of musk thistle by an introduced wee-vil. Environmental Entomology 4(6):1025-1027; 1975.

Lacefield, G. D.; Gray, E. The life cycle of nodding thistle in Kentucky. Bowling Green,KY: Department of Agriculture, Western Kentucky University; 1970.

Lambdin, P. L.; Grant, J. F. Establishment of Rhinocyllus conicus (Coleoptera:Curculionidea) on musk thistle in Tennessee. Entomology News 103(5):193-198; 1992.

Musk Thistle

74

Monks, D. W.; Halcomb, M. A.; Ashburn, E. L. Survey and control of musk thistle(Carduus nutans) in Tennessee field nurseries. Weed Technology. 5:218-220; 1991.

Musk Thistle

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2 cm

0.5 cm

Purple Loosestrife Flower

Purple Loosestrife Stem

Purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria L.) is a wetland perennial that forms large, mono-typic stands throughout the temperate regions of the U.S. and Canada. This aggres-sive invader replaces native vegetation, degrades wildlife habitat, and obstructs nat-ural waterways. Also known as Bouquet-violet, it belongs to the Lythraceae(Loosestrife) family.

Height: Purple loosestrife grows 1-3 m (3.0-10.0 ft) tall, with an average height of1.5 m (5 ft). Established plants have 30 to 50 shoots that form wide-topped crowns anddominate the herbaceous canopy.

Stem: Stems are pubescent and distinctly four-sided. They may appear woody at baseof large plants.

Leaves: The entire sessile leaves are primarily opposite or in whorls of three withoutteeth. Leaves are lanceolate and up to 10 cm (4 in) long and 1.5 cm (0.6 in) wide withan obtuse or cordate leaf base.

Flowers: Purple loosestrife has showy, attractive flowers with 5-7 purple petals (occa-sionally pink or white) occurring in dense compound, terminal bracted spikes thatmay be 15-20 cm (6-8 in) high. Three forms of the species are distinguished based onthe length of the style (up to 7 mm) in the flowers. Blooms have 8-10 stamens. Thecalyx tube has hirsute lobes 0.5- 0.8 mm (0.02-0.03 in) long which, along with thebracts, are greenish. The self-incompatible, insect-pollinated flowers bloom from Juneto September and the flower stalks remain standing through the winter. Each plantmay bear as many as 3,000 flowers.

Seeds: The capsules contain an average of 120 orange, minute seeds (0.06 mg). Eachplant may contain up to 900 capsules. Seeds are dispersed from late summer throughthe winter. Seeds are commonly dispersed by wind, but are also dispersed in waterand mud adhering to aquatic wildlife, livestock, and people. Seed germination takes8-10 weeks. Seeds are long-lived and can remain viable even after 20 months of sub-mergence in water.

Life History Purple loosestrife has a vigorous rootstock that serves as a storage organ, providingresources for growth in spring and regrowth if the plant has been damaged from cut-tings. New stems emerge from the perennial roots allowing the plant to establishdense stands within a few years. Each plant has an average of 30 stems which die inlate fall but remain standing through winter. Under natural conditions, seedling den-sities can approach 10,000-20,000 plants/m2 (12,000-24,000 plants/sq. yard) withgrowth rates exceeding 1 cm/day (0.4 in/day). Plants reproduce primarily by seeds,but also by vegetative cuttings. A single, mature plant can produce more than 2.5 mil-lion seeds annually. In addition, plant fragments produced by muskrats and bymechanical clipping can rapidly spread through river and lake systems.

77

Purple LoosestrifeLythrum salicaria L.

Origin and Purple loosestrife was introduced to North America from Europe and Asia during theDistribution early 1800s as a contaminant of European ship ballasts and as a valued medicinal herb

for the treatment of diarrhea, dysentery, bleeding, wounds, ulcers, and sores. Fornearly a century it occurred as a pioneer species on the northeastern seaboard. Therange then expanded further inland in the 1880s as the construction of inland canalsand waterways increased. The continued expansion proceeded with the developmentand use of road systems, with commercial distribution of the plant for horticulturalpurposes, and with regional propagation of seed for bee forage. Purple loosestrifereached the upper Midwest by the 1930s. The plant now occurs in scattered locationsacross most of the U.S. with the heaviest concentrations in the glaciated wetlands ofthe northeast. Numerous populations have been found in the midsouth area.

Similar Species The native winged loosestrife (Lythrum alatum Pursh) most closely resembles purpleloosestrife. However, winged loosestrife has alternate leaves, more widely spacedflowers, and is smaller in size (an average of 0.6 m or 2 ft tall) than purple loosestrife.Other species that might easily be confused with purple loosestrife on first glanceinclude fireweed (Epilobium angustifolium L.), blue vervain (Verbena hastata L.), andblazing star (Liatris spicata L. Willd.), although their preferred habitats are consider-ably drier.

Habitat Purple loosestrife is an aquatic to semiaquatic species occurring in a variety of differ-ent shallow water wetlands including marshes, bogs, wet meadows, stream and riverbanks, shores of lakes and reservoirs, wet pastures, roadside ditches, and disturbedwet soils. Plants thrive under moist soil conditions and in full sun; however, they cansurvive in up to 50% shade.

Management Mechanical ControlsRecommendations Hand Pulling: In areas that contain less than 100 plants, younger plants (1-2 years old)

can be hand-pulled. Plants more than 2 years old should be dug out with special careto include the entire rootstock. Removal activities should take place before floweringto ensure that seeds are not dispersed during the disturbance. All plant parts shouldbe carefully bagged, removed from the site, and placed in approved landfills orpreferably burned. Any plant fragment that escapes proper disposal could spreadpurple loosestrife on your control site or along your travel route. In addition, all cloth-ing, boots, and equipment should be properly cleaned to ensure that no seeds aretransported. If feasible, native plants should be restored to the control area by seed-ing or planting. This reestablishment of vegetation will deter new loosestrife seedlingdevelopment through competition. Do not cut or mow purple loosestrife. Thesemethods will simply increase the spread of plants since they can sprout vegetatively.

Biological ControlsLong-term studies on the effectiveness of biological controls are being conducted atthe New York Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit at Cornell University. Several phy-tophagous insects which specifically feed on purple loosestrife in Europe have under-gone a series of intensive lab and field testing. Three beetles—two leaf eaters, and oneroot miner—have been approved for release in the U.S. Experimental importation of

Purple Loosestrife

78

these insects has been made in the northeast. Success of these efforts could pave theway for the use of biological controls to manage purple loosestrife in a permanent,cost-effective, and environmentally sound way. There is significant concern aboutother native species of the genus Lythrum that may also be fed upon, although to alesser degree, by these insects. Since other control measures may harm a variety ofnon-target plant species, this non-target feeding may occur at a level which is prefer-able to alternative control techniques.

Herbicidal ControlsCut Stump Treatment: In areas that contain more than 100 plants, a spot applicationof a glyphosate herbicide (one that is approved for use in and near water) is recom-mended. Individual purple loosestrife plants should be cut about 15 cm (6 inches)above the ground. A 20-30% solution of glyphosate and water should be applieddirectly to the cut surface either by a wick or injection into the stem.

Foliar Spray Method: If purple loosestrife covers a large area, a foliar spray can beapplied using a 2% glyphosate solution and water plus 0.5% non-ionic surfactant. Tobe most effective herbicide should be applied just when plants have begun flowering.Where feasible, flower heads should be cut, bagged, and removed from the site beforeapplication to prevent the production of seed. Glyphosate is a non-selective herbicide,and extreme care must be taken to avoid contact with non-target plant species. Therestoration of sites depends on these non-target species as they recolonize the areaafter the purple loosestrife is eliminated.

Bibliography Bender, J.; Rendall, J. Lythrum salicaria: element stewardship abstract. The NatureConservancy, Minneapolis; 1987.

Casebere, L. Marshland malady. Outdoor Indiana. 49:14-19; 1984.

Evans, J. E. A literature review of management practices for purple loosestrife(Lythrum salicaria). The Nature Conservancy Midwest Regional Office, Minneapolis,1-13; 1982.

Heidorn, R. Purple loosestrife; vegetation management guideline. Illinois NaturePreserves Commission 1(17); 1990.

Hight, S. D.; Drea, J. J. Prospects for a classical biological control project against pur-ple loosestrife [L. salicaria (L.)]. Natural Areas Journal 11:151-157; 1991.

Holweg, A. An adaptable immigrant. Conservationist 27:38; 1973.

Malecki, R. A.; Rawinski, T. J. Purple loosestrife: a need for concern. New York StateConservation Circular 17:1-5; 1979.

Malecki, R. A.; Blossey, B.; Hight, S. D.; Schroeder, D.; Kik, L. T. Biological control ofpurple loosestrife. Bioscience 43:680-686; 1993.

McKeon, W. H. A preliminary report on the use of chemical herbicides to control pur-

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ple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) on a small marsh. Northeast Weed ControlConference 13:329-332; 1959.

Novak, L. C. Mechanical control of purple loosestrife. Report of Wildlife ManagementStudy, Division of Refuges, Great Meadows, Massachusetts; 1968.

Rawinski, T. J. The ecology and management of purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicariaL.) in central New York. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University. Thesis. 1982.

Smith, L. S. Some experiences with control of purple loosestrife at the MontezumaNational Wildlife Refuge. Northeast Weed Control Conference 13:333-336; 1959.

Smith, R. H. Experimental control of purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria). New YorkFish and Game Journal 11:35-46; 1964.

Stokes, D.; Stokes, L. Stokes nature guides: a guide to enjoying wildflowers. Boston:Little, Brown and Co., 222-229; 1985.

Thompson, D. Q.; Stuckey, R. L.; Thompson, E. B. Spread, impact, and control of pur-ple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) in North American Wetlands. U.S. Fish and WildlifeService, Fish and Wildlife Research 2, Washington, D.C.; 1987.

Thompson, D. Q. History of purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria L.) Biological controlefforts. Natural Areas Journal 11:148-50; 1991.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Purple loosestrife alert. American Bee Journal. 119:383;1979.

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81

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2 cm

Climbing Euonymus Flower

Climbing euonymus, also known as purple winter creeper, Emerald 'n Gold, or Gaiety,is an evergreen vine in the Celastraceae (Staff-tree) family. It forms a dense groundcover or climbs vertical surfaces with the aid of aerial rootlets.

Height: Euonymus is an evergreen vine climbing or trailing to 6 m (20 ft).

Leaves: The leaves are opposite, dark green, distinctly veined beneath, elliptic,toothed, thick, glossy, and vary from 2.5-6.0 cm (1.0-2.3 in) in length.

Stem: Stems are minutely warty and subterete with aerial rootlets or trailing roots.

Flower: The inconspicuous clusters of green flowers are borne on a long flower stalk.Blooms May-June.

Fruit: Berries are orange to red, globose, and smooth. Matures June-July.

Life History Climbing euonymus spreads rapidly through long branches and lateral shoots.Independent plants originate at short intervals along the vine from rootlets. Vines mayaggressively climb rocks, trees, or other supporting structures; established popula-tions appear as a dense mat of vegetation. Inconspicuous green flowers appearing inearly spring produce mature fruits that are readily distributed by birds into undis-turbed areas. Because euonymus is an evergreen and begins growing before compet-ing vegetation emerges, it outcompetes existing vegetation for available space andresources.

Origin and A native of China, climbing euonymus was introduced into the U.S. as a landscapeDistribution ground cover in 1907. It is currently found scattered throughout the eastern U.S. in

populated areas, and has begun to invade state parks and other natural areas as wellas landscape settings.

Similar Species Climbing euonymus is similar to other Euonymus species but can be readily distin-guished as a vine rather than an erect shrub or tree. It is often confused with bitter-sweet (Celastrus spp.) which has alternate leaves as opposed to the opposite leaves ofeuonymus. Very small seedlings may be confused with pipsissewa (Chimaphila macu-lata [L.] Pursh).

Habitat Climbing euonymus continues to be a popular landscape plant due to its rapid growthand its ability to tolerate a variety of environmental conditions including poor soils,heavy shade, and variable pH. It often escapes from neglected gardens or is spread by

83

Climbing EuonymusEuonymus fortunei (Turcz.) Hand.-Mazz.

birds, other animals, or water. Once established, euonymus can be very persistent andspread into undisturbed forests or high quality riparian areas. Satellite populationsmay be established in forest openings caused by wind throw or insect defoliation.

Management Mechanical ControlRecommendations Grubbing: This method is appropriate for small initial populations or environmental-

ly sensitive areas where herbicides cannot be used. Using a pulaski or similar diggingtool, remove the entire plant, including all roots and runners. Juvenile plants can behand-pulled depending on soil conditions and root development. Any portions of theroot system not removed may resprout. All plant parts, including mature fruit, shouldbe bagged and disposed of in a trash dumpster to prevent reestablishment.

Herbicidal ControlCut Stump Treatment: Use this method in areas where vines are established within oraround non-target plants, or they have grown into tree canopies or other vertical sur-faces.

Glyphosate: Cut the stem 5 cm (2 in) above ground level. Immediately apply a25% solution of glyphosate and water to the cross-section of the stem. This pro-cedure is effective at temperatures as low as 40°F and may require a subsequentfoliar application of glyphosate.

Triclopyr: Cut the stem 5 cm (2 in) above ground level. Immediately apply a 25%solution of triclopyr and water to the cross-section of the stem. This procedureremains effective at low temperatures (<60°F) as long as the ground is not frozen.A subsequent foliar application may be necessary to control new seedlings.

Foliar Spray Method: Use this method to control large populations. It may be neces-sary to precede foliar applications with stump treatments to reduce the risk of dam-aging non-target species.

Glyphosate: Apply a 2% solution of glyphosate and water plus a 0.5% non-ionicsurfactant to thoroughly wet all foliage. Do not apply so heavily that herbicidewill drip off leaves. Glyphosate is a non-selective systemic herbicide that may killnon-target partially-sprayed plants. Ambient air temperature should be above65°F.

Triclopyr: Apply a 2% solution of triclopyr and water to thoroughly wet allfoliage. Do not apply so heavily that herbicide will drip off leaves. The ideal timeto spray is after surrounding vegetation has become dormant (October-November) to avoid affecting non-target species. A 0.5% concentration of a non-ionic surfactant is recommended in order to penetrate leaf cuticle. Ambient airtemperature should be above 65°F.

Bibliography Ahrens, J. F. Herbicides for ground cover plantings Vinca minor, Pachysandra terminalis,Hedera helix, Euonymus fortunei. Proceedings Annual Meeting of the Northeast WeedScience Society 33:256-261; 1979.Carpenter, P. L. Chemical weed control in container-grown nursery stock (Cotoneaster

Climbing Euonymus

84

divaricata, Euonymus fortunei). HortScience. 8 (5):385-386; 1973.

Chong, C.; Blom, T. J. Low temperature and lighting influence dormancy and growthof Euonymus fortunei rooted cuttings. HortScience. 26(12):1481-1482; 1991.

Corliss, C. D. Euonymus fortunei plant — cormast variety mature leaves are dark greenwith light to medium yellow margins, dwarf growth habit, use as semi-prostrateground cover, good disease and drought resistance. Plant Patent. U.S. Patent Office,4757, 2 pg. 2 plates. 1981.

Cravens, R. H. The Time-Life encyclopedia of gardening: vines. Alexandria, VA: Time-Life Books, Inc.; 1981.

Elias, P. Contribution to the ecophysiological study of the water relations of forestshrubs [Craetaegus oxyacantha, Cornus mas, Euonymus verrucosa, Ligustrum vulgare].Preslia 51(1):77-90; 1979.

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Japanese Honeysuckle Stem

Japanese Honeysuckle Flower

Japanese honeysuckle is a perennial climbing or trailing woody vine, introduced fromJapan for its value as an ornamental, for erosion control, and for wildlife cover. Itbecame widely established in this country by the early 1900s and has now spread overthe eastern and midwestern United States. Japanese honeysuckle is still propagatedand promoted as a ground cover in areas where it has not yet become a pest. Itbelongs to the Caprifoliaceae (Honeysuckle) family.

Height: Japanese honeysuckle is a climbing and trailing vine that can reach a totalheight of 9-12 m (30-40 ft) depending on surrounding vegetation. Annual growth mayreach 9 m (30 ft).

Leaves: Japanese honeysuckle leaves are evergreen, 3.0-7.5 cm (0.5-3.0 in) long,1.5-4.5 cm (0.6-1.8 in) wide, ciliate to eciliate, opposite, and ovate. Mature leaves aregenerally entire although there is a toothed form.

Stem: The vines are woody and densely pubescent to glabrous.

Flowers: Inflorescence is 0.8-3.0 cm (0.3-1.2 in) long with curved stamens that projectfrom a two-lipped, five-lobed corolla (white or yellow). Flowers are very fragrant andborne in pairs in the axils. Blooms April-June.

Fruit: Fruits are small, 5-6 mm (0.19-0.23 in) in diameter, globose to subglobose blackberries containing 2-3 seeds each. Matures August-October.

Seeds: Seeds are black, lustrous, 3.0-3.3 mm (0.12-0.13 in) long, oval to oblong, and flatto concave on one side and 3-ribbed on the other.

Life History Japanese honeysuckle starts its growing season in early spring when temperaturesreach 34-48°F. Vegetative reproduction is through stolons that develop new roots andshoots at short intervals. Japanese honeysuckle flowers prolifically in full sunlightstarting in April or May and continuing into June. Seeds, widely dispersed by birds,may germinate in a variety of light conditions and begin photosynthesis almostimmediately. Mature plants have relatively shallow root systems that range in depthfrom 15-30 cm (6-12 in) on moist sites. Although unable to twine around large trees(>15 cm Dbh), honeysuckle vines can attain canopy height by twining around andgrowing with other vegetation and may girdle the stems or over-top smaller shrubsand trees. Persistent green leaves are able to continue photosynthesis during wintermonths, contributing to its ability to dominate favorable sites.

Origin and A native of the Nagasaki area of Japan, Japanese honeysuckle was introduced in 1806Distribution for its delicious fragrance and horticultural uses. By 1919 it had spread from the Gulf

89

Japanese HoneysuckleLonicera japonica (Thunb.)

of Mexico to New York. Present distribution extends from Massachusetts to Florida,west to Texas, and north to Illinois and Michigan. Japanese honeysuckle has beenidentified throughout Tennessee and has reached pest proportions in areas whereannual precipitation is at least 100 cm (39 in).

Similar Species Japanese honeysuckle is not easily confused with native twining vine species presentin Tennessee. The juvenile stage of native honeysuckle (Lonicera canadensis [Bartr.])resembles the leaf structure of Japanese honeysuckle. Distinguishing characteristics ofL. canadensis include yellow flowers, shrub-like growth form, and deciduous foliage.It is found only in higher elevations (>3500 ft). Coral honeysuckle (L. sempervirens L.)has tubular red flowers in one or more terminal spikes.

Habitat Japanese honeysuckle is associated with disturbance within or along woodlands,roadsides, fence rows, pastures, old fields, and canopy gaps. Once established, it canendure low light levels without noticeable growth and then respond to increased lightwith vigorous growth. Honeysuckle thrives in fertile, nitrogen-rich soil where anestablished colony spreads rapidly until nitrogen-poor soil or shade is encountered.As a ground cover it can form dense mats that completely occupy a habitat.

Management Mechanical ControlRecommendations Grubbing: This method is appropriate for small initial populations or environmental-

ly sensitive areas where herbicides cannot be used. Using a pulaski or similar diggingtool remove the entire plant, including all roots and runners. Juvenile plants can behand pulled depending on soil conditions and root development. Any portions of theroot system not removed may resprout. All plant parts, including mature fruit, shouldbe bagged and disposed of in a trash dumpster to prevent reestablishment.

Herbicidal ControlCut Stump Treatment: Use this method in areas where vines are established within oraround non-target plants, or where they have grown into the canopy. This treatmentremains effective at low temperatures as long as the ground is not frozen.

Glyphosate: Cut the stem 5 cm (2 in) above ground level. Immediately apply a25% solution of glyphosate and water to the cross-section of the stem. A subse-quent foliar application of glyphosate may be required to control new seedlingsand resprouts.

Triclopyr: Cut the stem 5 cm (2 in) above ground level. Immediately apply a 25%solution of triclopyr and water to the cross-section of the stem. A subsequentfoliar application may be necessary to control new seedlings.

Foliar Spray Method: Use this method to control large populations. It may be neces-sary to precede foliar applications with stump treatments to reduce the risk of dam-aging non-target species.

Japanese Honeysuckle

90

Glyphosate: Apply a 2% solution of glyphosate and water to thoroughly wet allfoliage. Do not apply so heavily that herbicide will drip off leaves. The ideal timeto spray is after surrounding vegetation has become dormant (October-November) to avoid affecting non-target species. A 0.5% non-ionic surfactant isrecommended in order to penetrate the leaf cuticle. Ambient air temperatureshould be above 65°F.

Triclopyr: Apply a 2% solution of triclopyr and water to thoroughly wet allfoliage. Do not apply so heavily that herbicide will drip off leaves. The ideal timeto spray is after surrounding vegetation has become dormant (October-November) to avoid affecting non-target species. A 0.5% non-ionic surfactant isrecommended in order to penetrate the leaf cuticle. Ambient air temperatureshould be above 65°F.

Bibliography Andrews, E. F. The Japanese honeysuckle in the eastern U.S. Torreya 19:37-43; 1919.

Barden, L. S.; Matthews, J. F. Change in abundance of honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica)and other ground flora after prescribed burning of a piedmont pine forest. Castanea45:257-260; 1980.

Brenden, E. V. Progress report on control of honeysuckle and kudzu. Proceedings ofthe 13th Annual Weed Conference Meeting, 187-193;. 1960.

Cain, M. D. Japanese honeysuckle in uneven-aged pine stands: problems with natur-al pine regeneration. Proceedings of the Southern Weed Science Society 45:264-269;1992.

Cain, M. D. Japanese honeysuckle and associated ground cover inhibit establishmentand growth of pine seedlings in all-aged stands. U.S. Department of AgricultureForest Service, Southern Forestry Experiment Station, General Technical Report.SO-54, 300-304; 1985.

Dillenburg, L. R.; Whigham, D. F.; Teramura, A. H.; Forseth, I. N. Effects of vine com-petition on availability of light, water, and nitrogen to a tree host (Liquidambar styraci-flua). American Journal of Botany 80(3):244-252; 1993.

Dillenburg, L. R.; Whigham, D. F.; Teramura, A. H.; Forseth, I. N. Effects of below andabove ground competition from the vines Lonicera japonica and Parthenocissus quinque-folia on the growth of the tree host Liquidambar styraciflua. Oecologia. Berlin, W. Ger.:Springer International 93(1):48-54; 1993.

Edwards, M. B.; Gonzalez, F. E. Forestry herbicide control of kudzu and japanese hon-eysuckle in loblolly pine sites in central Georgia. Proceedings of the Southern WeedScience Society (39th), 272-275; 1986.

Evans, J. E. Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica): a literature review of manage-ment practices. Natural Areas Journal 4(2):4-10; 1984.

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Faulkner, J. L.; Clebsch, E. E. C.; Sanders, W. L. Use of prescribed burning for manag-ing natural and historic resources in Chickamauga and Chattanooga NationalMilitaryPark, USA. Environmental Management 13(5):603-612; 1989.

Gleason, H. A.; Cronquist, A. Manual of vascular plants of northeastern United Statesand adjacent Canada. 2nd ed. The New York Botanical Garden; 1991.

Gunning, B. A. Controlling honeysuckle in hedges. New Zealand Journal ofAgriculture 108(4):330; 1964.

Handley, C. O. Japanese honeysuckle in wildlife management. Journal of WildlandManagement 9(4):261-264; 1945.

Hardt, R. A. Japanese honeysuckle: from “one of the best” to ruthless pest. Arnoldia46(2):27-34; 1986.

Kephart, L. W. The eradication of wild honeysuckle. USDA, Bureau of Plant Industry,National Agricultural Library Call Number 1.9, P6917 Ewh., 3; 1939.

Leatherman, A. D. Ecological life-history of Lonicera japonica Thunb. Knoxville, TN:University of Tennessee. Available from: University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, MI,Library of Congress no. Mic. 55-772, Thesis. 1955.

Luken, J. O. Forest and pasture communities respond differently to cutting of exoticAmur honeysuckle. Restoration and Management Notes 8:122-123; 1990.

Nyboer, R. Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica Thunb.). Vegetation ManagementGuideline, Illinois Nature Preserves Commission; 1990.

Radford, A. E.; Ahles, H. E.; Bell, C. R. Manual of the vascular flora of the Carolinas.Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press; 1968.

Regehr, D. L.; Frey, D. R. Selective control of Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica).Weed Technology Journal of the Weed Science Society of America 2(2):139-143; 1988.

Sasek, T. W.; Strain, B. R. Effects of carbon dioxide enrichment on the growth and mor-phology of a native and an introduced honeysuckle vine. American Journal of Botany78(1):69-75; 1991.

Sather, N. The Nature Conservancy. Lonicera japonica. Element Stewardship Abstract.The Nature Conservancy; 1987.

Wagner, W. H., Jr. Japanese honeysuckle invasion. Michigan Botanical Club Journal25(3):124; 1986.

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2 cm

Japanese Wisteria Leaf

Japanese Wisteria Flower

2 cm

Japanese wisteria is one of several members of its genus that are popular ornamentals.It is hardy and aggressive, capable of forming thickets so dense that little else grows.It constricts the stems of trees and kills them by girdling or over-topping. Wisteriabelongs to the Fabaceae (Pea or Bean) family.

Height: Wisteria can climb trees and shrubs to 20 m (65 ft).

Stem: White-barked wisteria vines twine clockwise around its host. Stems are stout,up to 16 cm (15 in) and woody. Buds are solitary and appressed.

Leaves: Alternate, pinnately compound leaves are 20-30 cm (7.8-11.8 in) long with13-19, ovate-elliptic to oblong, 4-8 cm (1.6-3.1 in) long leaflets.

Flowers: Very showy, fragrant pea-like flowers 1.5-2.0 cm (0.5 -0.75 in) long, grow inpendulous racemes 20-50 cm (8-20 in) in length. Flowers are purple, blue-purple, orlilac-blue in color. They have five-toothed calyxes. The two upper teeth are often moreor less united and shorter than the others. The standard or banner petal is large andreflexed, while the wing petals are sickle-shaped. Blooms April-July.

Fruits: The fruits are flattened pods 10-15 cm (4-6 in) long, narrowed toward the base,and more or less constricted between the seeds. Matures July-November.

Life History Wisteria is a perennial vine that may live for over 50 years. Vegetative reproduction isthe primary means of expansion; numerous stolons develop new roots and shoots atshort intervals. Wisteria can also produce abundant seeds if conditions are favorable,but flower buds produced in the fall are susceptible to winter kill. In riparian habitats,seeds may be dispersed downstream in water for great distances.

Origin and Japanese wisteria was introduced from Japan around 1830 as an ornamental. It wasDistribution popular in the southern U.S. as a decorative addition to porches, gazebos, walls, and

gardens. Wisteria is hardy enough to be found in New England, and a few areas far-ther north.

Similar Species There are 10 species of wisteria; only two are native to the United States while the oth-ers are native to Asia. W. frutescens (L.) Poir. and W. macrostachya (T. & G.) Small. arenative to the southeastern United States. It is similar to Japanese wisteria in height,leaf, and flower structure. Japanese wisteria is hardier and more invasive than thenative species. Identification must be made carefully, especially with hybrids. One dis-tinctive quality of Japanese wisteria is its fragrant flowers. Consult detailed referencematerial before taking treatment action.

95

Japanese WisteriaWisteria floribunda (Willd.) DC.

Habitat Ideal habitat for wisteria is in full sun, but established vines will persist and reproducein partial shade. Often they climb surrounding vegetation toward sunlight. Twiningwisteria vines may reduce the vigor of competing vegetation by strangling the stemsor shading the crown. Wisteria tolerates a variety of soil and moisture regimes butprefers loamy, deep, and well-drained soil. Populations often spread from neglectedgardens but are commonly found along forest edges, roadsides, ditches, and rights-of-way.

Management Mechanical ControlRecommendations Cutting: Cut climbing or trailing vines as close to the root collar as possible. This tech-

nique is feasible on small populations, as a pretreatment on large impenetrable sites,in areas where a herbicide cannot be used, or if labor resources are not sufficient toadequately implement herbicidal control. This treatment will prevent seed productionand strangulation of surrounding woody vegetation. Wisteria will resprout unless cutso frequently that its root stores are exhausted. Treatment should begin early in thegrowing season and be repeated at two-week intervals until autumn.

Grubbing: This method is appropriate for small initial populations or environmental-ly sensitive areas where herbicides cannot be used. Using a pulaski or similar diggingtool, remove the entire plant, including all roots and runners. Juvenile plants can behand pulled depending on soil conditions and root development. Any portions of theroot system not removed may resprout. All plant parts, including mature fruit, shouldbe bagged and disposed of in a trash dumpster to prevent reestablishment.

Herbicidal ControlCut Stump Treatment: Use this method in areas where vines are established within oraround non-target plants or where vines have grown into the canopy. This treatmentis effective as long as the ground is not frozen.

Glyphosate: Cut the stem 5 cm (2 in) above ground level. Immediately apply a25% solution of glyphosate and water to the cross-section of the stem. This pro-cedure may require a subsequent foliar application of glyphosate.

Triclopyr: Cut the stem 5 cm (2 in) above ground level. Immediately apply a 25%solution of triclopyr and water to the cross-section of the stem. A subsequentfoliar application may be necessary to control new seedlings.

Foliar Spray Method: Use this method to control large populations. It may be neces-sary to precede foliar applications with stump treatments to reduce the risk of dam-aging non-target species.

Glyphosate: Apply a 2% concentration of glyphosate and water plus a 0.5% non-ionic surfactant to thoroughly wet all foliage. Do not apply so heavily that herbi-cide will drip off leaves. Glyphosate is a non-selective systemic herbicide thatmay kill non-target partially-sprayed plants. Ambient air temperature should beabove 65°F.

Japanese Wisteria

96

Triclopyr: Apply a 2% concentration of triclopyr and water to thoroughly wet allfoliage. Do not apply so heavily that herbicide will drip off leaves. A 0.5% con-centration of a non-ionic surfactant is recommended in order to penetrate the leafcuticle. Ambient air temperature should be above 65°F.

Bibliography Gleason, H. A.; Cronquist, A. Manual of vascular plants of northeastern United Statesand adjacent Canada. 2nd ed. The New York Botanical Garden; 1991.

Isely, D. Vascular flora of the southeastern United States. Volume 3, Part 2Leguminosae. Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press; 1990.

Rehder, A. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs. Vol. 1. Portland, OR: DioscoridesPress; 1993.

Radford, A. E.; Ahles, H. E.; Bell, C. R. Manual of vascular flora of the Carolinas.Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press; 1968.

Thomas, L. K., Jr. Chemical grubbing for control of exotic wisteria. Castanea, 58(3):209-213; 1993.

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97

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2 cm

2 cm

Kudzu Leaf

Kudzu Flower

This aggressive vine can grow 60 feet per year forming a continuous blanket offoliage. This massive covering often chokes out competing native vegetation thatprovides food and habitat for native animals. The result is a large-scale alteration ofbiotic communities. Kudzu is also a problem in forest agriculture and landscaping. Itbelongs to the Fabaceae (Pea or Bean) family.

Height: Trailing or climbing semi-woody, perennial vines reach 30 m (98 ft) in length.

Roots: Kudzu roots typically reach a soil depth of 1-3 m (3-9 ft) and are capable ofstoring large amounts of carbohydrates. Roots are tuberous, up to 17.8 cm (7 in) indiameter.

Stem: First year vines are pubescent and may reach 1.3 cm (0.5 in) diameter. Old vinesare fibrous, relatively soft, and may reach a diameter of 10 cm (4 in).

Leaves: Foliage is alternate and compound (trifoliate) with leaflets up to 10 cm (4 in)across. Each leaflet is entire or deeply 2-3 lobed with hairy margins. Foliage dropsafter the first fall frost.

Flowers: Kudzu plants do not usually flower until their third year. Flowers are pur-ple, fragrant, about 1.3 cm (0.5 in) long, produced in long racemes, and resemble peaflowers in shape. Blooms July-October.

Fruit: Three hard seeds are contained in flat, 5 cm (2 in) long, hairy pods. MaturesSeptember-October.

Life History Kudzu is a leguminous perennial actively growing from early summer (May) untilthe first frost. Sexual reproduction is rare, however seeds have been collected in theGreat Smoky Mountains National Park and sprouted in a laboratory dish. Kudzuestablishes plants by forming roots at nodes where the vines come in contact with thesoil. These roots enlarge to form new crowns. Vines grow rapidly— increases of 15 m(50 ft) in a single season are not uncommon. Roots can penetrate the soil to depths of3 m (9 ft).

Origin and A native of Asia, kudzu was introduced into the United States at the PhiladelphiaCentennial Exposition in 1876. By 1900 kudzu was available through mail order andsold mainly as an inexpensive livestock forage. The Soil Erosion Service (laterrenamed the Soil Conservation Service) distributed approximately 85 millionseedlings starting in 1933 in an effort to control agricultural erosion. In 1953 the USDAremoved kudzu as a cover plant and listed it as a common weed of the South in 1970.It is estimated that kudzu now covers seven million acres in the southeast.Distribution is as far north as Pennsylvania, Illinois, and Connecticut and from east-

99

KudzuPueraria montana (Lour.) Merr.

ern Texas to central Oklahoma in the west. The largest infestations are found inMississippi, Alabama, and Georgia.

Similar Species Kudzu may be confused with other three-lobed legumes such as dollar leaf(Desmodium rotundifolium [DC.]). Distinguishing features of kudzu include: denselypubescent young stem, ovate/trifoliate leaves, and highly invasive characteristicsoften seen as large areas of contiguous cover. Hog peanut (Amphicarpaea bracteata [L.])may be mistaken for young kudzu vines, but it does not have pubescent stems orclimb extensively into tree crowns.

Habitat Kudzu grows well under a wide range of environmental conditions, although great-est growth is achieved where winters are mild (40-60°F), summer temperatures riseabove 80°F, and rainfall is abundant (101+ cm [39 in]). Kudzu can grow in nearly anytype of soil (e.g., acid soils, lime soils, lowlands with high water tables, and overheavy subsoil), and where winter soil temperatures remain above -25°F. Large rootsallow plants to survive in fairly dry climates and drought conditions. Ideal conditionsare moist to well drained and acid to neutral soils (4.5-7.0 pH). New growth mayexceed one foot per day . Forest edges or disturbed areas, such as abandoned fieldsand roadsides, are preferred habitats. Kudzu can persist on the floor of a closedcanopy forest; the vines grow up trees toward light and take advantage of any open-ings.

Management Mechanical ControlsRecommendations Grubbing: Using a pulaski or similar digging tool, remove the entire plant, including

the taproot. Removed vegetation should be destroyed by burning or bagging. Becausemany roots exceed 1.8 m, eradication by this method is very difficult and should beconsidered primarily for small initial incursions.

Cutting: Vines and runners are chopped just above the ground level, and the piecesdestroyed. Early in the season, cutting is repeated at two-week intervals, to weakenthe crown and prevent resumption of photosynthesis. Later in the season, when thestored energy in the taproot has been reduced, the interval between cuttings can beextended. Cutting does not typically kill roots and should only be used to control thespread of kudzu.

Herbicidal ControlCut Stump Method: Use this method in areas where vines are established within oraround non-target plants or where vines have grown into the canopy.

Glyphosate: Cut the stem 5 cm (2 in) above ground level. Immediately apply a25% solution of glyphosate and water to the cross-section of the stem. This pro-cedure is effective at temperatures as low as 40°F, and may require a subsequentfoliar application of glyphosate.

Triclopyr: Cut the stem 5 cm (2 in) above ground level. Immediately apply a 25%solution of triclopyr and water to the cross-section of the stem. This procedure

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remains effective at low temperatures (<60°F) as long as the ground is not frozen.A subsequent foliar application may be necessary to control new seedlings.

Foliar Spray Method: Use this method to control large populations. It may be neces-sary to precede foliar applications with stump treatments to reduce the risk of dam-aging non-target species. After the stems and leaves have been brought under control(i.e., all above ground portions of the plants have been effectively treated) furthertreatment should follow the Root Crown Method.

Glyphosate: Apply a 2% concentration of glyphosate and water plus a 0.5% non-ionic surfactant to thoroughly wet all foliage. Do not apply so heavily that herbi-cide will drip off leaves. Glyphosate is a non-selective systemic herbicide thatmay kill non-target partially-sprayed plants. Ambient air temperature should beabove 65°F.

Triclopyr: Apply a 2% concentration of triclopyr and water to thoroughly wet allfoliage. Do not apply so heavily that herbicide will drip off leaves. A 0.5% con-centration of a non-ionic surfactant is recommended in order to penetrate leafcuticle. Ambient air temperature should be above 65°F.

Root Crown Method: Follow the young or resprouting stem of the plant to the root.Dig and cut into the root crown using a pulaski or similar tool. Apply a 50%glyphosate solution or 50% triclopyr solution to the main root crown and any belowground runners.

Bibliography Alabama Forest Products. Convert kudzu to timber in one year? New control meth-ods look promising. Alabama Forest Products 17(10):10, 12, 14, 16; 1974.

Albert, W. B. Control of kudzu. Pest Control Notes. Clemson College, AgriculturalExperiment Station, Extension Service, Clemson, SC. No. 53; 1958.

Ball, D. M.; Walker, R. H.; Dickens, R. Kudzu in Alabama uses and control. Forageproduction fact sheet. Auburn, AL: Auburn University, Alabama CooperativeExtension Service, Circular ANR65; 1979.

Chappell, W. E.; Link, M. L. Kudzu control on Virginia highways. Proceedings of the30th Annual Meeting Southern Weed Science Society; 1977.

Dickens, R.; Buchanan, G. Influence of time of herbicide application on control ofkudzu. Weed Science 19(6):669-671; 1971.

Edwards, M. B.; Miller, J. H. So you want to get rid of your kudzu. Alabama ForestsMagazine, March-April, 11-12; 1983.

Edwards, M. D.; Gonzalez, F. E. Forestry herbicide control of kudzu and Japanesehoneysuckle in loblolly pine sites in central Georgia. Proceedings of the SouthernWeed Science Society (39th) 272-275; 1986.

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Edwards, M. B. A herbicide test for kudzu Pueraria lobata control in central Georgia.Georgia Journal of Science 40(12):10; 1982.

Fears, R. D.; Frederick, D. M. Kudzu control on forest planting sites. Proceedings ofSouthern Weed Science Society 30:260; 1977

W. S. Kudzu. Proceedings of the 22nd Annual Meeting of the Southern Weed ScienceSociety, 310. Abstract; 1969.

Hern, L. K. Herbicide treatment offers promise in the control of kudzu. Forest Farmer1(7):17-18; 1982.

Martin, R.; Miller, J. H. Soil active herbicides for kudzu control. Report of a ScreeningStudy. Highlights of Agricultural Research, Auburn University 28(4):20; 1981.

Michael, J. L. Some new possibilities to control kudzu. Proceedings of the SouthernWeed Science Society 35:237-240; 1982.

Michael, J. L. Pine regeneration with simultaneous control of kudzu. Proceedings ofSouthern Weed Science Society 39:282-288; 1986.

Miller, J. H. Testing herbicides for kudzu eradication on a piedmont site. SouthernJournal of Applied Forestry 9(2):128-132, 1985.

Miller, J. H. Kudzu eradication trials with new herbicides. Proceedings of theSouthern Weed Science Society 41:220-225; 1988.

Miller, J. H. Kudzu eradication trials testing fifteen herbicides. Proceedings of theSouthern Weed Science Society 39:276-281; 1986.

Miller, J. H.; Boyd, E. Kudzu: where did it come from and how can we stop it?Southern Journal of Applied Forestry 7(3):165-169; 1983.

Miller, J. H.; Boyd, E. Hazards of applying kudzu control herbicides. USDASoutheastern Forest Experiment Station; 1983.Romm, H. J. The development and structure of the vegetative and reproductiveorgans of kudzu. Iowa State College Journal of Science 27(3):407-419; 1953.

Rosen, A. Feasibility study: Eradication of kudzu with herbicides and revegetationwith native tree species in two national parks. NPS, Research/Resources Report SER-59; 1982.

Shurtleff, W.; Aoyagi, A. The book of kudzu. Brookline, MA: Autumn Press; 1977.

Smith, A. E. Kudzu control in nonforested areas with herbicides. Resources Bulletinof the University of Georgia Agricultural Experiment Station: Athens, GA 591: 8; 1990.

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2 cm

Oriental Bittersweet Stem

2 cm

Oriental Bittersweet Fruit

Oriental bittersweet is a serious threat to plant communities due to its high reproduc-tive rate, long range dispersal, ability to root sucker, and rapid growth rate. ClimbingOriental bittersweet vines severely damage native vegetation by constricting andgirdling stems. Vines can shade, suppress, and ultimately kill native vegetation.Oriental bittersweet has been shown to hybridize with the relatively rare Americanbittersweet (Celastrus scandens L.). Hybridization may lead to the loss of American bit-tersweet's genetic identity through introgression. Both are members of theCelastraceae (Staff-tree) family.

Height: Oriental bittersweet is a deciduous woody vine that may become a spreading,trailing shrub. Maximum height can reach 19 m (60 ft) depending on surroundingvegetation. Vines grow up to 10 cm (4 in) in diameter.

Leaves: Leaves are alternate and are variable in size and shape from oblong-obovateto suborbicular. Margins are crenate-serrate and base cuneate to obtuse. Petioles are1-3 cm (0.4-1.2 in) long.

Stem: Stems and branches are round, glabrous, light to dark brown with discerniblelenticels.

Flowers: Inflorescence is a few-flowered (3-7) axillary cyme. Flowers have 5 sepalsand 5 petals, and are greenish-yellow in color. Varieties can be dioecious or mon-ecious. Blooms in May.

Fruit: Fruit is green changing to bright yellow upon maturity. The globose fruits are6-8 mm (0.2-0.3 in) in diameter, three valved with each fruit containing one to threeseeds. Matures August-September.

Life History Oriental bittersweet flowers in May in Tennessee. Hymenopterous insects, especiallybees, are the primary pollinators, but wind pollination is also successful. Fruit ripensin August through September and remains on the stem into the winter. Seed disper-sal is by birds or small mammals. Seedling germination is generally high (up to 95%)and begins in mid to late spring. The highest rate of seed germination is in lower lightintensities. Seedlings increase photosynthesis two-fold when exposed to direct sun-light. The plants develop and expand by layering stolons and rootsuckers. Annualgrowth rate is from 0.3-3.0 m (1-12 ft) with little additional growth after about sevenyears.

Origin and Oriental bittersweet is native to Japan, Korea, and northern China. It was introducedDistribution into the U.S. in 1860. Naturalized plants were first collected in Connecticut in 1916.

Oriental bittersweet has become naturalized in 21 of 33 states in which it is cultivat-

105

Oriental BittersweetCelastrus orbiculata Thunb.

ed. Present distribution is throughout the northeastern and southeastern U.S. extend-ing to the southeastern Great Plains.

Similar Species Oriental bittersweet is similar in appearance to American bittersweet and anyone sur-veying for Oriental bittersweet should verify identification. Oriental bittersweet dif-fers from American bittersweet by having axillary inflorescences instead of terminalflower clusters. However, inflorescences are sometimes terminal in male Oriental bit-tersweet plants. A less reliable difference is the color of the outer covering of the fruit.The fruit of Oriental bittersweet is yellow while American bittersweet fruit is orange.

Habitat Oriental bittersweet has a wide range of habitat preferences including roadsides, oldhomesites, thickets, and alluvial woods. Oriental bittersweet is shade tolerant, readi-ly germinating and growing under a closed forest canopy.

Management Since Oriental bittersweet produces numerous seeds, extensive seed reserves canRecommendations become established in the soil within a year or two. Seeds of Oriental bittersweet

remain viable for several years and control actions must continue until seed sourcesare eliminated.

Mechanical ControlCutting: Cut climbing or trailing vines as close to the root collar as possible. This tech-nique is feasible on small populations; as a pretreatment on large impenetrable sites;in areas where herbicide cannot be used; or if labor resources are not sufficient to ade-quately implement herbicidal control. This treatment will prevent seed productionand strangulation of surrounding woody vegetation. Oriental bittersweet willresprout unless cut so frequently that its root stores are exhausted. Treatment shouldbegin early in the growing season and be repeated at two-week intervals untilautumn.

Grubbing: This method is appropriate for small initial populations or environmental-ly sensitive areas where herbicides cannot be used. Using a pulaski or similar diggingtool, remove the entire plant, including all roots and runners. Juvenile plants can behand pulled depending on soil conditions and root development. Any portions of theroot system not removed will potentially resprout. All plant parts, including maturefruit, should be bagged and disposed of in a trash dumpster to prevent reestablish-ment.

Herbicidal ControlStump Treatment: Use this method in areas where vines are established within oraround non-target plants, or where vines have grown into the canopy.

Glyphosate: Cut the stem 5 cm (2 in) above ground level. Immediately apply a25% solution of glyphosate and water to the cross-section of the stem. This proce-dure is effective at temperatures (as low as 40°F) and may require a subsequentfoliar application of glyphosate.

Oriental Bittersweet

106

Triclopyr: Cut the stem 5 cm (2 in) above ground level. Immediately apply a 25%solution of triclopyr and water to the cross-section of the stem This procedureremains effective at low temperatures (<60°F) as long as the ground is not frozen.A subsequent foliar application may be necessary to control new seedlings.

Foliar Spray Method: Use this method to control large populations. It may be neces-sary to precede foliar applications with stump treatments to reduce the risk of dam-aging non-target species.

Glyphosate: Apply a 2% solution of glyphosate and water plus 0.5% non-ionicsurfactant to thoroughly wet all foliage. Do not apply so heavily that herbicidewill drip off leaves. Glyphosate is a non-selective systemic herbicide that may killnon-target partially sprayed plants. Ambient air temperature should be above65°F.

Triclopyr: Apply a 2% solution of triclopyr and water to thoroughly wet allfoliage. Do not apply so heavily that herbicide will drip off leaves. The ideal timeto spray is after surrounding native vegetation has become dormant (October-November) to avoid affecting non-target species. A 0.5% concentration of a non-ionic surfactant is recommended in order to penetrate leaf cuticle. Ambient airtemperature should be above 65°F.

Bibliography Clement C.; Warren, R.; Dreyer, G.; Barnes, P. Photosynthesis, water relations andfecundity in the woody vines American and Oriental bittersweet (Celastrus scandensand C. orbiculatus). Annual Meeting Botanical Society of America. Journal of Botany 78(6 suppl.): 134-135; 1991.

Dreyer, G.; Baird, L.; Fickler, C. Celastrus scandens and Celastrus orbiculatus: compar-isons of reproductive potential between a native and an introduced woody vine.Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 114(3):260-264; 1987.

Dreyer, G. Efficacy of triclopyr in rootkilling Oriental bittersweet and certain otherwoody weeds. Proceedings of the Northeastern Weed Science Society Vol. 42:120-121;1988.

Duncan, W. H. Celastrus (Celastraceae) in the southeastern states. SwedishInternational Development Agency 3(5):309-310; 1969.

Hutchison, M. Vegetation management guideline: round-leaved bittersweet (Celastrusorbiculatus Thunb.). Natural Areas Journal 12(3):161; 1992.

Laroche, A.; Geng, X. M.; Singh, J. Differentiation of freezing tolerance and vernaliza-tion responses in Cruciferae exposed to a low temperature. Plant Cell Environment15(4):439-445; 1992.

Lutz, H. Injury to trees caused by Celastrus and Vitis. Bulletin of the Torrey BotanicalClub 70(4):436-439; 1943.

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McNab, W. H.; Meeker, M. Oriental bittersweet: a growing threat to hardwood silvi-culture in the Appalachians. Northern Journal of Applied Forestry 4:174-177; 1987.

Patterson, D. The ecology of Oriental bittersweet, Celastrus orbiculatus, a weedy, intro-duced ornamental vine. Durham, NC: Duke University. Dissertation. 1974.

Patterson, D. T. Weed watch: Oriental bittersweet. Weeds Today 6(1):16; 1975.

Patterson, D. T. Distribution of Oriental bittersweet in the United States. Journal of theElisha Mitchell Science Society 89(4):245; 1973.

Patterson, D. T. Photosynthetic acclimation to irradiance in Celastrus orbiculatusThunb. Photosynthetica 9(2):140-144; 1975.

Wheeler, L. Oriental bittersweet: avian dispersal in winter in relation to other speciesof fruiting plants. Undergraduate Individual Study Report, Zoology Department,Connecticut College, Unpublished. 1987.

White, O.; Bowden, W. Oriental and American bittersweet hybrids. Journal ofHeredity 38(4):125-127; 1947.

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109

Achene: A small, dry, hard one-locular, one-seeded closed fruit with a thin pericarp, derived from aone-carpellate ovary.

Acuminate: Long-tapering to a pointed apex.

Adventitious: Buds or roots that develop without pattern.

Annual: Life cycle completed in one year or one season.

Axil: The angle found between any two organs or structures.

Biennial: Plant with life cycle completed in two years or seasons.

Bipinnate: A pinnate leaf with the divisions also being pinnate, twice pinnate.

Bracts: A reduced leaf, particularly one subtending a flower as the involucral bracts in Asteraceae.

Calcareous: Of the nature of, or containing, lime.

Calyx: The usually green, outer whorl or series of whorls surrounding flower petals.

Cauline: Pertaining or belonging to an evident stem or axis, as opposed to basal.

Ciliate: With hairs arranged on the edge of a flattened structure such as a leaf or petal.

Compound: Composed of two or more similar and united parts, as in a compound pistil or leaf.

Cordate: With a sinus or rounded lobe at the base.

Corolla: The inner, usually colored or otherwise differentiated, whorl or whorls of the perianth.

Corymb: Short, broad, more or less flat-topped indeterminate inflorescence, the outer flowers openingfirst.

Crenate: Shallowly round-toothed or teeth obtuse; scalloped.

Cuneate: Wedge-shaped; triangular, with the narrow end at the point of attachment, at the bases of cer-tain leaves or petals.

Cyme: A broad, flattish determinate inflorescence, the central flowers maturing first.

Deciduous: Not persistent or evergreen.

Decumbent: Reclining or lying on the ground, but with the end ascending.

Dioecious: Having staminate and pistillate flowers on separate plants.

Drupes: A fleshy, usually one-seeded indehiscent fruit with seed enclosed in a stony endocarp.

Glossary of Botanical Terms

110

Eciliate: Without hairs arranged on the edge of a flattened structure such as a leaf or petal.

Elliptic: Having narrow to relatively round ends and being widest at or about the middle, two-dimen-sional, essentially laminate.

Entire: A margin without teeth, lobes or divisions.

Glabrous: Without hairs, smooth.

Glaucous: Covered with a fine, waxy, removable powder that imparts a whitish or bluish cast to thesurface.

Globose: Globular or spherical in shape.

Hirsute: With rather rough or coarse hairs.

Hymenopterous: Pertaining or belonging to an order of insects, Hymenoptera, having four membra-nous wings, comprising the wasps, bees, ants, etc.

Inflorescence: The flowering section of a plant.

Involucre: A whorl or collection of bracts surrounding or subtending a flower cluster or a single flower.

Lanceolate: Lance-shaped, much longer than wide, widened at or above the base and opening to theapex.

Lenticels: A lens-shaped, biconvex spot on the surface of a plant, which serves as a pore.

Mericarps: The individual, separated carpels of a schizocarp as in the Apiaceae or the "nutlets" in theBoraginaceae.

Monoecious: With staminate and pistillate flowers on the same plant.

Monotypic: Having only one representative, as a genus with a single species.

Non-ionic surfactant: A surface active agent that reduces the surface tension between it and anotherliquid not occurring in the form of ions.

Obtuse: Blunt, rounded at the end.

Odd-pinnate: Pinnately compound and with a terminal leaflet, so that typically there is an odd num-ber of leaflets.

Ovate: With an outline like that of a hen's egg, the broader end below the middle, having two dimen-sions.

Panicles: An indeterminate branching raceme; an inflorescence in which the branches of the primaryaxis are racemose and the flowers pedicellate.

Glossary of Botanical Terms

111

Pedicel: The support of a single flower in a cluster, any stalk or stem between sepals and main axis.

Perennial: A plant living three or more years duration.

Perfect flowers: Bisexual; having both male and female sexual organs.

Petiole: The stalk by which a leaf is attached to the stem; leaf stalk.

Phytophagous: Herbivorous.

Pinnate: With the leaflets or pinnae of a compound leaf placed on either side of the prolongated peti-ole, feather-like.

Plumose: Feathery appearance often from long dense pubescence; the pappus of some Asteraceae.

Polygamous: Bearing unisexual and bisexual flowers on the same plant, or different individuals of thesame species.

Pubescent: Covered with soft, short hairs.

Raceme: A simple, elongated, indeterminate inflorescence with pedicelled or stalked flowers.

Rhizome: Usually elongate, horizontal underground or subsurface stem, usually rooting at the nodes.

Samaroid: Like or as a samara; an indehiscent, usually one-seeded winged fruit, such as a maple orelm.

Schizocarp: A fruit that splits between carpels into two or more one-seeded portions, as in the Apiaceaeor Boraginaceae.

Serrate: With sharp teeth pointing forward.

Sessile: Attached by the base without a stalk or stem.

Silique: The long slender fruit of certain Brassicaceae, much longer than broad.

Squarrose: Abruptly spreading or recurved at some point above the base.

Suborbicular: Circular or round on the under side or beneath.

Surfactant: Any substance that when dissolved in an aqueous solution reduces its surface tensionbetween it and another liquid.

Terete: Cylindrical, usually solid or slightly tapering, and round in cross-section.

Terminal: Growing at the tip or end of a branch or stem, as in a bud or inflorescence.

Tomentose: Closely covered with down or matted hair.

Glossary of Botanical Terms

112

Truncate: Square or broad at the end, not tapered, base or apex essentially straight across.

Tuberous: Having a fleshy enlarged portion of a rhizome or stolon with only vestigial scales; truetubers found in the Solanaceae.

Umbel: An inflorescence with pedicels or flower stalks or both, nearly equal in length and arising froma common point; umbrella shaped.

Whorl: Three or more leaves or flowers at one node in a circle.

References

Gleason, H. A.; Cronquist, A. Manual of vascular plants of northeastern United States and adjacentCananda, 2nd Ed. Bronx, NY: The New York Botanical Garden; 1991.

Radford, A. E.; Ahles, H. E.; Bell, C. R. Manual of the vascular flora of the Carolinas. Chapel Hill, NC:The University of North Carolina Press; 1968.

Harris, J. G.; Harris, M. W. Plant identification terminology: an illustrated glossary. Spring Lake, UT:Spring Lake Publishing; 1994.

Glossary of Botanical Terms

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Foliar Treatments

Foliar applications should be made with a low pressure (20-50 psi) backpack sprayer at rates of onegallon or less per minute. All foliar treatments should be made after full leaf expansion in the springand before fall colors are visible. Allow herbicide treatments to dry for at least three hours at an airtemperature above 60°F to ensure adequate absorption and translocation. In areas that receive signifi-cant public use, it may be necessary to close off the treatment area until the herbicide has completelydried.

Use a nonionic surfactant with all herbicide solutions, unless otherwise specified by the manufacturer'slabel. Surfactants increase the effectiveness of the herbicide by 1) reducing surface tension and ensur-ing complete foliar coverage, and 2) increasing the rate of absorption through the leaf cuticle.

Apply herbicide with a backpack or similar hand-operated pump sprayer equipped with a flat spraytip or adjustable cone nozzle. Apply herbicide to the leaves and stems of target plants using a consis-tent back and forth motion. Herbicide should thoroughly cover foliage, but not to the point of run-off.All recommended herbicides require complete foliar coverage to be effective. Applications made whilewalking backward will reduce the risk of the herbicide wicking onto the applicator's clothing.

Cut Surface Treatments

Cut surface treatments include hack and squirt, girdle, and cut stump methods. The main advantagesto these methods are: 1) they are very economical, 2) there is minimal probability of non-targetdamage, 3) minimal application time, and 4) they can be used in the winter as long as the ground is notfrozen. Backpack sprayers or spray bottles are very effective for all of these methods.

Hack and Squirt Method: Using an axe or similar cutting tool, make uniformly spaced cuts around thebase of the stem. The cuts should angle downward, be less than 2.5 cm (1 in) apart, and extend into thesapwood. Apply herbicide to each cut to the point of over flow.

Frill Method: Using an axe or similar cutting tool, make continuous cuts around the base of the stem.The cuts should angle downward, be less than 2.5 cm (1 in) apart, and extend into the sapwood. Applythe recommended herbicide to the entire cut area to the point of over flow.

Cut Stump Method: Horizontally cut stems at or near ground level; all cuts should be level, smooth,and free of debris. Immediately apply the herbicide to the outer 20% (cambial area) of the stump;delayed treatment may reduce the effectiveness of treatment.

Basal Bark Treatments

Basal bark treatments are effective for controlling woody vines, shrubs, and trees. Treatments can bemade any time of year, including the winter months, except when snow or water prevent spraying thebasal parts of the stem. Proper plant identification is crucial during the dormant season due to theabsence of foliage.

Apply herbicide with a backpack sprayer using low pressure (20-40 psi) with a straight stream or flatfan tip. To control vegetation with a basal stem diameter of less than 7.6 cm (3.0 in) apply specified

Application Methods for Recommended Herbicide Treatments

114

herbicide-oil mixture on one side of the basal stem to a height of 15.25 cm (6 in) from the base. Applyherbicide to the point of run-off; within an hour mixture should almost encircle the stem. For stemsgreater than 7.6 cm (3.0 in) basal diameter or with thick bark, treat both sides of the stem to a basalheight of 30.5 cm (12 in) to 61 cm (24 in).

All herbicides should be applied in accordance with specific label instructions, which include person-al protective equipment and storage requirements.

Application Methods for Recommended Herbicide Treatments

115

Brand Name & Manufacturer Generic Name Application

Numerous brands 2,4-D Amine Dicot-Specific, Foliar& manufacturers

Garlon 3A Triclopyr Dicot-Specific Dow Chemical triethanolamine salt Foliar, basal bark

injection, cut surface

Garlon 4 Triclopyr Dicot-SpecificDow Chemical butoxyethyl ester Foliar, basal bark

injection, cut surface

Rodeo Glyphosate Non-SelectiveMonsanto Foliar, cut surfaces

Approved for water.

Accord Glyphosate Non-Selective, Foliar,Monsanto Cut surfaces. Approved

for wet areas and near water.

RoundUp Glyphosate Non-Selective, Foliar,Monsanto Cut surfaces. Cannot be

used over water because it contains a surfactant which is not approved for aquatic use.

Diquat Diquat Non-SelectiveICI Agrochemicals Contact herbicide

Foliar application(Does not kill roots)

Sonar Fluridone Non-Selective, Lily (Elanco) Submerged aquatic

weeds in contained water body

With any herbicide use, always read and follow the label instructions. The label is the law. Follow allinstructions concerning safety gear requirements and first-aid. With the application of all herbicides,always wear impenetrable rubber gloves and eye protection. Additional personal safety gear may berequired for mixing. Use respirators when a respiratory hazard is indicated on the label. If you haveany questions, do not hesitate to call the manufacturer. Each herbicide label will contain a phone num-ber for customer inquiries.

Herbicide Use Guide

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117

Herbicide Use

Bohmont, B. L. The standard pesticide user's guide. Prentice Hall, Inc. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey;1990.

Herbicide Handbook Committee. Herbicide handbook of the Weed Science Society of America, 6th ed.WSSA; 1989.

Illinois Nature Preserves Commission. Vegetation management manual. Vol. 1; 1990.

Missouri vegetation management manual. Missouri Department of Conservation. pp. 3-4; 1993.

Control and Eradication Methods

Andres, L. A.; Davis, C. J.; Harris, P.; et. al. Biological control of weeds. In C.B. Huffaker; Messenger, P.S. Eds. Theory and practice of biological control. New York: Academic Press; 1976.

Bradley, J. Bush regeneration: the practical way to eliminate exotic plants from natural reserves. TheMosman Parklands and Ashton Park Association; Mosman (Sydney), New South Wales; 1971.

Charudattan, R.; Walker, H.L. Biological control of weeds with plant pathogens. New York: John Wileyand Sons; 1982.

Cowan, B. Coastal dune and bluff restoration. Fremontia. 23(1):29-31; 1995.

Debach, P. Biological control by natural enemies. 2nd Ed. Cambridge University Press; 1991.

Deloach, C. J. Past successes and current prospects in biological control of weeds in the western UnitedStates and Canada. Natural Areas Journal. 11(3): 129-141; 1991.

Fuller, T. C.; Barbe, D. The Bradley method of eliminating exotic plants from natural reserves.Fremontia. 24-25.

Hoover, D. A. Control of the aliens: unnatural plant communities in the Santa Monica Mountains.Fremontia. 18(1):2629; 1990.

Huffaker, C. B.; Messenger, P.S. Theory and practice of biological control. New York: Academic Press;1976.

Perala, C.; Hoover, D. A.; Parra-Szijj, E. A. Control of exotic plants in an herbaceous understory.CalEPPC NEWS. 1(3):4-6; 1993.

Prather, T. S. Weed eradication using geographic information systems. Weed Technology. Jan-Mar,7(1):265-269; 1993.

Strobel, G. A. Biological control of weeds. Scientific American. 265(1):72-7; 1990.

Temple, S. The nasty necessity: eradicating exotics. Conservation Biology. June. 4(2):113-115; 1990.

Additional References

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Theisis, K. Lupine Removal by heavy equipment. CalEPPC NEWS. 3(1):7; 1995.

Thomas, L.K., Jr. National Park Service Reports: Management of exotic weeds. IPM Practitioner.12(3):10; 1990.

Van Dyke, C. G.; Spurr, H. W., Jr. Potential use of rust fungus (Puccinia xanthil) for biocontrol of cockle-bur (Xanthium strumarium); In R. Chamdattan and H.l. Walker Editors. Biological control of weeds withpathogens. New York: John Wiley and Sons; 1982.

Additional References

Linear Measure

English Unit Metric Unit

1 inch 25.4 millimeters2.54 centimeters

1 foot 30.48 centimeters3.048 decimeters0.3048 meters

1 yard 0.9144 meter

1 mile 1609.3 meter1.6093 kilometers

0.03937 inch 1 millimeter0.3937 inch 1 centimeter3.937 inches 1 decimeter

39.37 inches 1 meter3.2808 feet1.0936 yards

3280.8 feet 1 kilometer1093.6 yards0.62137 mile

Liquid Measure

English Unit Metric Unit

1 fluid ounce 29.573 milliliters

1 quart 9.4635 deciliters0.94635 liter

1 gallon 3.7854 liters

0.033814 fluid ounce 1 milliliter3.3814 fluid ounces 1 deciliter

33.814 fluid ounces 1 liter1.0567 quarts0.2617 gallon

Metric and English Equivalents

119