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    PONTIFICIAE ACADEMIAE SCIENTIARUM SOCIALIUM ACTA6

    DEMOCRACY

    REALITY AND RESPONSIBILITY

    the

    PROCEEDINGS

    of

    the Sixth Plenary Session of thePontifical Academy of Social Sciences

    23-26 February 2000

    VATICAN CITY 2001

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    The opinions freely expressed during the presentation of papers in thePlenary Session, although published by the Pontifical Academy of SocialSciences, only represent the points of view of the participants and notthose of the Academy.

    Editor of the Proceedings:

    Prof. Dr. HANS F. ZACHER

    ISBN 88-86726-10-4

    Copyright 2001

    THE PONTIFICAL ACADEMY OF SOCIAL SCIENCESVATICAN CITY

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    CONTENTS

    Preface (Hans F. Zacher) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Programme of the Sixth Plenary Session . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

    List of Participants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Report by the President . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

    Message of the Holy Father Read by President E. Malinvaud . .

    SCIENTIFIC PAPERS

    Part I

    The General Framework

    H. F. ZACHER: Der Stand der Arbeiten der Akademie zurDemokratie (The State of the Academys Deliberations on De-mocracy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

    P. DASGUPTA: Democracy and Other Goods . . . . . . . . . . . . .

    Part II

    Democracy: Strategies for Values How to Advocate,

    Foster and Defend Values in a Pluralistic Society

    by Democratic MeansM. SCHOOYANS: Dmocratie et Valeurs: Quelle stratgie dans une

    socit pluraliste? (Democracy and Values. What Strategy in aPluralistic Society?) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

    P. KIRCHHOF: Strategien zur Entfaltung der Werte (Strategies toDevelop and to Defend Values) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

    XIXV

    XIX

    XXVII

    XXXV

    3

    21

    31

    65

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    PONTIFICAL ACADEMY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES: PLENARY SESSION 2000VIII

    Part III

    The Ideal of Democracy and Democratic Reality the Ever-Changing Interplay Between Democratic Structures

    and Civil Society

    M. A. GLENDON: The Ever-Changing Interplay Between Democ-racy and Civil Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

    G. THERBORN: Ambiguous Ideals and Problematic Outcomes: De-mocracy, Civil Society, Human Rights, and Social Justice . . .

    Part IV

    Democracy and Individual Fields of Encounter Betweenthe State and Society

    P. M. ZULU: Education as a Precondition for Democracy . . . . .

    J. ZIOLKOWSKI: Democracy, Public Opinion and the Media . . . .

    H. TIETMEYER: Demokratie und Wirtschaft (Democracy and theEconomy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

    C. CROUCH: Democracy and Labour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .M. G. SCHMIDT: The Democratic Welfare State . . . . . . . . . . .

    H. SCHAMBECK: Ethnische Strukturen und nationale Demokratie(Ethnic Structures and National Democracy) . . . . . . . . . . . .

    P. DONATI: Religion and Democracy in the Post-Modern World:the Possibility of a Religiously Qualified Public Sphere . . . .

    H. C. MALIK: Democracy and Religious Communities. The Riddleof Pluralism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

    Part V

    Closing Discussion

    R. MINNERATH: Le Dveloppement de la Dmocratie et la Doc-trine Sociale de lEglise (Democratic Development and the So-cial Teaching of the Church) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

    97

    121

    159

    173

    205

    231257

    277

    309

    367

    405

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    XIDEMOCRACY REALITY AND RESPONSIBILITY

    PREFACE

    This volume contains the third phase of the Academys work on De-

    mocracy. The first phase was a workshop. The intention of the work-shop was to initiate the Academys deliberations by engaging in a fertileexamination of the various experiences of the different regions of the

    world and thereby obtain a world-wide view. Hence the workshop dis-cussed reports not only from Western Europe but also from post-Social-ist Central and Eastern Europe, from Africa, Asia, and from Latin Ameri-ca. It was held from 12-13 December 1996 in Rome. The proceedings ofthe workshop were published as no. 1 of the newMiscellanea of thePontifical Academy of Social Sciences (Vatican City, 1998). The secondphase was the Fourth Plenary Meeting of the Academy which was heldfrom 22-25 April 1998 in the Vatican City. This Plenary Meeting ad-dressed itself to the subject of Democracy Some Acute Questions.The discussions centred around three themes: Value of Democracy Democracy and Values, Civil Society as the Essence of the DemocraticState, and Supranationality, Internationality and Democracy. The pro-ceedings of this meeting were published as volume 4 of the Pontificiae

    Academiae Scientiarum Socialium Acta (Vatican City, 1999). The discus-sions of the Fourth Plenary Meeting showed that there was an urgentneed to study other questions connected with democracy. For this rea-son, another Plenary Meeting on democracy was planned. Under thetitle of Democracy Reality and Responsibility, it was held on 23-26

    February 2000 in the Vatican City. The proceedings of that meeting arepublished in this volume.

    Article 1 of the statutes of the Pontifical Academy of Social Scienc-es says: The Academy, through an appropriate dialogue, thus offersthe Church the elements which she can use in the development of hersocial doctrine, and reflects on the application of that doctrine in con-

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    PONTIFICAL ACADEMY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES: PLENARY SESSION 2000XII

    temporary society. Thus the Academy is aware that it has to concen-trate on the relationship between the reality and the theory of democ-racy on the one hand, and the social teaching of the Church on theother. For this reason, the Academy has repeatedly referred to whatthe social teaching of the Church has said, and should say, about de-mocracy. That is why the workshop of December 1996 was introducedby a report of Michel Schooyans (Louvain) on Democracy in the Teach-ing of the Popes (loc. cit. pp. 11 ss). Similarly, the Fourth Plenary

    Meeting began with reports on Droits de lhomme et dmocratie lalumire de lenseignement social de lglise (Michel Schooyans, Lou-vain, loc. cit. pp. 47 ss), as well as on the relationship between democ-racy and the social teaching of the Church (Roland Minnerath, Stras-bourg, loc. cit. pp. 57 ss), which were both followed by a special discus-sion (loc. cit. pp. 65 ss). The Sixth Plenary Meeting was brought to aclose with a report on Democratic Development and the Social Teach-ing of the Church which was delivered by Roland Minnerath (Stras-bourg, see below pp. 405ss), and this, too, was followed by a discus-sion. This was an attempt to look at the principal areas of focus of thesubject. However, despite all these endeavours to relate the Academysdiscussions of democracy to the social teaching of the Church, the re-sults clearly need further research and debate. The Academy hopesthat the three volumes on democracy which it has produced will alsobe read and discussed by experts on the social teaching of the Church

    who do not belong to the Academy and who were not involved in itswork on democracy.

    The readers of this volume should know that the Academy haschanged its policy in relation to the publication of the discussions

    which follow papers delivered at the meetings. From the beginning ofits work (The Study of the Tension Between Human Equality and

    Social Inequalities from the Perspective of the Various Social Sciences.Proceedings. First Plenary Session of the Pontifical Academy of Social

    Sciences November 24 - 26, 1994, Pontificiae Academiae ScientiarumSocialium Acta 1, Vatican City, 1996) until the publication of its FourthPlenary Meeting (Democracy Some Acute Questions, loc. cit.) theAcademy tried various ways of reporting the discussions of the Plenary

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    XIIIDEMOCRACY REALITY AND RESPONSIBILITY

    Meetings. However, in the end it was not possible to find a middleway between overly scrupulous and expensive reports on the one hand,and highly condensed reports on the other. Hence the Academy finallydecided that no separate reports on the discussions would be pub-lished. Instead, scholars and experts giving papers were invited to re-vise their texts in the light of the discussions. The reports on the pro-ceedings of the Fifth Plenary Meeting (Towards Reducing Unemploy-ment. The Proceedings of the Fifth Plenary Session of the Pontifical

    Academy of Social Sciences 3 6 March 1999, Pontificiae AcademiaeScientiarum Socialium Acta 5, Vatican City, 1999) had already beenprepared and published in this new way. This volume also follows thenew policy.

    Not all English texts are the work of native speakers. For this rea-son, the English texts were looked through and revised by Dr. Mat-thew Fforde. The authors and the editor thank Dr. Fforde very muchfor his help.

    The Academy has the very sad duty to inform readers of the deathof Professor Janusz Ziolkowski (Poznan). He was appointed a memberof the Academy in December 1997. At the Sixth Plenary Meeting hepresented a paper on Democracy, Public Opinion and the Media(below pp.173 ss). After the Plenary Meeting he returned to his homecountry of Poland. There he died in May 2000. The members of theAcademy and all the other participants of its Sixth Plenary Meetingremember his unique personality. They thank him warmly for all hisservices. His memory will burn bright in their hearts.

    HANS F. ZACHERChairman of the Academys ad hoc

    Committee on Democracy

    Munich, July 2000

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    XVDEMOCRACY REALITY AND RESPONSIBILITY

    VI PLENARY SESSION: 23-26 FEBRUARY 2000

    PROGRAMME

    Tuesday 22 February

    Meeting of the Council

    Wednesday 23 February

    Papal Audience

    OPENING

    Message of the Holy Father read by President Malinvaud

    Part I - THE GENERAL FRAMEWORK

    Professor HANS F. ZACHER(Pontifical Academician - Mnchen)The State of the Academys Deliberations on Democracy

    Professor PARTHA DASGUPTA (Pontifical Academician - Cambridge)Democracy in a Global World

    Part II - DEMOCRACY: STRATEGIESFORVALUES - HOWTOADVOCATE, FOSTERANDDEFENDVALUESINAPLURALISTICSOCIETYBYDEMOCRATICMEANS

    (two speakers)Professor MICHEL SCHOOYANS (Pontifical Academician - Louvain-la-Neuve)

    Professor PAUL KIRCHHOF (Heidelberg)

    Closed Session for Academicians

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    PONTIFICAL ACADEMY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES: PLENARY SESSION 2000XVI

    Thursday 24 February

    Part III - THEIDEALOFDEMOCRACYANDDEMOCRATICREALITY - THEEVERCHANGINGINTERPLAYBETWEENDEMOCRATICSTRUCTURESANDCIVILSOCIETY (two speakers)

    Professor MARY ANN GLENDON (Pontifical Academician - CambridgeMassachusetts)

    Professor GRAN THERBORN (Uppsala)

    Part IV - DEMOCRACY AND INDIVIDUAL FIELDS OF ENCOUNTER BETWEENTHESTATEANDSOCIETY

    Professor PAULUS MZOMUHLE ZULU (Pontifical Academician - Durban)Education - Education as a Precondition for Democracy - Education as a

    Means to Implement Democracy

    Professor JANUSZ ZIOLKOWSKI (Pontifical Academician - Poznan)Democracy, Public Opinion and Media

    Professor HANS TIETMEYER(Pontifical Academician - Frankfurt am Main)Democracy and Economy

    Professor COLIN CROUCH (Firenze)Democracy and Labour

    Closed Session for Academicians

    Friday 25 February

    CONTINUATION Part IV

    Professor MANFRED G. SCHMIDT (Bremen)The Democratic Welfare State

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    XVIIDEMOCRACY REALITY AND RESPONSIBILITY

    Professor HERBERT SCHAMBECK (Pontifical Academician - Linz)Ethnic Structures and National Democracy

    Professor PIERPAOLO DONATI (Pontifical Academician - Bologna)Religion and Religious Communities (first speaker)

    Professor HABIB MALIK (Beirut)Religion and Religious Communities (second speaker)

    Meeting of the Committee in Charge of Preparing the Jubilee EditionMeeting on the Social Dimensions of Globalization

    Saturday 26 February

    Part V - CLOSING DISCUSSION

    Professor ROLAND MINNERATH (Pontifical Academician - Strasbourg)Democratic Development and the Social Teaching of the Church - Focuses

    of Responsibility

    General Discussion

    Meeting of the Council

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    LIST OF PARTICIPANTS

    PRESIDENTProf. Edmond MALINVAUDCentre de Recherche en Economie et Statistique15, boulevard Gabriel PriF-92245 MALAKOFF Cedex (France)

    CHANCELLORRev. Msgr. Marcelo SNCHEZ SORONDOCasina Pio IVV-00120 CITTA DEL VATICANO

    PONTIFICAL COUNCIL FOR JUSTICE AND PEACEH.E. Msgr. Diarmuid MARTINSegretario del Pontificio Consiglio Iustitia et PaxPalazzo S. CalistoV-00120 CITTA DEL VATICANO

    ACADEMICIANSProf. Margaret S. ARCHERThe University of WarwickDepartment of Sociology

    COVENTRY CV4 7AL, Warwickshire (United Kingdom)

    Prof. Kenneth ARROWStanford UniversityDepartment of EconomicsSTANFORD, CA 94305-6072 (U.S.A.)

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    PONTIFICAL ACADEMY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES: PLENARY SESSION 2000XX

    Prof. Serguei AVERINTSEVWiener Universitt Institut fr SlawistikSpitalgasse 2-4 Hof 3A-1090 WIEN (Austria)

    Prof. Belisario BETANCURFundacion Santillana para IberoamricaCalle 80, N 9 - 75, Apartado Aereo 3974

    BOGOTA (Colombia)

    Prof. Joachim BONYConseil dAdministration de la RadiodiffusionTlvision Ivoirienne (RTI)20 BP 1638ABIDJAN 20 (Cte dIvoire)

    Prof. Rocco BUTTIGLIONESegreteria dei Cristiani Democratici Uniti (CDU)Piazza del Ges, 46I-00186 ROME (Italy)

    Prof. Pierpaolo DONATIUniversit di BolognaFacolt di Scienze PoliticheDipartimento di SociologiaStrada Maggiore, 45I-40125 BOLOGNA (Italy)

    Prof. Mary Ann GLENDONHarvard University School of LawHauser Hall 5041575 Massachusetts AvenueCAMBRIDGE, MA 02138 (U.S.A.)

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    Hon. Justice Nicholas J. McNALLYSupreme Court of ZimbabweThird Street/Union AvenueHARARE (Zimbabwe)Mailing address:Hon. Justice Nicholas J. McNALLYP.O. Box CY 870CAUSEWAY (Zimbabwe)

    Rev. Msgr. Prof. Roland MINNERATHUniversit Marc BlochFacult de Thologie Catholique9, Place de lUniversitF-67000 STRASBOURG (France)Mailing address:Rev. Msgr. Prof. Roland MINNERATH12, rue MassenetF-67000 STRASBOURG (France)

    Prof. Pedro MORANDPontificia Universidad Catolica de ChileDecano de la Facultad de Ciencias SocialesAvenida Vicua Mackenna 4860 Casilla 306, Correo 22SANTIAGO (Chile)

    Prof. Taketoshi NOJIRI2-9-3 Kojidai, Nishi-ku,KOBE-SHI (Japan) 651-2273

    Prof. Mina Magpantay RAMIREZAsian Social InstituteGraduate School of Social Transformative Praxis1518 Leon Guinto Street, MalateMANILA 1004 (Philippines)

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    PONTIFICAL ACADEMY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES: PLENARY SESSION 2000XXII

    Prof. Ren REMONDFondation Nationale des Sciences Politiques27, rue Saint Guillaume75337 PARIS Cedex 07 (France)

    Prof. Louis SABOURINUniversit du Qubeccole Nationale dAdministration Publique (GERFI)4750, rue Henri-Julien

    MONTRAL, Qubec H2T 3E5 (Canada)

    Prof. Herbert SCHAMBECKUniversity of LinzInstitute for Public Law and Political Sciences

    Juridicum A/4th floorA-4040 LINZ-AUHOF (Austria)

    Rev. Fr. Prof. Johannes SCHASCHING, S.J.Katholische SozialakademieSchottenring 35/DG

    A-1010 VIENNA (Austria)

    Rev. Msgr. Prof. Michel SCHOOYANSVoie du Roman Pays, 31, bte. 101B-1348 LOUVAIN-LA-NEUVE (Belgium)

    Prof. Hanna SUCHOCKAPolish Parliament - SEJMForeign Bureau Union for Freedom Parliamentary CaucusUl. Wiejska 4/6/8PL-00 902 WARSAW (Poland)

    Prof. Hans TIETMEYERDeutsche BundesbankWilhelm-Epstein-Strasse 14 - 16D-60431 FRANKFURT AM MAIN(Federal Republic of Germany)

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    Rev. Fr. Prof. Arthur F. UTZ, O.P.ch. Cardinal Journet 4CH-1752 VILLARS-SUR-GLANE/FRIBOURG (Switzerland)

    Prof. Wilfrido V. VILLACORTADe la Salle UniversityYuchengco Center for East Asia2401 Taft Avenue

    1004 MANILA (Philippines)

    Prof. Bedrich VYMETALIKAdvocate OfficeLskoveck 2089738 01 FRYDEK-MISTEK (Czech Republic)

    Prof. Hans F. ZACHERMax-Planck-Institute for Foreign and International Social LawAmalienstrasse 33

    D-80799 MUNICH (Federal Republic of Germany)

    Prof. Pier Luigi ZAMPETTIUniversit degli studi di GenovaFacolt di Scienze Politiche Dipartimento di Scienze Politiche e Sociali(DISPOS)Largo Zecca, 8/18I-16124 GENOVA (Italy)Mailing address:Prof. Pier Luigi ZAMPETTI

    Via 4 Novembre, 52I-21040 UBOLDO, Varese (Italy)

    Prof. Janusz A. ZIOLKOWSKIUl. Skarbka 23PL-60-348 POZNAN (Poland)

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    PONTIFICAL ACADEMY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES: PLENARY SESSION 2000XXIV

    Prof. Jerzy G. ZUBRZYCKI68 Schlich StreetYarralumla ACT2600 CANBERRA (Australia)

    Prof. Paulus ZULUUniversity of Natal Maurice Webb Race Relations UnitKing George V Avenue

    4041 DURBAN, Natal (South Africa)

    COUNCILLORS OF THE FOUNDATIONFOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCESDelegate of the Holy See to the Council of the FoundationS.E.R. Msgr. Donato SQUICCIARINIApostolic Nuncio in AustriaTheresianumgasse, 31A-1040 VIENNA (Austria)

    PresidentPresident Dr. Dr. Herbert BATLINERAeulestrasse 74FL-9490 VADUZ(Principality of Liechtenstein)

    Mr. Cornelius G. FETSCHBund Katholischer Unternehmer e. V.Georgstrae 18D-50676 KLN

    (Federal Republic of Germany)

    Mr. Manuel Gregor HERDER(Representative of Prof. Alphons HORTEN)Hermann-Herder-Strasse, 4D-79104 FREIBURG IM BREISGAU(Federal Republic of Germany)

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    XXVDEMOCRACY REALITY AND RESPONSIBILITY

    Dr. Martin STRIMITZERPrsident das Bndesrates i.R.Kirchstrasse 49A-6091 GTZENS, Tirol (Austria)

    EXPERT PROFESSORS

    Prof. Colin CROUCH

    European University InstituteDepartment of Political and Social SciencesVia dei Roccettini, 9

    50016 SAN DOMENICO DI FIESOLE (FI) (Italy)

    Prof. Carlos Alberto FLORIACalle Juez Tardin 29351425 BUENOS AIRES (Argentina)

    Prof. Paul KIRCHHOFUniversitt HeidelbergFr. - Ebert - Anlage 6-10D-69118 HEIDELBERG (Federal Republic of Germany)

    Prof. Habib MALIKMalik Residence, Street 17RABYA MATN (Lebanon)

    Prof. Manfred G. SCHMIDTZentrum fr SozialpolitikParkallee 39

    D-28209 BREMEN (Federal Republic of Germany)

    Prof. Gran THERBORNSCASSGotavagen 4SE-75236 UPPSALA (Sweden)

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    REPORT BY THE PRESIDENT

    On 20 November 1999 the Holy Father appointed Professor Wil-frido Villacorta a member of our Academy. Professor Wilfrido Villa-corta was born in Manila, the Philippines, on 22 May 1945. He isProfessor of Political Science at De La Salle University and Presidentof the Yuchengco Center for East Asia of the same university. He wasawarded a bachelors degree at the University of the Philippines andan MA and a Ph.D. in politics (major in international law and rela-tions) at the Catholic University of America. He worked in two inter-national organisations from 1976-1982, as Senior Specialist at theSEAMEO Center for Educational Innovation and Technology, and asSecretary General of the Regional Secretariat of the Association ofChristian Universities and Colleges in Asia. From 1983-1993 he wasDean of Liberal Arts and Senior Vice-President at De La Salle Uni-versity and was a delegate to the 1986 Constitutional Commission

    which drafted the present Constitution of the Philippines. ProfessorVillacorta has published extensively and has received several awardsand distinctions, including the Chevalier dans lOrdre des PalmesAcademiques of the French government (1992), the Benedictine Cen-tennial Award in Education (1995), and the Fulbright-Freman Foun-

    dation Distinguished Centennial Lecturer Award (1988). After hisofficial appointment by the Holy Father on 20 November 1999, hewas formally conferred the appointment and given the certificate andthe gold medallion of membership on 23 February 2000.

    During the year which followed the close of the Fifth Plenary Ses-sion and the Council meeting of 6 March 1999, the Academy imple-

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    mented the programme which had been decided upon at those meet-ings. The high point of its activities was the Sixth Plenary Session, heldfrom 23 to 26 February 2000, which took place immediately after atwo-day Workshop designed to initiate the activities of the Academyon a new subject. The title of the Workshop was The Social Dimen-sions of Globalisation. During these twelve months the Council heldthree meetings: on 10 November 1999, 22 and 26 February 2000 re-spectively. This report deals with the projects of the Academy concern-

    ing, first, the continuation of its studies on democracy; second, thebeginning of its studies on the social dimensions of globalisation; andthird, the finalisation of a book which will present a wide academicaudience with the main outcomes of its investigations into the subjectof work and employment.

    The Study of Democracy

    The Proceedings published here follow on from what was ex-plained and announced in the report of last year (see pages 37-38 ofPontificiaeAcademiae Scientiarum Socialium Acta, n. 5, 1999). Afterthe three meetings devoted to this subject in December 1996, April1998, and February 2000, the Academy now wants to reflect on howbest to draw a set of conclusions which will be relevant for the devel-opment of the Social Teaching of the Church on democracy and willalso receive wide support from our Academicians. The aim is to drafta document which could be finally approved by a future GeneralAssembly, probably in 2003. This requires serious preparation, and

    perhaps to begin with the consultation of experts who have not yetbeen involved in the exchanges organised by the Academy and whocould thus approach our three published volumes with fresh minds.On 22 February the Council asked Professor Zacher to work out aprecise proposal on how to implement this objective, which is nowon the agenda of the Academy.

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    The Social Dimensions of Globalisation

    The Workshop which was held on 21-22 February 2000 was meantto provide orientations for the Academys scientific activities which,dealing with globalisation, would stress the viewpoint of the develop-ing world, and in addition would be relevant for the Social Teaching ofthe Church. The preparations for this Workshop were the responsibil-ity of a special committee chaired by Professor Sabourin. It was madeup of thirteen members of the Academy and four outside expert pro-

    fessors (Sergio Bernal Restrepo S.J., of the Pontifico Collegio Pio La-tino Americano, Rome; Hakan Bjorkman, of the UNDP Office, Co-penhagen; Denis Goulet, of the University of Notre Dame, USA; andStefano Zamagni, of the University of Bologna).

    In conformity with the pattern which was agreed upon in 1995 andwhich had already been applied in relation to the two other main sub-jects studied by the Academy (Work and Employment and Democra-cy), the Workshop had to focus, as an essential reference point for itsdiscussions, on a document presenting the current state of develop-ment of the Social Doctrine of the Church. With regard to globalisa-

    tion, the state of the Churchs doctrine was described and analysed in apaper delivered by Bishop Martin Diarmuid, the Secretary of the Pon-tifical Council for Justice and Peace.

    From this dense paper the participants will certainly remember inparticular a quotation from Ecclesia in America, which was publishedafter the Special Session of the Synod of Bishops for America, Northand South (1999). In this publication the Pope observes that the ethi-cal implications of globalization can be positive and negative. There isan economic globalization which brings some positive consequences,such as efficiency and increased production and which, with the devel-

    opment of economic links between different countries, can help to bringgreater unity among peoples and make possible a better service to thehuman family. However if globalization is ruled merely by the law ofthe market applied to suit the powerful, the consequences cannot butbe negative (n. 20). And the Pope goes on to indicate some of thesepossible negative consequences. For example, absolutizing the econo-

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    my, something which is particularly significant for reflections on thesocial implications of globalisation. At the end of his survey, BishopMartin writes: The ethical challenge has only begun along the path ofglobalization in solidarity, globalization without marginalization.

    Five other main papers were delivered at the Workshop, and theyhad the following titles: The Meaning of Globalization; The EvolvingNature of Development in the Light of Globalization; Human Devel-opment and Globalization: Challenges and Indicators; Social and

    Cultural Dimensions of Globalization; and The Economic Aspects ofGlobalization. Predictably enough, these papers stimulated importantcontributions from the commentators. Overall, a wide range of issues

    was discussed. The Workshop ended with a round-table which hadtwo objectives. On the one hand, it was to raise additional related is-sues which had not been covered in the previous sessions, such as: howis globalisation impacting on ordinary people and contributing to in-creased inequality? Or, how can ethics and principles of human andsocial development be brought into the process of globalisation? Onthe other hand, it had to make suggestions for the scientific programme

    of the general assembly to be held in 2001, which will deal with thesame general subject as the Workshop.The round-table was more successful with respect to the first objec-

    tive than to the second. Some speakers paid attention in particular towhat is now called the quality of governance and to why it is that thisquality is often found at low levels in developing countries. Others fo-cused on the need for the Academy to look at detailed evidence andnot only at overall statistics this could mean considering case studies,and/or examining how care is often an essential ingredient in localcultures, and/or organising meetings with people who have been in-

    volved on the ground, and/or creating an Observatory to collect mean-ingful evidence from various countries.No central guideline emerged for an approach to the programme of

    future activities, beginning with the 2001 Plenary Session. At the endof his opening contribution, Professor Sabourin made three sugges-tions as to the issues on which the 2001 programme could concentrate

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    its attention: (i) the ethical aspects of globalisation in the light of theSocial Doctrine of the Church; (ii) globalisation as it is perceived andexperienced in the developing world; and (iii) the kind of internationalauthority which is needed in order to respond to the advance of glo-balisation. The round-table did not focus its discussion on these sug-gestions. On the contrary, some participants feared that the subject ofglobalisation could become an umbrella under which the Academy wouldbe tempted to place everything. Perhaps, because of this danger, it will

    be necessary in the future to distinguish between when the Academywants to deal specifically with the Third World and when it wishes toaddress itself to the social dimensions of globalisation as they apply tothe whole of the planet.

    The committee chaired by Professor Sabourin, and the Council ofthe Academy, were left with the responsibility of deciding upon theprogramme of the April 2001 Plenary Session. A detailed draft pro-gramme, which had been prepared by the committee, was presentedby Professor Sabourin to the Council Meeting of 26 February 2000.The focus was on ethical assessments under the general title of Glo-

    balisation and Common Humanity. The choice of possible speakersand the proposed organisation of activities were more eclectic in char-acter than had previously been the case within the Academy. Whilethanking Professor Sabourin for the organisation of what had been avery successful Workshop, as well as for his efforts in chairing the com-mittee and drawing up a detailed draft programme, the Council felt thatthe envisaged programme was too broad to be covered in depth. At alesser level, the Council expressed reservations about some of the approaches

    which were suggested for the papers and discussions. Professor Sabourinconceded the force of the comments which had been made and agree to

    revise the draft programme accordingly.

    Work and Employment

    The Academy has devoted three plenary sessions to the subject ofWork and Employment, in 1996, 1997, and 1999 respectively. All the

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    papers presented at these sessions have been published in the Proceed-ings of the Academy. This is also true of the reports of the discussionsheld in 1996 and 1997. From the outset, that is to say in March 1996,the Academy decided to edit and publish a book to be produced anddistributed by a commercial publisher on the outcomes of the firstround of its reflections on this subject. Believing at that time that theround in question would be completed by the two sessions of 1996 and1997, Academicians thought that this book would be published in 2000

    and would thus be their contribution to the Jubilee year hence thename Jubilee Edition given to the project. Its proposed character wasdiscussed at length and this is carefully explained in the Proceedings ofthe 1997 session (see pages 39-41 in Pontificiae Academiae Scientiarum

    Socialium Acta, n. 3, Vatican City, 1998).As events turned out, the first steps in the preparation of the book

    revealed that the Academy would have to examine additional papers tocomplement those discussed in 1996 and 1997 dealing with points whichhad not been addressed, or sufficiently addressed, during those years.This is why the whole scientific programme of the Plenary Session of

    1999 was again devoted to the subject of Work and Employment. Clearly,during the rest of 1999 and the beginning of 2000 much attention had tobe devoted urgently to the completion of the book. Therefore, immedi-ately after the Plenary Session, held on 8-9 March, a meeting of the spe-cial committee in charge of preparing the Jubilee Edition took place.

    The committee had to discuss how to implement the orientationswhich had been adopted previously, namely to produce a book in which,after a chapter by Professor Schasching S.J. presenting the Social Teach-ing of the Catholic Church on Work and Employment, and after along series of extracts taken from the various papers which had been

    prepared and discussed at the three Plenary Sessions, a Report of theAcademy would present the provisional conclusions drawn by Acade-micians collectively from the papers and discussions of these three ses-sions. A provisional and incomplete draft for this report had been pre-pared by myself, acting as President of the Academy, and this was dis-cussed at a closed session of Academicians in 1998.

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    The March 1999 meeting of the committee proved quite useful indefining the project in greater detail and in adopting a precise outlinefor the whole book. But it appeared that my intentions for the revisionand completion of the Report of the Academy, on the basis of com-ments received and the material discussed in the 1999 session, did notmeet with unanimous approval. Hesitation was expressed both withregard to the contents, and in relation to the tone, of the proposedReport. Before taking a decision on the question, the committee want-

    ed to examine an alternative attempt at drafting the Report of the Acad-emy. Professor Archer kindly agreed to prepare such an alternative draft.For my part, I accepted the proposal to revise my earlier draft alonglines which I had already indicated.

    Unfortunately, when the two new drafts were ready it was clear thatthey were written from very different perspectives and thus did notlend themselves to amalgamation. Given this situation, the course ofaction to be followed was carefully discussed, firstly, in correspondencebetween members of the committee, and secondly, at two meetings ofthe Council. After discussion by the General Assembly it was decided

    that no Report of the Academy would appear in the book and that thetwo texts prepared by Professor Archer and the President would bothbe presented as personal contributions, the first as a thematic introduc-tion appearing after the chapter of Father Schasching, the second as asynthesis appearing after the extracts. It became clear that the bookcould no longer be expected to be available for readers in the year2000. Assuming that a publisher would be found quickly after comple-tion of the typescript, it was reasonable to expect publication of the

    work in 2001, which would be the twentieth anniversary of the Encyc-licalLaborem Exercens.

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    TO THE PARTICIPANTS IN THESIXTH PLENARY SESSION OF THE

    PONTIFICAL ACADEMY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

    1. I am pleased to greet you on the occasion of the Sixth PlenarySession of the Pontifical Academy of Social Sciences. I thank your Pre-sident, Professor Edmond Malinvaud, and all of you, the Academymembers, for your dedication and commitment to the work which youundertake for the good of the Church and of the human family.

    As you are well aware, the Churchs social doctrine is meant to be avehicle through which the Gospel of Jesus Christ is brought to bear onthe different cultural, economic and political situations facing modernmen and women. It is in this precise context that the Pontifical Aca-demy of Social Sciences makes a most important contribution: as ex-perts in the various social disciplines and as followers of the Lord Jesusyou enter into that dialogue between Christian faith and scientific meth-odology which seeks true and effective responses to the problems anddifficulties which beset the human family. As my predecessor Pope PaulVI said, all social action involves a doctrine (Populorum Progressio,39), and the Academy helps to ensure that social doctrines do not igno-re the spiritual nature of human beings, their deep longing for happi-ness and their supernatural destiny which transcends the merely bio-logical and material aspects of life. The Churchs task her right andher duty is to enunciate the basic ethical principles governing the

    foundation and proper functioning of society, within which men andwomen make their pilgrim way to their transcendent destiny.

    2. The theme chosen for the Academys Sixth Plenary Session,Democracy Reality and Responsibility, represents a most impor-tant topic for the new millennium. While it is true that the Church

    Message of the Holy Father

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    offers no concrete model of government or economic system (cf. Cente-simus Annus, 43), she values the democratic system inasmuch as itensures the participation of citizens in making political choices, guar-antees to the governed the possibility both of electing and holdingaccountable those who govern them, and of replacing them throughpeaceful means when appropriate (ibid., 46).

    At the dawning of the Third Millennium, a serious question con-fronts democracy. There is a tendency to see intellectual relativism as

    the necessary corollary of democratic forms of political life. In such aview, truth is determined by the majority and varies in accordance withpassing cultural and political trends. From this point of view, those

    who are convinced that certain truths are absolute and immutable areconsidered unreasonable and unreliable. On the other hand, as Chris-tians we firmly believe that if there is no ultimate truth to guide anddirect political activity, then ideas and convictions can easily be mani-pulated for reasons of power. As history demonstrates, a democracywithout values easily turns into open or thinly disguised totalitarianism(Centesimus Annus, 46).

    Thus, it is important that Christians be helped to show that the de-fence of universal and unchanging moral norms is a service rendered notonly to individuals but also to society as a whole: such norms representthe unshakable foundation and solid guarantee of a just and peacefulhuman coexistence, and hence of genuine democracy (Veritatis Splen-dor, 96). In fact, democracy itself is a means and not an end, and thevalue of a democracy stands or falls with the values which it embodiesand promotes (Evangelium Vitae, 70). These values cannot be based onchangeable opinion but only on the acknowledgment of an objectivemoral law, which ever remains the necessary point of reference.

    3. At the same time the Church refuses to espouse that extremismor fundamentalism which, in the name of an ideology purporting to bescientific or religious, claims the right to impose on others its own con-cept of what is right and good. Christian truth is not an ideology. Ratherit recognizes that changing social and political realities cannot be con-fined within rigid structures. What the Church does is constantly to

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    reaffirm the transcendent dignity of the human person, and constantlyto defend human rights and freedom. Thefreedomwhich the Churchpromotes attains its fullest development and expression only in opennessto and acceptance of the truth. In a world without truth, freedom losesits foundation and man is exposed to the violence of passion and tomanipulation, both open and hidden (Centesimus Annus, 46).

    4. There is no doubt that the new millennium will see the conti-

    nuation of the phenomenon of globalization, that process by which theworld moves ever closer to becoming a homogeneous whole. In thiscontext it is important to remember that the health of a politicalcommunity can be gauged in no small way by thefree and responsible

    participation of all citizens in public affairs. In fact, such participation isa necessary condition and sure guarantee of the development of the

    whole individual and of all people (Sollicitudo Rei Socialis, 44). Inother words, smaller social units whether nations themselves, com-munities, ethnic or religious groups, families or individuals must notbe namelessly absorbed into a greater conglomeration, thus losing theiridentity and having their prerogatives usurped. Rather, the proper au-tonomy of each social class and organization, each in its own sphere,must be defended and upheld. This is nothing other than theprincipleof subsidiarity,which requires that a community of a higher order shouldnot interfere in the internal life of a community of a lower order, de-priving the latter of its rightful functions; instead the higher order shouldsupport the lower order and help it to coordinate its activity with thatof the rest of society, always with a view to serving the common good(cf. Centesimus Annus, 48). Public opinion needs to be educated in theimportance of the principle of subsidiarity for the survival of a trulydemocratic society.

    The global challenges that the human family faces in the new mil-lennium also serve to highlight another dimension of the Churchs so-cial doctrine: its place in ecumenical and interreligious cooperation. Thecentury just past has seen enormous progress in multilateral initiativesto defend human dignity and promote peace. The era upon which weare now embarking must see a continuation of such efforts: without

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    the concerted and united action of all believers indeed of all men andwomen of good will little can be accomplished to make genuine de-mocracy, value-based democracy, a reality for the men and women ofthe twenty-first century.

    5. Distinguished and dear Academicians, I express once more myappreciation of the valuable service which you render in bringing Chris-tian enlightenment to those areas of modern social life where confusion

    about essentials often obscures and suffocates the lofty ideals plantedin the human heart. With prayers for the success of your meeting Icordially impart to you my Apostolic Blessing, which I willingly extendto your families and your loved ones.

    From the Vatican, 23 February 2000

    IOANNES PAULUS II

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    Part I

    THE GENERAL FRAMEWORK

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    PONTIFICAL ACADEMY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES: PLENARY SESSION 20002

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    DER STAND DER ARBEITEN DER AKADEMIEZUR DEMOKRATIE

    HANS F. ZACHER

    SUMMARYThe Academys work on democracy has been one of its first experiences in

    accomplishing the task of promoting the study and progress of social sciences,primarily economics, sociology, law and political science and thus offering theChurch the elements which she can use in the developments of her doctrine and toreflect on the application of that doctrine in contemporary society. Given thatinequality is the general reason behind every social question, the Academy began

    with the study of the tension between human equality and social inequality in1994. Subsequently, the Academy turned to the contemporary state of the labourquestion once the classic social question and now the subject of very worryingchanges. When approaching democracy, the Academy went beyond this area of une-

    qual living conditions and opportunities and entered the realm of the structural condi-tions of the social.The work on democracy which may come to an end with this meeting was

    divided into three steps. The first step was a workshop held in December 1996 whichhad three main aims: first to delineate the social teaching of the Popes on democracy;second to collect together the different experiences of the various regions of the world;and third to gain an overview of the different questions which arise when the prob-lems of democracy are studied. The second step was the Fourth Plenary Session ofthe Academy held in April 1998 on Democracy Some Acute Questions. It began

    with presentations of the Churchs social teaching on democracy but then went on toconcentrate on three themes: the relationship between democracy and values; civilsociety as the essence of democratic society; and national democracy and transna-

    tional, international and supranational developments.The third step is this Sixth Plenary Session of the Academy on Democracy Reality and Responsibility which concentrates on: democracy in a global world; strat-egies to advocate, foster and defend values in a pluralistic society by democratic means;the ever changing interplay between democratic structures and civil society; and theindividual fields of encounter between state and society (education; public opinionand the media; the economy; dependent labour; the welfare state; minorities; and

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    religion and religious communities). Finally, the assembly will try to draw more fo-cused conclusions for the social teaching of the Church.

    I. Der Auftrag der Akademie und die Anfnge ihrer Arbeit

    Diese Akademie hat nach ihren Statuten ich zitiere die Fas-sung vom 25. Mai 19981 das Ziel of promoting the study andprogress of the social sciences, primarily economics, sociology, law and

    political science. The Academy, through an appropriate dialogue, thusoffers the Church the elements which she can use in the developmentof her social doctrine, and reflects on the application of that doctrine incontemporary society.

    Als die Akademie im Jahre 1994 ihre Arbeit aufnahm, hatte siewenig Schwierigkeiten, die Themen zu erkennen, denen sie sich zu-wenden mute. Die soziale Frage hat eine tief in das 19. Jahrhun-dert zurckreichende Tradition der politischen Auseinandersetzungund der wissenschaftlichen Diskussion. Sie konzentrierte sich auf dieArbeiterfrage. Diese war gleichwohl nur das drngendste Beispiel

    fr ein weites Feld von Problemen, das auf den Nenner der Ungleich-heit gebracht werden kann: der Ungleichheit in der Teilhabe an denGtern dieser Welt sei es an den materiellen Gtern, sei es an denideellen Gtern wie der mitmenschlichen Zuwendung, der Erziehungund Bildung, der Hilfe in Fllen der Not , der Ungleichheit in derSicherheit der Lebensverhltnisse und der Ungleichheit, die sich alsFreiheit oder Unfreiheit, als Unabhngigkeit oder als Abhngigkeitvon jeweils anderen ausdrckt. Dieses Feld der Ungleichheiten istauch das Feld der Verantwortung, auf dem sich die Soziallehre derKirche entwickelt und entfaltet hat. Auch sie war zuerst alarmiert

    01 Art. I der Statutes of the Pontifical Academy of Social Sciences (Acta Apostolicae Sedis, 10.Martii 1994; englische Fassung abgedruckt in: Democracy Some Acute Questions. Pro-ceedings of the Fourth Plenary Session of the Pontifical Academy of Social Sciences 22-25April 1998. Pontificiae Academiae Scientiarum Socialium Acta 4. Ed. by Hans F. Zacher.Vatican City 1999, pp. 35-38.

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    von der Lage der Arbeiter, die unter den technischen und wirtschaft-lichen Bedingungen des 19. Jahrhunderts zu einer sittlichen und po-litischen Herausforderung ersten Ranges geworden war. Auch sie hatden Blick aber ber die Arbeiterfrage hinaus auf andere Fragender sozialen Ungleichheit erstreckt.

    Die ersten Arbeiten der Akademie haben wesentliche Stationen die-ses Weges nachvollzogen freilich nicht in ihrem historischen Ablauf.Die Akademie durfte nicht bersehen, da sowohl die sozialen Ver-

    hltnisse als auch die Soziallehre der Kirche im Laufe der Zeit wesent-lichen Entwicklungen ausgesetzt waren. Und so begann sie ihre Arbei-ten mit einer Tagung ber den allgemeinsten Nenner aller sozialen Pro-bleme: The Study of the Tension Between Human Equality and SocialInequalities from the Perspective of the Various Social Sciences (ErstePlenarsitzung 24. 26. November 1994).2 Sodann griff sie die Gestaltauf, welche die Arbeiterfrage zum Ende des 20. Jahrhunderts ange-nommen hatte: The Future of Labour and Labour in the Future(Zweite Plenarsitzung vom 20. 23. Mrz 1996),3 The Right to Work:Towards Full Employment (Dritte Plenarsitzung vom 23. 26. April

    1997)4

    und Towards Reducing Unemployment (Fnfte Plenarsitzungvom 3. 6. Mrz 1999).5

    Ungleichheit steht jedoch immer im Zusammenhang mit Struktu-ren: mit Strukturen, die Ungleichheit verursachen oder berwinden;mit Strukturen, welche die Wirkungen vorgegebener Ungleichheit ver-

    02 The Study of the Tension Between Human Equality and Social Inequalities from the Perspec-tive of the Various Social Sciences. Proceedings First Plenary Session of the Pontifical Acade-my of Social Sciences November 24-26, 1994. Pontificiae Academiae Scientiarum SocialiumActa 1. Ed. by Edmond Malinvaud/Margaret Archer. Vatican City 1996.

    03 The Future of Labour and Labour in the Future. Proceedings Second Plenary Session ofthe Pontifical Academy of Social Sciences 20-23 March 1996. Pontificiae Academiae Scien-tiarum Socialium Acta 2. Ed. by Margaret Archer/Edmond Malinvaud. Vatican City 1998.

    04 The Right to Work: Towards Full Employment. Proceedings Third Plenary Session of the Pon-tifical Academy of Social Sciences 23-26 April 1997. Pontificiae Academiae Scientiarum Sociali-um Acta 3. Ed. by Margaret Archer/Edmond Malinvaud. Vatican City 1998.

    05 Towards Reducing Unemployment. Proceedings Fifth Plenary Session of the Pontifical Aca-demy of Social Sciences 3-6 March 1999. Pontificiae Academiae Scientiarum SocialiumActa 5. Ed. by Margaret S. Archer. Vatican City 1999.

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    tiefen und verschrfen, oder Strukturen, welche die Wirkungen derUngleichheit mindern, sie neutralisieren; Strukturen, in denen Ungleich-heit oder auch Gleichheit schdlich wird, und Strukturen, die nichtnur Gleichheit, sondern auch Ungleichheit, indem sie ihr angemessenRechnung tragen, in allgemeines Wohl zu verwandeln vermgen. Dassind private Strukturen, wie vor allem die Ehe und die Familie. Dassind gesellschaftliche Strukturen, wie der Betrieb und das Unterneh-men, die Organisation der Arbeit in Gewerkschaften, die Organisationen

    der Unternehmer, der Arbeitgeber, der rzte usw., die Organisationender Verbraucher und von der grten sozialen Bedeutung dieOrganisationen karitativer Werke. Schlielich aber sind das auch Struk-turen des Gemeinwesens: des Staates, der Gemeinden, Einrichtungender ffentlichen Verwaltung, der Gerichtsbarkeit usw., mehr und mehrauch Strukturen der internationalen und der supranationalen Zusam-menarbeit der Staaten. Auch diese Strukturen muten als Gegenstandder kirchlichen Soziallehre erkannt werden. Fr die Werte, deren Ver-

    wirklichung die katholische Soziallehre dient, sind sie von der grtenBedeutung. Die ppstlichen Verlautbarungen, die Dokumente des

    Zweiten Vatikanischen Konzils, die Verkndigung der Bischfe, Arbei-ten entsprechender Verbnde und Institutionen und vor allem die Wis-senschaft von der Soziallehre der Kirche haben sich deshalb der Struk-turen des sozialen Lebens vielfltig angenommen freilich mit sehrungleicher Dichte und sehr ungleichem Nachdruck. Dabei ragt nebenden Strukturen der Arbeit die Familie heraus.

    Offensichtlich verdient in diesem Rahmen auch das Gemeinwe-sen, insbesondere der Staat, grtes Interesse. Demgegenber flltauf, da gegenstndliche Ganzheit und innere Geschlossenheit derkirchlichen Lehre diesem Interesse nicht entsprechen. Die kirchliche

    Lehre vom Gemeinwesen betrachtet und bewertet vielmehr geradeden Staat von sehr verschiedenen Standpunkten her. Das hat seineGrnde. Die extrem unterschiedlichen Erfahrungen, welche die kirch-lichen Autoritten und die Inhaber des Lehramtes, aber auch dieGlubigen in ihrer religisen, ihrer nationalen, ihrer ethnischen oderihrer sozialen Betroffenheit mit dem Staat gemacht haben, schlagen

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    sich darin nieder. Das kann auch so erklrt werden: Seit dem ber-gang vom Mittelalter auf die Neuzeit hatte sich der politische Blickder Kirche immer mehr auf die katholischen Lnder Sd-, West-und Mitteleuropas konzentriert. Gerade in ihnen stagnierte die poli-tische Entwicklung jedoch ber lange Zeit hin im Zeichen der abso-luten Monarchie und des Fundamentalismus. Im 19. Jahrhundert wichdiese Stagnation jedoch einem vielfltigen teils revolutionren, teilsevolutionren Wandel und die Gemeinsamkeit des katholischen

    Europa einer dynamischen Wechselwirkung mit den Strmungen undUmbrchen in anderen europischen, im 20. Jahrhundert auch au-ereuropischen Lndern. Diese spteren Entwicklungen aus derErfahrung und der Doktrin ganz andersgearteter Jahrhunderte her-aus durchdringend zu erfassen, umfassend zu verstehen und gltig zubewerten, mag eine uerste, kaum zu berwindende Schwierigkeitbedeutet haben. Erst von der Mitte des 20. Jahrhunderts an gewannder prfende Blick neuen Halt. Trotz aller auch jetzt immer wiedergrundlegenden Vernderungen fiel es nunmehr leichter, das Allge-meine und das Besondere zu erkennen und die Kontinuitt von derKonstellation des Einzelfalles zu unterscheiden. In dieser Zeit vertief-te und festigte sich die Soziallehre der Kirche in bezug auf die Men-schenrechte, die Demokratie, die internationale Gemeinschaft und viele

    weitere Fragen, die das Gemeinwesen betreffen.In der Zeit, in der die Ppstliche Akademie fr Sozialwissenschaf-

    ten entstand (1994), trat diese Entwicklung abermals in ein neues Sta-dium. Die Wende der Jahre 1989/90 lie in den meisten sozialisti-schen Lndern die kommunistische Herrschaft und ihr totalitres,(kollektiv-)diktatorisches System zusammenbrechen. Das westliche

    Modell des demokratischen Verfassungsstaates gewann neue Spielru-me der Verwirklichung. Zugleich fiel mit der Spaltung zwischen derErsten und der Zweiten, aber auch der Zweiten und der Dritten Weltdas letzte groe Hindernis fr eine Entwicklung, die sich in den Jahr-zehnten vorher mit wachsender Intensitt vorbereitet hatte: die Globa-lisierung.

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    II. Die Arbeiten der Akademie zur Demokratie

    1. Die Wahl des Themas

    In dieser Situation entschied sich die Akademie dafr, auch denstrukturellen Fragen des sozialen Lebens ihre besondere Aufmerksam-keit zu widmen und unter ihnen die Demokratie herauszugreifen. DieDringlichkeit der Fragen war offensichtlich.

    Die Demokratie hat im Laufe des Jahrhunderts eine Allgemein-

    heit der Anerkennung und der Verwirklichung erreicht wie nie vor-her in der Geschichte. Dabei waren und sind Schein und Wirklich-keit der Demokratie mannigfachen Variationen ausgesetzt. Somit

    wird schon das Wesentliche der Demokratie zu einer Frage. Jeden-falls ist Demokratie als Ausdruck der Menschenwrde zu verstehen:als Ausdruck der Subjektstellung des Brgers, seiner Autonomie,seines Anspruchs und seiner Fhigkeit, ber sich selbst zu herrschen.Die Wirklichkeit der Herrschaft aller ber alle offenbart jedocheinen elementaren Selbstwiderspruch: Die Herrschaft aller ber sichselbst realisiert sich als Herrschaft jeweils anderer ber jeweils an-

    dere. Demokratie ist somit Erfllung der Menschenwrde und Ge-fhrdung der Menschenwrde. Wie kann jenes gesichert und diesesvermieden werden?

    Demokratie verwirklicht Werte so, wie sie kraft der Herrschaft derMenschen ber die Menschen zur Geltung gebracht werden. Demo-kratie ist wertrelativ. Werte aber verlangen Geltung: zumindest die Frei-heit subjektiver Verwirklichung; vielleicht Allgemeinheit, weil partiku-lare Verwirklichung nach dem Sinn oder wegen der Sache nicht mg-lich ist; sie verlangen Allgemeinheit jedenfalls dann, wenn sie ihremWesen nach absolut sind oder die, welche sie tragen, sie als absolut

    verstehen. Die Demokratie jedoch kann Werten ebenso maximal Raumgeben wie sie sie maximal verletzen und verdrngen kann. Das ist einesder zentralen Probleme der katholischen Kirche mit der Demokratie.Die Lehre der katholischen Kirche basiert auf absoluten Werten. Auchheute noch ist die Demokratie fr die Kirche nicht nur Hoffnung, son-dern auch Sorge. Das offene, unbestimmte Verhltnis der Demokratie

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    zu den Werten ist ein zentrales Problem aber auch fr alle anderenTrger von Wertvorstellungen. Demokratie ist eine Chance fr Werte.Aber eben auch nur eine Chance. Woher nimmt die demokratischeGesellschaft die Werte, die sie in die Demokratie einbringt, mit ihrerHilfe verwirklicht und schtzt? Wo verluft der Knigsweg der Ver-

    wirklichung der eingebrachten Werte? Und wie kann eine Demokratiezwischen richtigen und falschen, guten und schlechten Wer-ten unterscheiden?

    Demokratie ist ein konstitutionelles institutionelles und normati-ves System. Aber die Demokratie kann sich nicht nur als solchesSystem verwirklichen. Sie bedarf der entsprechenden gesellschaftlichenVoraussetzungen, insbesondere einer civil society. Eine civil socie-ty, die eine Demokratie zu tragen vermag, ist im allgemeinen das Pro-dukt historischer Erfahrung mit der Demokratie. Wie kann diese histo-rische Erfahrung ersetzt werden, wo sie fehlt, wo ihr die ntige Kraftfehlt, wo sie durch Enttuschungen irritiert ist?

    Dieses Verhltnis der Demokratie im institutionell-normativen Sinnzur civil society verlangt auf der einen Seite nach allgemeinen Un-

    tersuchungen und Klrungen. Auf der anderen Seite konkretisiert essich in spezifischen Zusammenhngen von wesentlicher Eigengesetz-lichkeit, wie in der Erziehung, den Medien und der ffentlichenMeinung, in der Religion und in den Religionsgemeinschaften, in derWirtschaft, in der abhngigen Arbeit und der Organisation ihrer In-teressen, im Wohlfahrtsstaat (die sozialen Dienste und die Systemesozialer Leistungen) usw. Wie sich das Verhltnis von Demokratieund civil society an diesen Orten der wechselseitigen Begegnungund Durchdringung gestaltet, ist fr den Gesamtzusammenhang vongroer Bedeutung. Ebenso freilich ist die allgemeine Beschaffenheit

    der Demokratie und der Gesellschaft von groer Bedeutung fr jedesdieser Felder der Konkretisierung.Die Demokratie ist in der Gestalt, in der sie sich im 19. und 20.

    Jahrhundert entwickelt hat, mit dem Nationalstaat verbunden. Sie ge-rt deshalb in Schwierigkeiten, wenn das Staatsvolk nicht die fr einenNationalstaat typische Geschlossenheit aufweist.

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    Noch mehr aber hat sich fr die Demokratie eine neue Situationdadurch ergeben, da eine Weltgesellschaft entstanden ist oder je-denfalls weltweit wirksame Krfte sich verhalten, als ob eine Weltge-sellschaft entstanden wre. Globalisierung meint in erster Linie dieIntegration dieser transnationalen Ganzheit. Das weltgesellschaftlicheGeschehen bedarf des weltstaatlichen Gegenstckes im Sinne ber-greifender Politik und bergreifender Rechtsnormen. Die bestehendeninternationalen Institutionen und normativen Ordnungen entsprechen

    dieser Notwendigkeit aber nur fragmentarisch. Das Miverhltnis zwi-schen den notwendigen und den gegebenen Institutionen und Ord-nungen uert sich teils in Defiziten, teils in Substitution und Usurpa-tion. Die nicht versorgten Funktionen werden durch inkompetenteAkteure und zumeist auch von einem fremden Interesse her wahrge-nommen. Bedeutet in der Regel schon die bernahme der weltstaat-lichen Aufgaben durch legitime internationale Institutionen ein Weni-ger an Demokratie, so gilt das erst recht, wenn die Lcken durch ille-gitime Ersatzlsungen geschlossen werden. Lassen sich demokratien-here Lsungen finden?

    Alle diese Probleme stellen sich unterschiedlich dar: Je nach den Unterschieden des Staats-, Gesellschafts- und Menschen-

    bildes einer Gesellschaft. Die Demokratie im heute gngigen Sinnist eine Hervorbringung des Abendlandes. Wie verhlt sie sich zuden Traditionen und den gegenwrtigen Verhltnissen Afrikas, Asiensund Lateinamerikas? Wie verndern diese die Institutionen und diePraxis der Demokratie?

    Je nach dem historischen Verlauf der demokratischen Entwicklungund Erfahrung. Den Alt-Demokratien Europas und Nordameri-

    kas, deren Situation nicht zuletzt durch die Selbstverstndlichkeitder Demokratie und die damit einhergehenden Gebruche undMibruche gekennzeichnet ist, stehen die postkolonialen, postau-toritren und postsozialistischen Demokratien gegenber, die in denletzten Jahrzehnten entstanden sind. Sie haben je ihre eigene Ge-schichte und Gegenwart.

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    DEMOCRACY REALITY AND RESPONSIBILITY 11

    2. Arbeitsschritte und Schwerpunkte der Akademie

    Die Akademie hat ihre Arbeiten zum Thema Demokratie in dreiSchritte gegliedert.

    Den ersten Schritt vollzog sie in einem workshop (12. 13. Dezem-ber 1996).6 Ein erster Zweck dieses workshop bestand darin, sich derLehre der Ppste zum Thema Demokratie zu vergewissern.7 Ein kom-plementrer zweiter Zweck des Kolloquiums war es, einen breiten undintensiven Einblick in die Probleme der Demokratie und deren Dis-

    kussion zu gewinnen. Dieser Zweck wurde zunchst von einem regio-nalen Ansatz her verfolgt. Damit sollte gewhrleistet werden, da dieArbeiten der Akademie von der Vielfalt der Bedingungen ausgehen,unter denen die Demokratie in den verschiedenen Weltteilen sich ent-

    wickelt und auswirkt. Der workshop verwirklichte diesen regionalenAnsatz durch eine Reihe von Regional Reports:8 ber Westeuropa(Ren Rmond), ber die postkommunistischen Lnder (Hanna Suchok-ka), ber Lateinamerika (Carlos A. Floria), ber Asien (Wilfrido V.Villacorta) und ber Afrika (Nicholas J. McNally/Paulus M. Zulu). DieDiskussion dieser regionalen Berichte vertiefte jedoch nicht nur die

    partikulare Sicht der Dinge. Sie trug vielmehr auch dazu bei, einensystematischen berblick ber die Problematik der Demokratie zugewinnen.9

    Der workshop ergab nicht nur einen reichen Einblick in die regio-nalen Verhltnisse. Auch der Ertrag an allgemeinen Aspekten war gro.Die Akademie mute sich fr den Fortgang der Arbeiten deshalb aufSchwerpunkte einigen. In ihrer IV. Plenarsitzung (22. 25. April 1998)errterte sie unter dem Titel Democracy Some Acute Questions10

    06 Proceedings of the Workshop on: Democracy (12-13 December 1996). Pontificiae AcademiaeScientiarum Socialium Miscellanea 1. Ed. by Hans F. Zacher. Vatican City 1998.

    07 S. den Preliminary Report von Michel Schooyans: Democracy in the Teaching of the Popes.Loc. cit. pp. 11 - 40.

    08 Loc. cit. pp. 41 - 118.09 Hans F. Zacher: Democracy: Common Questions. Loc. cit. pp. 119 - 140.10 Democracy Some Acute Questions. Proceedings of the Fourth Plenary Session of the

    Pontifical Academy of Social Sciences 22-25 April 1998. Pontificiae Academiae ScientiarumSocialium Acta 4. Ed. by Hans F. Zacher. Vatican City 1999.

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    drei Fragenkreise, die ihr besonders dringlich erschienen. Der ersteFragenkreis betraf das Verhltnis zwischen Demokratie und Werten:Value of democracy democracy and values.11 Im einzelnen geschahdies von den folgenden Zugngen her: Democracy: an end or ameans?(John J. DiIulio),12 Values as a Precondition of Democracy(Taketoshi Nojiri),13 Democracy Versus Values? (Franz-Xaver Kauf-mann)14 und Demokratie, Rechts- und Verfassungsstaat (Herbert Scham-beck).15 Durch die Berichte und ihre Diskussion kam der Wert der

    Demokratie eindringlich zur Geltung. Auch die Chance, welche dieDemokratie der Vermittlung und Verwirklichung von Werten auchund gerade der Werte, fr die der christliche Glaube und die Sozialleh-re der Kirche stehen, bietet, trat deutlich hervor. Nicht minder frei-lich wurden die Gefahren, die Werten im Getriebe der Demokratiedrohen, sichtbar. Die verfassungsstaatliche Demokratie erwies sich alseine wichtige Entwicklung, um Werten Anerkennung und Mageb-lichkeit zu verschaffen. Auf Dauer jedoch kann keine Gestalt der De-mokratie irgendwelchen Werten auf Dauer mehr Geltung verschaffenals die gesellschaftlichen Krfte, welche die Demokratie tragen und

    ausfllen, rechtfertigen. Die optimale Weise der Auseinandersetzungum richtige und falsche, gute oder schlechte Werte, muteeine offene Frage bleiben. Der zweite Fragenkomplex, dem sich dieseTagung der Akademie widmete, betraf das Verhltnis zwischen Staatund Gesellschaft: Civil society as the essence of democratic socie-ty.16 Die einzelnen Themen: Il Concetto die Stato Democratico e laSociet Civile (Pier Luigi Zampetti),17 What is Civil Society and

    11 Loc. cit. pp. 69 - 177.12 Im ursprnglichen Programm war folgender Titel vorgesehen: Value and justification of

    democracy. Der Berichterstatter zu diesem Thema stellte sein Papier dann aber unter denTitel Democracy: an end or a means?. Fr den Druck legte er eine redigierte Fassung vor,die den Titel Three Questions about Contemporary Democracy and the Catholic Churchtrgt. Loc. cit. pp. 71 - 82.

    13 Loc. cit. pp. 89 - 106.14 Loc. cit. pp. 115 - 137.15 Loc. cit. pp. 145 - 172.16 Loc. cit. pp. 179 - 288.17 Loc. cit. pp. 181 - 196.

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    DEMOCRACY REALITY AND RESPONSIBILITY 13

    how does it Develop? (Jean Bethke Elshtain),18 Democracy as CivilSociety: the Mediating Structures (Klaus von Beyme)19 und Cultureet Democratie (Joachim Bony).20 Diese Berichte und ihre Diskussionerschlossen das Verhltnis zwischen Demokratie und Zivilgesellschaftauf wesentliche Weise. Ebenso aber trat eine groe Vielfalt von Bez-gen hervor, denen eine vertiefte Errterung versagt bleiben mute. DasVerhltnis zwischen demokratischem Staat und Zivilgesellschaft hat imLaufe der Jahrzehnte, und insbesondere in den neunziger Jahren des

    20. Jahrhunderts, immer neue und immer vielfltigere Gestalt ange-nommen. Das Kaleidoskop der Phnomene bedarf noch intensiverForschungsarbeit. Der dritte Fragenkreis, den die IV. Plenarsitzung derAkademie zum Gegenstand hatte, betraf Supranationalitiy, internatio-nality and democracy.21 Die einzelnen Themen griffen sehr verschie-dene Dimensionen auf: European Integration and Democracy: SomeSceptical Reflections (Stefano Bartolini),22 International and Govern-mental Structures and their Relation to Democracy: Common Reporton Africa, America and Asia (Thomas A. Mensah),23 La Mondialisa-tion en Qute de Gouvernance Democratique: Contradictions Natio-

    nales, Contraintes Internationales (Louis Sabourin)24

    und Interventi-ons Internationales, Souverainet des Etats et Democratie (Thierry deMontbrial).25 Diese Berichte und die Debatten, die sich an sie anschlos-sen, zeigten mit grtem Nachdruck die Bedeutung des Konflikts zwi-schen der nationalen Demokratie und den Notwendigkeiten einer in-ternationalen Politik und einer internationalen Rechtsordnung. Nicht

    weniger deutlich wurde, da dieses neue, doppelte Spannungsverhlt-nis erstens: zwischen dem Nationalstaat, dem transnationalen Ge-schehen und den internationalen Institutionen und Normen; zweitens:

    18 Loc. cit. pp. 207 - 219.19 Loc. cit. pp. 229 - 247.20 Loc. cit. pp. 257 - 281.21 Loc. cit. pp. 289 - 429.22 Loc. cit. pp. 291 - 320.23 Loc. cit. pp. 327 - 363.24 Loc. cit. pp. 371 - 398.25 Loc. cit. pp. 423 - 429.

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    zwischen dem demokratischen Gemeinwesen und der Macht nichtdemokratisch legitimierter und kontrollierter transnationaler und inter-nationaler Institutionen und Krfte dringlich der Erforschung be-darf. So wie die Sozial- und Rechtswissenschaften steht hier auch dieSoziallehre der Kirche vor einer neuen Herausforderung.

    Alle diese Errterungen standen von vornherein unter dem An-spruch, der Soziallehre der Kirche zu dienen: die Soziallehre der Kir-che in die Erforschung und Diskussion der Probleme einzubringen;

    zugleich aber zu fragen, ob die neueren Entwicklungen ebenso wieihre wissenschaftliche Durchleuchtung eine Fortschreibung, eine Er-gnzung oder auch eine Korrektur der kirchlichen Soziallehre ntigmachen. Eine wesentliche Grundlage blieb auch hier der Bericht berDemocracy in the Teaching of the Popes, den Michel Schooyans im

    workshop ber Demokratie vorgelegt hatte.26 Michel Schooyans hat-te die Absicht, die Erinnerung an diesen Bericht mit neuen Akzentenzu verbinden: Droits de lHomme et Dmocratie la lumire delEnseignement social de lglise.27 Da Professor Schooyans schlie-lich verhindert war, an der Sitzung teilzunehmen, bat die Akademie

    Roland Minnerath, die Diskussion zu den beiden Texten von MichelSchooyans durch eigene Anmerkungen ber das Verhltnis der Sozial-lehre der Kirche zur Demokratie einzuleiten.28 Sowohl die einzelnenBerichte als auch die Diskussionen stellten denn auch immer wiederdie Beziehung zwischen der Soziallehre der Kirche und den diskutier-ten Problemen und Problemlsungen her.

    Die Generaldebatte, mit der die IV. Plenarsitzung der PpstlichenAkademie fr Sozialwissenschaften schlo,29 kam zu dem Ergebnis, dadie Diskussion ber die Demokratie einer weiteren Fortfhrung undVertiefung bedarf. Dem Rechnung zu tragen, ist die Absicht dieser VI.

    Plenarsitzung der Ppstlichen Akademie fr Sozialwissenschaften (23.

    26 S. oben Anm. 6.27 Democracy Some Acute Questions, pp. 47-56.28 Loc. cit. pp. 57 - 64.29 Loc. cit. pp. 433 - 450.

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    DEMOCRACY REALITY AND RESPONSIBILITY 15

    26. Februar 2000) mit dem Thema Democracy Reality and Re-sponsibility. Den Eindrcken folgend, welche die IV. Plenarsitzungder Akademie hinterlassen hatte, stehen vier Komplexe im Vordergrund.Der erste Democracy in a global world (Partha Dasgupta) bedarfnach der gesamten Geschichte, welche die Errterung der Demokratiedurch die Akademie genommen hat, keiner Erluterung. Das zweiteThema Democracy: strategies for values how to advocate, foster anddefend values in a pluralistiv society by democratic means (Michel

    Schooyans/Paul Kirchhof) knpft an die Errterungen der IV. Plenar-sitzung an, welche das Verhltnis der Demokratie zu den Werten be-trafen. Den eher betrachtenden und kritischen berlegungen der IV.Plenarsitzung sollten Perspektiven optimalen Handelns hinzugefgt

    werden. Der dritte Fragenkreis dient der Vertiefung der Kenntnissevom Wesen und der Wirklichkeit der Demokratie: The ideal of demo-cracy and democratic reality the ever changing interplay between de-mocratic structures and civil society (Mary Ann Glendon/Gran Ther-born). Der gemeinsame Nenner des vierten Fragenkreises ist vergleichs-

    weise lose: Democracy and individual fields of encounter of state and

    society. Aus der Vielfalt der denkbaren Mglichkeiten wurden die Pro-blemfelder der Erziehung (Paulus Mzomuhle Zulu), der ffentlichenMeinung und der Medien (Janusz Ziolkowski), der Wirtschaft (HansTietmeyer), der abhngigen Arbeit (Colin Crouch), des Wohlfahrtsstaats(Manfred G. Schmidt), der ethnischen Strukturen und Minderheiten(Herbert Schambeck) und schlielich der Religion und der Religionsge-meinschaften (Pierpaolo Donati/Habib Malik) ausgewhlt.

    Die Soziallehre der Kirche steht noch einmal am Ende des Pro-gramms: Democratic development and the social teaching of theChurch focuses of responsibility (Roland Minnerath). Whrend so-

    wohl der workshop als auch die IV. Plenarsitzung die Soziallehre derKirche an den Anfang der Arbeiten stellten, um den Auftrag, den dieSoziallehre der Kirche fr die Akademie darstellt, deutlich vor Augenzu fhren, soll in dieser VI. Plenarsitzung der Akademie der Versuchunternommen werden, die Erkenntnisse, die sich aus den Berichtenund ihrer Diskussion ergaben, mit der Soziallehre der Kirche zusam-

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    menzufhren. Gibt es Ergebnisse, die zur Fortentwicklung der Sozial-lehre der Kirche beitragen knnen? Sind es nur Fragen? Oder gibt esauch Antworten zumindest die Aussicht auf Antworten? Wie derAuftrag der Satzung der Akademie zu erfllen ist, bedarf noch weitererErfahrung und Errterung. Was sind wie die Satzung sagt ele-ments which the Church can use in the development of her socialdoctrine? Ein Teil der Mitglieder der Akademie meint, die Akademiemsse zu konkreten, definitiven Vorschlgen kommen. Ein anderer Teil

    der Mitglieder der Akademie meint demgegenber, die Ergebnisse derAkademie knnten in der Regel nur in der Klrung von grundstzli-chen Fragen, von Vorfragen einer konkreten Entscheidung, in Annhe-rungen an normative Aussagen und praktische Handlungsanleitungenbestehen. Sozialwissenschaftliche Errterung knne nur in Ausnahme-fllen zu eindeutigen normativen Stzen oder Handlungsanweisungengelangen. Sollte dann aber nicht versucht werden, die Annherung anabschlieende Aussagen so weit als mglich zu treiben, die Bedingun-gen zu nennen, unter denen das eine oder das andere Ergebnis unaus-

    weichlich wird? Der Auftrag, wie ihn die Satzung formuliert, kann je-

    denfalls nicht nur dadurch erfllt werden, da die Akademie zum de-finitiven normativen Gehalt der katholischen Soziallehre Stellung nimmt.Nicht weniger wichtig kann es sein, da die Akademie die Richtigkeitder Voraussetzungen errtert, besttigt oder in Frage stellt, von denendie katholische Soziallehre ausgeht, oder da sie das Ensemble derArgumente, auf dem die normativen Aussagen der katholischen Sozial-lehre beruhen, berprft sei das Ergebnis nun Bekrftigung, Zweifeloder Kritik.

    3. Demokratie und Soziallehre der Kirche versus Demokratie undKirche

    In dem Mae, in dem die Akademie die Ergebnisse ihrer Beratun-gen ber die Demokratie an die katholische Soziallehre herantrgt, wirdsich auch die Frage stellen, was mit der Soziallehre der Kirche gemeintist. Zunchst geht es gewi um die Doktrin, die dem einzelnen und

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    seinen Gruppen sagt, wie er sich in der Demokratie und gegenber derDemokratie verhalten soll, was er gegenber nicht-demokratischenVerhltnissen tun soll usw.

    Aber auch die Kirche selbst ist ein Element im Leben einer Demo-kratie ebenso wie im Leben eines nicht-demokratischen Gemeinwesens:die Kirche in Gestalt ihrer Amtstrger, die Kirche in Gestalt ihrer Insti-tutionen und derer, die den kirchlichen Institutionen Leben geben, dieKirche als Rechts und Interessentrger in Gesellschaft und Gemeinwe-

    sen als Eigentmer, als Arbeitgeber usw. Im Verlauf der Geschichte hatdie Kirche durch politisches Handeln und Verhalten immer wieder Ver-antwortung fr das Gemeinwesen, fr die Gesellschaft und fr einzelneMenschen bernommen. Gibt die Soziallehre der Kirche Ratschlge oderAnweisungen auch fr die Kirche selbst? Die Beratungen der Akademiehaben diesen Fragenkreis bisher kaum berhrt. Da dem Verhalten derKirche fr die Demokratie groe Bedeutung zukommen kann, steht gleich-

    wohl auer Frage. Die Akademie hat diese Unterscheidung zwischeneiner Lehre der Kirche, die sich an die Glubigen oder auch an alleMenschen guten Willens30 richtet, und einer Lehre der Kirche, die den

    Amtstrgern der Kirche selbst Mastab und Richtschnur sein will, bishernicht vertieft. Angesichts der Bedeutung, welche die Kirche als Instituti-on fr die nationalen Gesellschaften und ihre Gemeinwesen haben kann,ist das nicht unproblematisch.

    Die Demokratie ist eine Herausforderung auch an das innere Le-ben der Kirche. Es war selbstverstndlich fr die Akademie, dieseHerausforderung auer Betracht zu lassen. Die Lehre der Kirche kenntkeine Analogie zwischen der Demokratie der Welt und den Ord-nungsstrukturen der Kirche. Die Kirche tritt damit in ein immer gre-res Spannungsverhltnis zwischen der allgemeinen und grundstzlichen

    Demokratisierung des staatlichen Lebens und dem Verhltnis der Glu-bigen zu den geweihten Hirten in Stellvertretung Christi als Lehrerund Leiter in der Kirche.31 Dieser Gegensatz mag sich dem Verstnd-

    30 So die Einleitungsworte zu Pacem in terris oder Populorum Progressio.31 II. Vatikanisches Konzil, Dogmatische Konstitution ber die Kirche Lumen gentium Nr. 37.

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    nis der Glubigen immer mehr entziehen. Daraus mgen sich Gefah-ren ergeben sowohl fr die richtige Ordnung in der Kirche als auch frdie Verbreitung, die Annahme und das Erleben der Frohen Botschaft.Doch ist offensichtlich, da diese Thematik keine allein sozialwissen-schaftliche ist. Was die Sozialwissenschaften hierzu beitragen knnten,mte auf das sorgfltigste darauf abgestimmt werden, was das Lehr-amt der Kirche und die Theologie zu sagen haben. Vom Auftrag undder Kompetenz der Akademie her ist die Frage, auf welche Weise die

    Kirche ihren eigenen Einsichten in Sinn und Wert der Demokratie so-wie der demokratischen Welterfahrung ihrer Mitglieder durch ihreVerfahren und Strukturen gerecht werden kann, von der Thematik derDemokratie wesentlich zu unterscheiden.

    III. Dank

    Wenn uns diese Tage nicht groe berraschungen bescheren, istdas bis auf weiteres die letzte Plenarsitzung, in der sich die Akademiefrontal mit dem Thema der Demokratie befat. Der Rat der Akade-

    mie hat mich von Anfang an damit beauftragt, diese Arbeiten zu mo-derieren. Lassen Sie mich kraft dieses Auftrages auch allen danken, diezur Definition seiner Programme und zu seiner Durchfhrung beige-tragen haben. Das sind zunchst die Mitglieder des ad-hoc-committeeon democracy: unser Prsident, Professor Edmond Malinvaud, Profes-sor Mary Ann Glendon, Bischof Diarmuid Martin, Richter Nicholas

    John McNally, Professor Hanna Suchocka, Professor Herbert Scham-beck und unser Kanzler Kanzler war zunchst Msgr. Renato Dardoz-zi, spter Professor Joseph Pittau und seit 1999 Msgr. Marcelo SnchezSorondo. Lassen Sie mich hervorheben, da auch der Rat der Akade-

    mie wesentlichen Anteil an den Vorarbeiten genommen hat. Die Be-reitschaft des Rates, Mitverantwortung fr die Auswahl der Themenund der Sprecher zu bernehmen, war eine groe Hilfe. Lassen Siemich sodann allen Berichterstattern danken. Ganz besonders gilt die-ser Dank unserem Kollegen Michel Schooyans, der mit seiner Darstel-lung der Lehre der Ppste zur Demokratie, die er schon fr den work-

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    DEMOCRACY REALITY AND RESPONSIBILITY 19

    shop von 1996 ausgearbeitet hat, allen unseren Arbeiten eine wesentli-che Grundlage gegeben hat. Mit seinen ergnzenden Bemerkungen frdie erste Plenarsitzung zum Thema Demokratie im Jahre 1998 hat Pro-fessor Schooyans wichtige neue Impulse gegeben. Neben ihm ist Pro-fessor Roland Minnerath zu nennen. In der Sitzung des Jahres 1998leitete er nicht nur die Aussprache zur Lehre der Kirche. Vielmehrstellte er dieser Aussprache grundlegende Ausfhrungen voran. Undam Ende dieser Sitzung will er versuchen, die Ertrge unserer Diskus-

    sionen im Lichte der Soziallehre der Kirche zu konkretisieren. Wie schonbetont, ist der Dienst der Sozialwissenschaften an der Soziallehre derKirche die raison dtre der Akademie. Darum ist die Erfllung vonAufgaben, wie sie Msgr. Schooyans und Msgr. Minnerath bernom-men haben, von herausragender Bedeutung. Besonderen Dank schul-den wir besonders auch den Berichterstattern, die an unseren Beratun-gen teilnehmen, ohne Mitglieder der Akademie zu sein. Ich darf dieExperten begren, die es bernommen haben, diese Tagung durchihre Berichte und durch die Teilnahme an unseren Diskussionen zubereichern: Professor Crouch, Professor Kirchhof, Professor Malik,

    Professor Schmidt und Professor Therborn. Die Akademie ist Ihnenfr Ihre Beitrge sehr verpflichtet. Sehr herzlich mchte ich schlielichHerrn Professor Floria und Herrn Professor Villacorta begren. Siehaben durch ihre Berichte schon zum workshop beigetragen. Desglei-chen haben sie ihre spezifischen Erfahrungen auch in die Plenarsitzungvon 1998 eingebracht. Der Rat der Akademie wollte sie deshalb auchdieses Mal bei uns wissen.

    Lassen Sie uns an die Arbeit gehen.

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    DEMOCRACY AND OTHER GOODS

    PARTHA DASGUPTA

    SUMMARY

    In this essay I report recent findings that offer three new defences of democracy,in particular, democracy by majority voting.

    1. The Democratic Proces

    In his masterly affirmation of the democratic ideal, Dahl (1989)observes that effective participation by citizens and voting equalityamong citizens have often been taken to be the two features thatembody the idea of the democratic process. But he argues that anyassociation which governs itself by them alone should be regarded as

    conforming to the ideal in a narrow sense only (pp. 108-11). Dahl thenshows that there is a third requirement enlightened understanding

    which, when added to the two, defines a full procedural democracywith respect to its agenda and in relation to its demos (people). And hewrites (pp. 111-2):

    ... democracy has usually been conceived as a system in whichrule by the people makes it more likely that the people will get whatit wants, or what it believes is best, than alternative systems like guard-ianship in which an elite determines what is best. But to know what it

    wants, or what is best, the people must be enlightened, at least to some

    degree... (Thus) each citizen ought to have adequate and equal oppor-tunities for discovering and validating ... the choice on the matter to bedecided that would best serve the citizens interests.

    Dahl then shows that even this is not enough. He adds a fourthrequirement (pp. 112-4), that citizens must have the exclusive opportu-nity to decide how matters are to be placed on the agenda of those

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    matters that are to be decided by means of the democratic process.Moreover, final control of the agenda by citizens, Dahl argues, presup-poses that citizens are qualified to decide (i) which matters do or donot require binding decisions; (ii) of those that do, which matters theyare qualified to decide for themselves as a collective; and (iii) the termson which they delegate authority.

    Taken together, the four criteria define representative democracy, withclearly established limits on the agenda over which collective decisions

    are to be made. This means that the possible centrality in the politicallexicon of individual rights (such as non-interference by others on mat-ters in the private domain) is consonant with the democratic ideal.

    Dahl then proves that even this would not suffice. He adds a fifthrequirement, concerning inclusion (pp. 119-31), that the demos mustinclude all adult members of the association except transients and per-sons proved to be mentally defective. And he concludes that, if de-mocracy is the ideal, the five criteria, taken together, are the standardby which political processes ought to be judged.

    In this Note I assume that the five requirements of an ideal demo-

    cratic process are uncontroversial. I build on Dahls ideas by presentingseveral findings that have emerged, since his book was published, onboth the theory and practice of democracy. I present them here in thebelief that they add to our understanding of the strengths and limita-tions of the democratic ideal.

    The findings I report here are three in number. Thefirst(Section 2)concerns the logical structure of the democratic process. I argue thatthere is a good reason for adopting the simple majority rule for aggre-gating individual values when it comes to voting for candidates in apolitical election. The second(Section 3) relates democracy to incom-

    plete and asymmetric information. Dahls argument (enlightened un-derstanding), that people should be enabled to obtain information ifdemocracy is to flourish, has a converse: the very fact that people haveprivate information of worth is itself an argument for democratic deci-sion-making. In short, democracy has an instrumental value: it enablespeople to make use of private information. The third finding I report

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    (Section 4) also concerns a possible instrumental virtue of democracy. Idiscuss recent experiences in poor countries to show that democracy andcivil liberties have been associated with growth in economic well-being.

    The three findings are discussed in the following three sections,sequentially.

    2. Robustness of Simple Majority Rule

    Since Arrows famous work (Arrow, 1951) we have become familiarwith the fact that democratic voting rules can be intransitive. The clas-sic illustration of this is Condorcets paradox of the simple majorityrule. Nevertheless, in the political science literature (e.g. Dahl, 1989)the simple majority rule would appear to be the touchstone of the dem-ocratic process. For although Dahls five requirements do not specifythe voting rule that best reflects the democratic ideal, he suggests thatthe rule that has historically been regarded as appropriate to the dem-ocratic process is the majority rule; and he observes (Dahl, 1989: 135):

    ... virtually everyone assumes that democracy requires majority rule

    in the weak sense that support by a majority ought to be necessary topassing a law. But ordinarily supporters of majority rule mean it in amuch stronger sense. In this stronger sense, majority rule means thatmajority support ought to be not only necessary but also sufficientforenacting laws. (Emphasis in the original.)

    Among democratic voting rules, the simple majority rule (we willcall this the majority rule) has a particularly strong intuitive appeal. InDasgupta and Maskin (2000) a new defence of majority rule is offered.It is shown that, among all voting rules satisfying a set of intuitivelyappealing conditions that have been much studied in the literature,

    majority rule is immune to cycles (i.e. the rule is transitive) on the larg-est domain of configurations of individual preferences, and is the uniquesuch rule. To put it briefly, majority rule is robust.

    To illustrate, consider first the Condorcet-cycle. Consider three vot-ers, who rank three alternatives (labelled x, y, z) as, respectively, x overy over z, y over z over x, and z over x over y. Simple majority rule

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    is intransitive under this configuration of preferences. To confirm this,note that, since two of the voters prefer x to y, simple majority rulerequires that x be ranked over y; likewise, since two of the voters prefery to z, the rule requires that y be ranked over z. By transitivity, x shouldbe ranked over z. But since two of the voters prefer z to x, the rulerequires that z be ranked over x, which is a contradiction!

    Why is majority rule, nevertheless, intuitively appealing? It is be-cause the rule, especially when applied to choices over political candi-

    dates, possesses several compelling properties. First, it satisfies the Paretoprinciple: if all voters prefer alternative x to alternative y, the rule ranksx over y. Secondly, it is anonymous: the rule treats all voters symmetri-cally inthe sense that the ranking is independent of voters labels. An-onymity, therefore, captures the second of Dahls five criteria: votingequality among citizens. And t