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Revised draft technical paper on approaches to reviewing the overall progress made in achieving the global goal on adaptation TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction and background 2 Overview of the relevant scientific literature 4 2.1. Unpacking the global goal on adaptation 5 2.2. Challenges of assessing progress towards the global goal on adaptation 7 2.3. Approaches for assessing collective progress on adaptation 10 2.4. Opportunities and limitations of using metrics and indicators to assess the global goal on adaptation 13 2.5. Opportunities and procedures from existing multilateral review mechanisms 16 Reviewing progress at the national level 19 3.1. Using a scoreboard to assess progress across countries 20 3.2. Assessing progress towards desired adaptation outcomes 21 3.3. Using indicator‐based frameworks 22 3.4. Using informal knowledge‐exchange 27 3.5. Using questionnaires and information collection cards to assess progress 27 3.6. Assessing progress by climate fund 28 3.7. Existing transboundary approaches to assessing adaptation progress 29 3.8. Reviewing progress at the subnational level 31 Discussion 33 4.1. Reflections on existing methodologies and case studies 33 4.2. Recurring themes and overarching considerations 34 4.3. Reflections on other potential methodologies 36 Conclusion and next steps 37 Adaptation Committee AC18/TP/5A 26 October 2020 Revised draft Recommended action by the Adaptation Committee The Adaptation Committee (AC), at its 18 th meeting, will be invited to consider the revised draft technical paper and reflect on the merits and limitations of the various potential approaches to assessing the global goal on adaptation under the global stocktake. It may discuss ways to reflect the outcome of this consideration in its 2021 annual report.

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Page 1: Ada p tation Committee AC18/TP/5AAC18/TP/5A Adaptation Committee 2 of 38 Introduction and background 1. Article 7 of the Paris Agreement established the global goal on adaptation of

Reviseddrafttechnicalpaperonapproachestoreviewingtheoverall

progressmadeinachievingtheglobalgoalonadaptation

TABLEOFCONTENTS

Introductionandbackground 2 Overviewoftherelevantscientificliterature 4

2.1. Unpackingtheglobalgoalonadaptation 52.2. Challengesofassessingprogresstowardstheglobalgoalonadaptation 72.3. Approachesforassessingcollectiveprogressonadaptation 102.4. Opportunitiesandlimitationsofusingmetricsandindicatorstoassessthe globalgoalonadaptation 132.5. Opportunitiesandproceduresfromexistingmultilateralreviewmechanisms 16

Reviewingprogressatthenationallevel 19

3.1. Usingascoreboardtoassessprogressacrosscountries 203.2. Assessingprogresstowardsdesiredadaptationoutcomes 213.3. Usingindicator‐basedframeworks 223.4. Usinginformalknowledge‐exchange 273.5. Usingquestionnairesandinformationcollectioncardstoassessprogress 273.6. Assessingprogressbyclimatefund 283.7. Existingtransboundaryapproachestoassessingadaptationprogress 293.8. Reviewingprogressatthesubnationallevel 31

Discussion 33

4.1. Reflectionsonexistingmethodologiesandcasestudies 334.2. Recurringthemesandoverarchingconsiderations 344.3. Reflectionsonotherpotentialmethodologies 36

Conclusionandnextsteps 37

AdaptationCommittee AC18/TP/5A

26October 2020Reviseddraft

RecommendedactionbytheAdaptationCommittee

TheAdaptationCommittee(AC),atits18thmeeting,willbeinvitedtoconsiderthereviseddrafttechnicalpaperandreflectonthemeritsandlimitationsofthevariouspotentialapproachestoassessingtheglobalgoalonadaptationundertheglobalstocktake.Itmaydiscusswaystoreflecttheoutcomeofthisconsiderationinits2021annualreport.

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Introductionandbackground1. Article7oftheParisAgreementestablishedtheglobalgoalonadaptationof“enhancingadaptivecapacity,strengtheningresilienceandreducingvulnerabilitytoclimatechange,withaviewtocontributingtosustainabledevelopmentandensuringanadequateresponseinthecontextofthetemperaturegoal”1of“[h]oldingtheincreaseintheglobalaveragetemperaturetowellbelow2°Cabovepre‐industriallevelsandpursuingeffortstolimitthetemperatureincreaseto1.5°Cabovepre‐industriallevels.”2ThegoalisthereforegroundedinArticles7and2oftheParisAgreement.

2. ToassessthecollectiveprogresstowardsachievingthepurposeoftheParisAgreementanditslong‐termgoals,Article14oftheAgreementestablishedtheglobalstocktake.Theglobalstocktakeisacyclicalmechanismtakingplaceeveryfiveyearsbeginningin2023,unlessotherwisedecidedbytheConferenceofthePartiesservingastheMeetingofthePartiestotheParisAgreement(CMA).3Inrelationtoadaptation,theglobalstocktakewill,amongotherthings,reviewtheoverallprogressmadeinachievingtheglobalgoalonadaptation.4BeyondsheddinglightonwhatPartieshaveachieved,theoutcomesoftheglobalstocktakewillinformPartiesin“updatingandenhancing,inanationallydeterminedmanner,theiractionsandsupportinaccordancewiththerelevantprovisionsoftheParisAgreement,aswellasinenhancinginternationalcooperationforclimateaction.”5

3. Theassessmentofcollectiveprogresstowardsachievingtheglobalgoalonadaptationisthereforeaprocessofmeasuringthedirectionoftravelintermsofenhancingadaptivecapacity,strengtheningresilience,andreducingvulnerability.Theseelementsarerelatedtoeffortssuchasadaptationplanning,andinvestingadequatelyinadaptation,andarethereforelinkedwitheffortstounderstandprogressinadaptationactioninresponsetoprioritiesandactions,adequateplanningforadaptation,andsupportneeds.

4. In2019,theCMArequestedtheAdaptationCommittee(AC)“toconsiderapproachestoreviewingtheoverallprogressmadeinachievingtheglobalgoalonadaptationandtoreflecttheoutcomeofthisconsiderationinits2021annualreport.”6Thistechnicalpaperisinresponsetothisrequest,andisintendedtohelpinformthediscussionwithintheAConapproachestoassessingtheglobalgoalonadaptation.

5. Additionally,thistechnicalpaperalsocontributestoanactivityintheAdaptationCommittee’s2019‐2021flexibleworkplan,albeitoneyearearlierthanplanned.Thisactivityispreparinga“technicalpaperonusefulinformationandmethodologiesforassessingprogressinenhancingadaptivecapacity,strengtheningresilienceandreducingvulnerabilitytoclimatechange,”whichwasinitiallyplannedfor2021.

6. Itisimportanttonotethat,whilethispaperfocusesonapproachestoreviewingtheoverallprogressmadeinachievingtheglobalgoalonadaptation,suchareviewwilltakeplacewithinthebroadercontextoftheglobalstocktakewhichwillincludeseveraladditionalandcomplementarycomponents.Article7oftheParisAgreementstipulates,forexample,thatbesidesreviewingtheoverallprogressmadetowardstheglobalgoalonadaptation,theglobalstocktakewillalsorecognizetheadaptationeffortsofdevelopingcountryParties,enhancetheimplementationofadaptationactiontakingintoaccountadaptationcommunications,andreviewtheadequacyandeffectivenessofadaptationandsupportprovidedforadaptation.7

7. Indeed,theAdaptationCommitteeitselfisalreadyengagedinworkonsomeoftheseotherelements.In2018,theCMAadoptedguidanceonadaptationcommunications,whicharecommunicationsinstrumentswithapurposeof,amongotherthings,providinginputtotheglobalstocktakeprocess.8Furthermethodologicalguidancewillplayasignificantroleinensuringthatinformationisclearforthecollectiveassessmentprocessgiventhattheassessmentofcollectiveprogresswillrelyheavilyonwhatparties1Article7,para.1,oftheParisAgreement.2Article2,para.1(a),oftheParisAgreement.3Article14,para.2,oftheParisAgreement.4Article7,para.14(2),oftheParisAgreement.5Article14,para.3,oftheParisAgreement.6Decision1/CMA.2,para.14.7Article7,para.14,oftheParisAgreement.8Decision9/CMA.1,para.1.

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communicateorreportundertheUNFCCC.TheCMArequestedthattheAdaptationCommitteedevelopdraftsupplementaryguidanceforvoluntaryusebyPartiesincommunicatinginformationthroughthisinstrument,9therebyaffordingtheCommitteetheopportunitytohelpprovidethisclarity.TheCMAalsorequestedthattheAdaptationCommittee,alongwiththeLeastDevelopedCountriesExpertGroup(LEG),guidethesecretariatasitdraftsbiennialsynthesisreportsonspecificadaptationthemesinthecontextoftherecognitionoftheadaptationeffortsofdevelopingcountryParties.10Inrelationtoreviewingtheadequacyandeffectivenessofadaptationandsupport,theCMAinvitedtheAdaptationCommitteealongwiththeLEG,andincollaborationwiththeStandingCommitteeonFinancetocontributetocontinuingtechnicalworkaimedatcompilingexistingmethodologiesforreviewingtheadequacyandeffectivenessofadaptationandsupport.11Consequently,inadditiontothispaper,theAdaptationCommitteeisintimatelyinvolvedinsupportingthereviewofadaptation‐relatedelementsintheglobalstocktake.

8. Settingtheoverallcontextforandfunctionoftheglobalstocktake,Article14oftheParisAgreementnotesthatthismechanismwill“assessthecollectiveprogresstowardsachievingthepurposeof[theParis]Agreementanditslong‐termgoals…inacomprehensiveandfacilitativemanner,consideringmitigation,adaptation,andthemeansofimplementationandsupport,andinlightofequityandthebestavailablescience.”12Decision19/CMA.1elucidatedtheadditionaldetailsofhowtheglobalstocktakewillworkinpractice,includingthatthestocktakewillavoidduplicationofwork,13andwillincludevarioustypesandsourcesofinputsthatcoverawiderangeoftopicssuchasthestateofgreenhousegasemissions,thestateofadaptationefforts,financeflowsandmeansofimplementation,barriersandchallenges,goodpracticesandmore.14Thus,whiletheseadditionalelementsarebeyondthescopeofthispaper,theywillnonethelessalsoformafundamentalpartoftheglobalstocktakealongwithareviewofcollectiveprogresstowardstheglobalgoalonadaptation.

9. Whenconsideringpotentialapproachesforassessingprogresstowardtheglobalgoalonadaptation,itisthereforeimperativetobearinmindthemodalitiesthroughwhichtheglobalstocktakewilltakeplace.Thesemodalities,asadoptedbytheCMAin2018,shedlightonhowsuchanassessmentwillbeconsideredbyPartieswhichcan,inturn,helpframethesearchforasuitableapproach.Box1summarizesthemodalitiesthroughwhichtheglobalstocktakewillproceed.

10. Thepaperincludesthreesubstantivechapters,startingfromaninitialanalysisofthescientificliterature,thenexploringnationalapproachesandsummarisingthespectrumofapproaches,asfollowsbelow.

11. Aburgeoningacademicandgreyliteratureexploresthepotentialmeansofassessingcollectiveadaptationprogressintheglobalstocktakeandingeneral.Thisliteraturegrappleswiththechallengesandtrade‐offsinherentinreviewingprogressmadeinadaptingtoclimatechange.Whilethesechallengescertainlycomplicatethesearchforapathtowardsreviewingoftheglobalgoalonadaptationintheglobalstocktake,scholarsandpractitionershavenonethelessproposedpossiblewaysforward.Chapter2ofthispaperreviewsthisliteratureandhighlightsboththegeneralinsightsitrevealsaswellasthespecificapproachesproposedforeffectivelyassessingprogress.Thereviewisnotexhaustive.

12. Recognizingthatnational‐andsubnational‐levelinitiatives,aswellastransboundaryefforts,aimedatassessingadaptationalsoofferimportantlessonsthatcaninformeffortstoreviewprogressacrossborders,ChapterIIIthenlooksatexamplesfromtheseexistingsystems.Theseexamplesservetoelucidatewhathasthusfarbeenfeasibleandeffectiveattrackingprogress,andhowthatmightinformeffortsatabroader,internationalscale.

13. BasedonthefindingsfromChaptersIIandIII,ChapterIVreflectsonthespectrumofapproachesoutlinedinthescientificliteratureorusedinpracticeandhowtheymightbeapplicableinthecontextoftheglobalstocktake.

9Decision9/CMA.1,para.15.10Decision11/CMA.1,para.13.11Decision11/CMA.1,para.35.12Article14,para.1,oftheParisAgreement.13Decision19/CMA.1,para.9.14Decision19/CMA.1,paras.35‐37.

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Box1.Modalitiesforconductingtheglobalstocktake

Overviewoftherelevantscientificliterature14. Adaptationpractitionersandscholarshavegeneratedadiverseliteratureinrecentyearsdealingwiththequestionofhowtoassessadaptationprogressandaggregatetheseassessmentsacrossvariousscalesanddimensions.Assessingadaptationprogressiscriticalforunderstandingwhetherandhowvulnerabilityischangingovertimeandacrossscalesanddimensions,andhowadaptationinterventions(oralackthereof)areinfluencingthesechanges.Ithelpsdecision‐makerstounderstand“whatworkswellinwhich

Asoutlinedindecision19/CMA.1,theglobalstocktakewillbeaParty‐drivenprocessconductedwiththeassistanceofbothSubsidiaryBodies.Itwillincludethreecomponents:informationcollectionandpreparation,technicalassessment,andconsiderationofoutputs.Outputsofthesecomponentsshouldsummarizeopportunitiesandchallengesforenhancingactionandsupportinlightofequityandthebestavailablescience,andlessonslearnedandgoodpractices.Further,theseoutputsshouldfocusoncollectiveprogress,ratherthanonindividualParties,andinformtheupdatingandenhancingofactionandsupport.TheSubsidiaryBodieswillestablishajointcontactgroupforthispurpose.Thiscontactgroupwillbesupportedbyatechnicaldialogueconductedbytwoco‐facilitatorswhowillprepareasynthesisreportonthebasisofthedialogue.Thistechnicaldialoguewillworkthroughafocusedexchangeofviews,informationandideasinin‐sessionroundtablesorotheractivities,andwilladdressthethematicareasofmitigation,adaptation,andmeansofimplementationandsupport.TheChairsoftheSubsidiaryBodiesareresponsibleforpreparingthematicandcross‐cuttingguidingquestionsforallcomponentsoftheglobalstocktakeonesessionpriortotherelevantactivitiesbeginning.Duringtheinformationcollectionandpreparationphase,theSubsidiaryBodyChairswillissueacallforinputs.Inputs,asdelineatedinthedecision,includereportsfromParties,theIPCC,thesubsidiarybodies,constitutedbodiesandforums,thesecretariat,UNagenciesandotherinternationalorganizations,regionalgroupsandinstitutions,andsubmissionsfromnon‐PartystakeholdersandUNFCCCobserverorganizations.Thesecretariatwillmakeinputsavailableonlinebythematicarea,andorganizeawebinartoexplainthemethodologiesandassumptionsusedtoaggregatetheinputs.Additionally,thesecretariatwillpreparefoursynthesisreportsonvarioustopics,includingthestateofadaptationefforts.ConstitutedbodiesandforumsandotherinstitutionalarrangementsundertheParisAgreementand/ortheConventionarealsoinvitedtopreparesynthesisreportsforthetechnicalassessmentintheirareasofexpertise.Theseinputswillbediscussedduringthetechnicalassessmentphase,withbalancedtimeallocationbetweenthematicareas.Thisphaseincludesthetechnicaldialogue,whichwillbeopen,inclusive,transparent,andfacilitativeandofferPartiesaspacetoengagewithoneanotherandwithconstitutedbodiesandotherexperts.Finally,theconsiderationofoutputsphasewillincludehigh‐leveleventswherePartiesconsideranddiscussthefindingsofthetechnicalassessmentandtheirimplications.Thisphasewillidentifyopportunitiesforandchallengesinenhancingactionandsupportandsummarizekeypoliticalmessagesforenhancingactionandsupport.Source:Decision19/CMA.1

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contexts”15andtodeveloptheirplansandprioritiesaccordingly.Itmayalsoresultinvariouscorollarybenefits,suchasraisingtheprofileofadaptationnationally,improvingestimatesofthecostsofadaptation,andhelpingtobettertargetadaptationfinancetowhereitismostneeded.16Whilethevalueofassessingadaptationprogressisthusclear,thechallengesinfindinganappropriate,acceptable,and/orfeasiblemethodforundertakingsuchassessmentsmakethetaskratherdifficult.

2.1. Unpackingtheglobalgoalonadaptation

15. Theglobalgoalonadaptationfeaturesthreecorecomponents:enhancingadaptivecapacity,strengtheningresilience,andreducingvulnerabilitytoclimatechange.Academicsandpractitionershavepilotedvariousmethodsofassessingthesethreecomponentsindividuallyacrossdifferentcontexts.Thissectiondetailssomeofthesemethodsandconcludeswithsomereflectionsontheirpotentialuseinassessingtheglobalgoalonadaptation.

16. TheIPCCdefinesadaptivecapacityas“Theabilityofsystems,institutions,humansandotherorganismstoadjusttopotentialdamage,totakeadvantageofopportunities,ortorespondtoconsequences.”17Adaptivecapacityrelatestoboththeresources‐‐includingnatural,financial,institutional,orhuman—availableinagivensystemforadaptationandtheabilityofthatsystemtoeffectivelydeploythoseresourcestoadvanceadaptation.18Overthepasttwodecades,therehavebeennumerouseffortstoassessandmeasureadaptivecapacityusingvariousapproaches,includingassessmentsofsecondarydatasources,self‐assessments,futuresmodelling,inductivetheory‐drivenapproaches,andpsychometricassessmentsofperceivedadaptivecapacity.19Manyofthesehavefocusedonparticularcommunities,industries,orregions,raisingquestionsabouttheextenttowhichtheinsightsgleanedgeneralizetoothercontexts.Lockwoodetal.,forexample,conductedapsychometricself‐assessmentstudyofrurallandholdersinAustraliainanattempttodiscoverwhichconstructsarereliableandvaliddimensionsofadaptivecapacity;theauthorsconcludedthatlandholders’orientationtowardchangewasthemostimportantdimensionthatinfluencedperceivedadaptivecapacity,withothernoteworthydimensionsincludinghuman,financial,andphysicalcapacityandreciprocity.20Schneiderbaueretal.developedanindicatorandcriteriasystem,andusedsimpleaggregationmethods,withbothqualitativeandquantitativemeasurableindicatorsthataretailoredforAlpineregions.21Indoingso,theauthorsdistinguishbetweenthreelevelsofadaptivecapacity:impact‐specificadaptivecapacity;sector‐specificadaptivecapacity;andregionalgenericadaptivecapacity.Theycontendthatwhiletheconceptualdivisionoftheconceptintothesethreelevelsandtheaggregationmethodologymaygeneralizetootherregions,thesetofindicatorsdevelopedwouldbelessgeneralizable.Theseexamplesrepresentonlyasampleofthevastliteratureonassessingadaptivecapacitytailoredtodifferentareasandsectors.

15LeiterT.2015.Linkingmonitoringandevaluationofadaptationtoclimatechangeacrossscales:avenuesandpracticalapproaches.NewDirectionsforEvaluation.147:117‐127.16TompkinsEL,VincentK,NichollsRJ,etal.2018.DocumentingthestateofadaptationfortheglobalstocktakeoftheParisAgreement.WIREsClimateChange.9(5):1‐9.17IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange.2018.AnnexI:Glossary.In:Masson‐DelmotteV.,ZhaiP,PörtnerH‐O,etal.(eds.).GlobalWarmingof1.5°C.AnIPCCSpecialReportontheimpactsofglobalwarmingof1.5°Cabovepre‐industriallevelsandrelatedglobalgreenhousegasemissionpathways,inthecontextofstrengtheningtheglobalresponsetothethreatofclimatechange,sustainabledevelopment,andeffortstoeradicatepoverty.IPCC.Availableathttps://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/2/2019/06/SR15_AnnexI_Glossary.pdf18BrooksNandAdgerWN.2004.AssessingandEnhancingAdaptiveCapacity.In:LimB(ed.).AdaptationPolicyFrameworksforClimateChange:DevelopingStrategies,PoliciesandMeasures.Cambridge,NewYork,Melbourne,Madrid:UNDPandCambridgeUniversityPress.pp.165‐181.Availableathttps://www.adaptation‐undp.org/sites/default/files/downloads/adaptation_policy_frameworks_for_climate_change_‐_developing_strategies_policies_and_measures_0.pdf19LockwoodM,RaymondCM,Oczkowski,etal.2015.Measuringthedimensionsofadaptivecapacity:apsychometricapproach.EcologyandSociety20(1):pp.37.20LockwoodM,RaymondCM,Oczkowski,etal.2015.Measuringthedimensionsofadaptivecapacity:apsychometricapproach.EcologyandSociety20(1):pp.37.21SchneiderbauerS,PedothL,ZhangD,etal.2011.Assessingadaptivecapacitywithinregionalclimatechangevulnerabilitystudies—anAlpineexample.NatHazards2013(67):pp.1059‐1073.

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17. Recognizingthebreadthofempiricalcasestudiesexaminingtheconceptofadaptivecapacity,Beauchampetal.pilotedtheuseofaquantitativecross‐caseanalysisusingfivelocaldatasetsthatstudytheimpactsofclimateshocks(resultingfromthe2015‐2016ElNinoevent)onsmallholderfarmersincountriesacrosstheTropics.22Despitethesimilaritiesintheresearchgoalsofthevariousstudies,andinthedemographicfocusofthesestudies(i.e.onsmallholderfarmersintheTropics),thecontextswerenonethelesssufficientlydifferenttorenderthevalueofsuchstatisticalpost‐hocdataaggregationeffortsquestionable.Indeed,whiletheaggregationenabledtheresearcherstouncoverpatternsthatwerenotvisiblewhenlookingattheindividualstudies,themethodisnonethelesssaddledwithsignificantlimitations.Theselimitationsincludethatmostofthekeyvariablesinthestudiescouldnotbetransformedforconsiderationinanaggregatedanalysisandthereforewereomitted;thatadaptivecapacityfactorssuchassecurity,learning,andcapacitytoorganizearedifficulttoquantify;andthatwhileaggregationwasabletoconfirmwhichvariablesweresignificantpredictorsofagivenphenomenon(i.e.croplossinthiscase),thistypeofanalysisisnotwellsuitedtoinformpolicymaking.Indeed,theresearchersconcludedthat“theusefulnessofaggregateddatainsupportingpolicymakingislimited”andthatsuchanalyses“aremoreusefulforacademicresearchers,byprovidingevidencetowardsthesupportorrefutationofgeneralhypothesesabouthowdifferentsocio‐demographicvariableslinkedtoadaptivecapacityaffectresilience.”23Moreover,theauthorshighlightedthat,completelystandardizingdatacollectionformatsmaynotmakesenseevenincaseswherecomparisonisapredefinedobjective;inspiteofthis,theynotethatbetteraligningcorevariables“couldfurtherhelpharmonizeclimateresilienceacrossdifferenttypesofstudytypes,forexamplebyaddingclimate‐specificquestionsthatareoftencurrentlymissinginnationalcensuses.”24

18. Relatedtotheconceptofadaptivecapacityistheconceptofresilience,whichtheIPCCdefinesas“Thecapacityofsocial,economicandenvironmentalsystemstocopewithahazardouseventortrendordisturbance,respondingorreorganizinginwaysthatmaintaintheiressentialfunction,identityandstructurewhilealsomaintainingthecapacityforadaptation,learningandtransformation.”25AcomparativeoverviewofresiliencemeasurementframeworksconductedbytheOverseasDevelopmentInstitute(ODI)highlightshowtheintegrationofresiliencebyNGOsanddonoragenciesacrosstheirprogrammaticpillarsresultedinmultipleframeworksformeasuringtheconstructevenasconceptualdebatesaboutwhatitencompassescontinued.Despitethenear‐ubiquitousenthusiasmforadoptingtheconstruct,however,ODInotedthat“theabilityandmethodstomeasureresiliencearecontested”and“whatcountsasanindicatorofresiliencehasbeendefinedandredefinedinsemi‐chaoticfashionaccordingtodifferentinterpretationsofwhattheconceptmeans.”26Examining16setsofindicators,theODIanalysisresultedinthreemainfindings:comparisonacrossframeworksisonlypossibleinpartduetothedifferentconceptualentrypointsusedbythevariousframeworks;indicatorsofimprovedlivelihoodsandwell‐beingarenecessarybutnotsufficientformeasuringclimatechangeresilienceanddisasterrisk;anditisnecessarytouseindicatorswithcaution,notingthattheydonotofferscientificprooforindepthexplanationsofchange.

19. AccordingtotheIPCC,vulnerabilityis“Thepropensityorpredispositiontobeadverselyaffected”andit“encompassesavarietyofconceptsandelementsincludingsensitivityorsusceptibilitytoharmandlack22BeauchampE,MoskelandA,Milner‐GullandEJ,etal.2019.Theroleofquantitativecross‐caseanalysisinunderstandingtropicalsmallholderfarmers’adaptivecapacitytoclimateshocks.EnvironmentalResearchLetters14(2019):pp.1‐10.23BeauchampE,MoskelandA,Milner‐GullandEJ,etal.2019.Theroleofquantitativecross‐caseanalysisinunderstandingtropicalsmallholderfarmers’adaptivecapacitytoclimateshocks.EnvironmentalResearchLetters14(2019):pp.1024BeauchampE,MoskelandA,Milner‐GullandEJ,etal.2019.Theroleofquantitativecross‐caseanalysisinunderstandingtropicalsmallholderfarmers’adaptivecapacitytoclimateshocks.EnvironmentalResearchLetters14(2019):pp.1025IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange.2018.AnnexI:Glossary.In:Masson‐DelmotteV.,ZhaiP,PörtnerH‐O,etal.(eds.).GlobalWarmingof1.5°C.AnIPCCSpecialReportontheimpactsofglobalwarmingof1.5°Cabovepre‐industriallevelsandrelatedglobalgreenhousegasemissionpathways,inthecontextofstrengtheningtheglobalresponsetothethreatofclimatechange,sustainabledevelopment,andeffortstoeradicatepoverty.IPCC.Availableathttps://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/2/2019/06/SR15_AnnexI_Glossary.pdf26SchipperELF,andLangstonL.2015.Acomparativeoverviewofresiliencemeasurementframeworks:analysingindicatorsandapproaches.London:ODI.pp.9.Availableathttps://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi‐assets/publications‐opinion‐files/9754.pdf

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ofcapacitytocopeandadapt.”Vulnerabilityassessmentshavelongbeenacornerstoneofeffortstoadapttoclimatechange.Thereareawiderangeofvulnerabilityassessmentapproaches,includinghazardsapproaches,riskmanagementapproaches,vulnerabilityapproaches,resilienceapproaches,ecosystem‐basedapproaches,andexpertbasedapproaches.27Manyoftheseapproachesarenotmutuallyexclusive,andcountrieslookingtodevelopnationaladaptationplansandstrategieswilllikelyapplyacombinationoftheseapproaches.Whereassomeapproaches,suchastheriskmanagementapproach,makeuseofquantitativemeasurements,others,suchasthevulnerabilityapproachandexpert‐basedapproach,relyonqualitativeassessments.Variousvulnerabilityassessmentframeworkshavebeendevelopedbasedonsuchapproachesthataretailoredtosector,national,subnational,orotherrelevantlevels.

20. Althoughtherearethereforedistinctdefinitionsforeachofthesethreecoreelements,andvariousattemptstoassesseachelementindividually,thereremainsconsiderableoverlapandconceptualambiguitysurroundingtheseelementsandhowtheyrelatetooneanother.TheODIanalysis,forexample,testifiestothe“complexandhistoricallyintertwinedrelationshipbetweenvulnerability,adaptationandresilience”andtheenduring“significantconfusionabouthowresilienceandvulnerabilityrelatetoeachother.”28Otherstudiesreviewedinthissectionhavesimilarlymadearangeofobservationsabouthowthesethreeelementsarelinked.Beauchampetal.remark,forexample,thatwhileresilienceandvulnerabilitycanbeseenasantonyms,adaptivecapacityrelatesto“factorsorconditionsthataffectoverallresilience.”29Schneiderbaueretal.notethatdeterminingadaptivecapacityisacriticalpartofvulnerabilityassessments.

21. Moreover,thedynamicrelationshipbetweenmitigationandadaptationrepresentsanadditionalcomponentoftheglobalgoal,aswellasasignificantchallengetothetaskofassessingcollectiveprogresstowardstheglobalgoalonadaptation.TheglobalgoalonadaptationisexplicitlyframedinthecontextoftheParisAgreement’stemperaturegoaloflimitingwarmingto1.5‐2 .InArticle7oftheParisAgreement,“Partiesrecognize…thatgreaterlevelsofmitigationcanreducetheneedforadditionaladaptationefforts.”30TheAdaptationCommitteehasinitiatedworkexploringthisrelationship,observingthat“[a]daptation,mitigation,andsustainabledevelopmentareinextricablyconnected,withpotentialforsynergiesandtrade‐offs.”31Uncertaintysurroundingwarmingtrajectoriesoverthelong‐termrendersitmuchmoredifficult,however,toassesstheextenttowhichtheworldisindeedmovingtowardsastateoflowervulnerability,increasedresilience,andenhancedadaptivecapacity.Thismaybethecasewhere,forexample,adaptationmeasuresthatadvancetheseobjectivesinthenear‐termlockindevelopmenttrajectoriesthatareunviableoraremaladaptiveinthelong‐term.32

2.2. Challengesofassessingprogresstowardstheglobalgoalonadaptation

22. Assessingcollectiveprogresstowardstheglobalgoalrequiresnavigatingaseriesofsignificantchallengesandtrade‐offs.CraftandFisheridentifyfourmainchallengesthatcomplicatetheefforttoreviewprogresstowardstheglobalgoalonadaptationintheglobalstocktake.33Thisincludes:1)designingasystemthatcanaggregateresultsacrossscalesandcontexts;2)satisfyingtheglobalstocktake’sdual

27LeastDevelopedCountriesExpertGroup.2012.NationalAdaptationPlans:Technicalguidelinesforthenationaladaptationplanprocess.Bonn:UNFCCC.pp.65.Availableathttps://unfccc.int/files/adaptation/cancun_adaptation_framework/application/pdf/naptechguidelines_eng_high__res.pdfSchipperELF,andLangstonL.2015.Acomparativeoverviewofresiliencemeasurementframeworks:analysingindicatorsandapproaches.London:ODI.pp.18.Availableathttps://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi‐assets/publications‐opinion‐files/9754.pdf29BeauchampE,MoskelandA,Milner‐GullandEJ,etal.2019.Theroleofquantitativecross‐caseanalysisinunderstandingtropicalsmallholderfarmers’adaptivecapacitytoclimateshocks.EnvironmentalResearchLetters14(2019):pp.3.30Article7,para.3oftheParisAgreement.31AdaptationCommittee.2020.Informationpaperonlinkagesbetweenadaptationandmitigation.Bonn:UNFCCC.Availableathttps://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/ac17_8b_ada_miti.pdf32BrooksN,AndersonS,AragonI,etal.2019.Framingandtracking21stcenturyclimateadaptation:Monitoring,evaluationandlearningforParis,theSDGsandbeyond.London:IIED.Availableathttps://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/10202IIED.pdf33CraftBandFisherS.2018.MeasuringtheadaptationgoalintheglobalstocktakeoftheParisAgreement.ClimatePolicy.18(9):pp.1203‐1209.

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mandateofassessingcollectiveprogressandinformingtheupdateandenhancementofnationallevelactions;3)overcomingthemethodologicalchallengesinherentinevaluatingadaptation,suchasthedifficultyofattributingresultstointerventionsandtheshiftingbaselinesanduncertaintiesofclimatehazards;and4)navigatingdivergentviewsandpoliticalsensitivessurroundingmeasurementundertheUNFCCCregime.Tompkinsetal.alsoholdthatmethodologicalchallengesareonekeyproblemareaforassessingadaptationundertheglobalstocktake,butarguethatempiricalchallenges(therarityofadaptationdatabases)andconceptualchallenges(lackofagreementonwhatcountsasadaptation)aretwoadditionalcoredifficultiesthatmustbeconsidered.34

23. Dillingetal.alsowarnofthreechallengesthatstandinthewayofassessingadaptationprogresswhenitisframedasassessingthe“success”ofadaptationmeasures.35First,theauthorsnote,istheabsenceofasingle,commondefinitionofadaptationsuccessoreffectiveness.Second,differentperceptionsofwhatconstitutessuccessfuladaptationmayarisefromdifferent,andevolving,perceptionsofwhatconstitutesariskandvaryingrisktolerances.Thirdisthechallengeofexistingpowerasymmetriesandhowtheyinfluencewhocandefinewhatismeasuredwhenassessingadaptationsuccess.Similarly,LeiterandPringlecautionthatvaluejudgmentsnecessarilyenterintotheequationwhenassessingthesuccessofadaptationactionbecauseitispossiblethatcasesarisewhere,forexample,adaptationundertakenbyonedemographicunderminesthecapacityofanotherdemographictoadapt.36

24. Berrang‐Fordetal.highlightsixkeycriteriaforindicatorsorframeworksforassessingadaptationprogressthatarecomparableacrosstheglobe—namely,aggregable,transparent,longitudinal,feasible,coherent,andsensitivetonationalcontext—butnotethattrade‐offsbetweenthesecriteriaoftenarise.37Forexample,theauthorsfindthatapproachestoassessingprogressthatfocusonthecriterionofaggregabilityoftendosoattheexpenseofsensitivitytothenationalcontext(includingdifferingpolitical,economic,andsocio‐culturalprioritiesandresources)orcoherence(theextenttowhichthemeasurereflectsameaningfulproxyforadaptation).Similarly,iftheapproachormeasuremeetsthecriteriaofaggregabilityorfeasibility,itmayfacetrade‐offswiththecriterionofbeinglongitudinal(havingtheabilitytobetrackedovertime),aschangingprioritiesorresourcesmayunderminefutureaggregabilityandfeasibility.

25. GiventhattheglobalstocktakerepresentsthefirsteffortundertheUNFCCCtoassessglobalprogressonadaptation,itisnotyetclearhowtostriketheoptimalbalancebetweenthesetrade‐offsinamannerthatisfeasibleanddeliverstheoutputsexpectedoftheprocess.EvenbeyondworkundertheUNFCCC,“understandingoftheglobalstateofadaptation…iscurrentlypartialandfragmented.”38Assuch,oneauthorsuggests“Partieswillneedtoinnovateorborrow”theirapproachtoassessingprogresstowardstheglobalgoalonadaptationintheglobalstocktake.39GiventheidiosyncrasiesoftheParisAgreementandtheglobalstocktake,however,borrowingelementsofotherregimescanposechallengesandshouldbeapproachedwithcaution.Itmaythereforebeworthwhiletomoreclearlydefinetheconceptofadaptationprogressspecifictothecontextoftheglobalgoalonadaptationandclarifywhichassumptionswillbemadetounderpinsuchaconcept.

26. Otherchallengestoconsiderincludethosethatcountriesfaceastheystrivetoestablishdomesticmonitoring,evaluation,andlearningsystemsforadaptation.Thesesystems,inmanycases,helpgenerate

34CraftBandFisherS.2018.MeasuringtheadaptationgoalintheglobalstocktakeoftheParisAgreement.ClimatePolicy.18(9):pp.1203‐1209.35DillingL,PrakashA,ZommersZ,etal.2019.Isadaptationsuccessaflawedconcept?NatureClimateChange(9):pp.570‐574.36LeiterTandPringleP.2018.Pitfallsandpotentialofmeasuringclimatechangeadaptationthroughadaptationmetrics.In:LChristiansen,MartinezG,andPNaswa(eds.).Adaptationmetrics:Perspectivesonmeasuring,aggregatingandcomparingadaptationresults.Copenhagen:UNEPDTUPartnership.pp.29‐48.37Berrang‐FordL,WangFM,LesnikowskiA,etal.2017.Towardstheassessmentofadaptationprogressatthegloballevel.In:AOlhoff,HNeufeldt,PNaswaetal.(eds).TheAdaptationGapReport:TowardsGlobalAssessment.Nairobi:UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme.pp.35‐48.38OlhoffA,VäänänenE,andDicksonB.2018.Trackingadaptationprogressatthegloballevel:Keyissuesandpriorities.In:ZZommersandKAlverson(eds.).Resilience:TheScienceofAdaptationtoClimateChange.p.53.39HuangJ.2018.WhatcantheParisAgreement’sglobalstocktakelearnfromtheSustainableDevelopmentGoals?CarbonandClimateLawReview12(3):p.225.

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theinformationthatcountriesincludeintheirreportstotheUNFCCC,therebyalsogeneratingsomeoftheinformationthatmaybeincorporatedintoacollectiveassessmentofprogresstowardstheglobalgoalonadaptation.Thereare,however,persistentchallengesthatcountriesmustovercometodevelop,implement,andmaintainthesesystemsovertime.Theprocessofdesigningandimplementingsuchsystemsiscomplex,andoftenmarredbydifficultiessuchasmeasuringresultsinthefaceofuncertainty,limitedavailabilityofdataandbaselineinformation,andmanagingorassessingmultiplescalesofinterventions.40Ensuringthatsuchsystemsarenuancedandinclusive,includingbycollectingandassessinghighlydisaggregateddatawithaviewtounderstandingeffectsofvulnerableandmarginalizedgroups,isyetanotherchallenge.Insomecases,acountry’sprimarychallengeisnotalackofdatabuthowtooperationalizeaccessing,synthesizing,andreportingdataandinformation.41Thesesystemsalsotendtobecostlyandhuman‐resourceintensive,whichcanleadtocountriesmakinglittleprogressinimplementingthemevenoncetheyareproposedordesigned.Asaresult,manycountriesdonotyethavesuchsystemsinplace.ResearchersareincreasinglyexploringavenuestoassistcountriesindevelopingthesesystemssuchthatthesesystemsbothmeetdomesticneedsandarecompatiblewiththeinformationbeingsoughtundertheUNFCCC.Seebox2foranexampleofonesuchframework.

Box2.Designingmonitoring,evaluation,andlearningsystems

27. Thetransboundarynatureofclimatechangeriskandimpactsfurthercomplicatesthetaskofassessingprogresstowardstheglobalgoalonadaptation.Benzieetal.arguethatwhilethe“transboundarydimensionneedstobebetterunderstoodtoensurethatinternationalcooperationworkstowardsachievingtheglobalgoalonadaptation,”suchtransnationaldimensionshave“notbeenwidelyacknowledged”todate.42Mostresearchandassessmentsrelatedtoclimatechangeriskandadaptationhaveinsteadfocusedonthelocal‐to‐nationaldimensionwithoutaccountingfortheclimatechangeimpactsthatcrossnationalbordersthrough,forexample,trade,finance,people,andbiophysicalpathwayssuchaschangesintransboundaryecosystems.Inthecontextoftheglobalstocktake,Benzieetal.underscoretheimportanceof40MutimbaS,SimiyuSW,LelekoitenTL,etal.2019.sNAPshot:Kenya’sMonitoringandEvaluationofAdaptation:Simplified,integrated,multilevel.InternationalInstituteforSustainableDevelopment.Availableathttp://napglobalnetwork.org/resource/snapshot‐kenyas‐monitoring‐and‐evaluation‐of‐adaptation‐simplified‐integrated‐multilevel/41MutimbaS,SimiyuSW,LelekoitenTL,etal.2019.sNAPshot:Kenya’sMonitoringandEvaluationofAdaptation:Simplified,integrated,multilevel.InternationalInstituteforSustainableDevelopment.Availableathttp://napglobalnetwork.org/resource/snapshot‐kenyas‐monitoring‐and‐evaluation‐of‐adaptation‐simplified‐integrated‐multilevel/.42BenzieM,AdamsKM,RobertsEetal.2018.Meetingtheglobalchallengeofadaptationbyaddressingtransboundaryclimaterisk.Stockholm,Sweden:StockholmEnvironmentInstitute.Availableathttps://adaptationwithoutborders.org/sites/weadapt.org/files/meetingtheglobalchallengeofadaptation.pdf

AnIIEDworkingpaperproposesaframeworkforcreatingadaptationmonitoring,evaluation,andlearningframeworksatthenationallevelthat,bydesign,arealignedwiththeprinciplesenshrinedinArticle7oftheParisAgreementandtheadaptation‐relatedareasoftheenhancedtransparencyframework’smodalities,procedures,andguidelines.1Theframeworkworkstofulfilsevenkeyfunctions—rangingfromthequalityassessmentofadaptationactionsandprocessestotrackingadaptationimplementationtodisseminatinginformationandlearning—andisbuilttobebothflexibleandtofacilitatecoherentglobalreporting.Asmorecountriesstrivetoestablishnewmonitoring,evaluation,andlearningsystems,orupdatetheirexistingsystems,suchframeworksandrelatedguidanceofferaninvaluableopportunitytoshapethetrajectoryofeffortstoassessadaptationprogresssuchthatthemosaicofeffortsmadebysubnational,national,andinternationalactorsisbothrobustandcomplementary.Source:BrooksN,AndersonS,AragonI,etal.2019.Framingandtracking21stcenturyclimateadaptation:Monitoring,evaluationandlearningforParis,theSDGsandbeyond.London:IIED.Availableathttps://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/10202IIED.pdf

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goingbeyondanaggregationofnationalcontributionsbyincluding,forexample,measurestakentomanageclimateriskinfinancialmarketsoringlobaltradeinagriculturalcommodities.43Inclusionofsuchtransboundaryrisksandeffortscouldhelptheassessmentofprogresstowardstheglobalgoalonadaptationbettercaptureaholisticpictureofadaptationprogressandavoidcreatingblindspotsincaseswhereclimaterisksareredistributedratherthanreduced.

2.3. Approachesforassessingcollectiveprogressonadaptation

28. Howtoassessprogressatacollectivelevelisoneofisthekeyquestionsforassessingprogresstowardstheglobalgoalonadaptationintheglobalstocktake.TheACconsideringin2013themonitoringandevaluationofadaptation,basedontheconsiderationbyconvenedexperts,concludedthataddingupindicatorsfromthelocalleveltoobtainanational‐levelaggregate“isneithernecessarilypossiblenordesirable.”44Later,inanumberofstudiesthisconclusionwasfurthersubstantiated.

29. LeiterandPringlearguethatanunderstandingofaggregationas“thecollationorbringingtogetherofinformationacrossspatialscalesandgeographicalboundaries,whetherquantitativelyorqualitatively”betterservesthegoalofassessingglobaladaptationprogressthananunderstandingofaggregationas“simplyaddingupnumbers.”45Framingtheprocessofgatheringandcombiningrelevantinformationwithintheassessmentofprogressmadetowardstheglobalgoalonadaptationasanactofcollation,ratherthanaggregation,maymoreeffectivelycapturewhatisfeasibleandexpedientforadaptation.Seebox3foradiscussiononthetwotermsandhowtheirframingofthetaskathandinrelationtotheglobalgoalonadaptationdiffers.

Box3.Aggregationvs.Collation

30. Leiteridentifiesthreepotentialavenuesforlinkinginformationonadaptationdrawnfromdifferentscales.Thefirstavenueusesstandardizedmetricsappliedconsistentlyatdifferentscales.Thisapproachisusedbymultilateralclimatefundstoassesstheperformanceoftheiroverallportfolio,but,asdiscussedabove,oftensacrificescontext‐specificityinitsuseof“common‐denominatorindicators”thatmeasurethetotalnumberofbeneficiariesortoolsdeveloped.46Itispossibletomitigatethischallengewhilestill

43BenzieM,AdamsKM,RobertsEetal.2018.Meetingtheglobalchallengeofadaptationbyaddressingtransboundaryclimaterisk.Stockholm,Sweden:StockholmEnvironmentInstitute.Availableathttps://adaptationwithoutborders.org/sites/weadapt.org/files/meetingtheglobalchallengeofadaptation.pdf44UNFCCCAdaptationCommittee.2014.Reportontheworkshoponthemonitoringandevaluationofadaptation.Bonn:UNFCCC.pp.4.Availableathttps://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/ac_me_ws_report_final.pdf45Berrang‐FordL,WangFM,LesnikowskiA,etal.2017.Towardstheassessmentofadaptationprogressatthegloballevel.In:AOlhoff,HNeufeldt,PNaswaetal.(eds).TheAdaptationGapReport:TowardsGlobalAssessment.Nairobi:UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme.pp.38.46LeiterT.2015.Linkingmonitoringandevaluationofadaptationtoclimatechangeacrossscales:avenuesandpracticalapproaches.NewDirectionsforEvaluation.pp.121‐122.

AccordingtotheCambridgeDictionarydefinition,theverb“aggregate”means“tocombineintoasinglegrouportotal,”“tobringdifferentthingstogether,”or“toadddifferentprices,amounts,etc.inordertogetatotal.”1Bycontrast,itdefinestheverb“collate”as“tobringtogetherdifferentpiecesofwritteninformationsothatthesimilaritiesanddifferencescanbeseen”or“tobringtogetherdifferentpiecesofinformationinordertostudyandcomparethem.”1Therefore,whereasaframingofaggregationmaysteerthetasktowardsapursuitofoneultimatetotaloroverarchingconclusion—andmaythusprivilegequantitativeoreasilycomparableinformation—aframingofcollationleavesmoreroomtoconsidervarioustypesofadaptationinformation,includingdisparatetypesofqualitativeinformation.Tohelpadvanceanunderstandingofglobaladaptationefforts,however,suchacollationmustbesystematicandclearlystructured.Source:CambridgeDictionaryhttps://dictionary.cambridge.org/

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pursuingthisavenuebyallowingforjurisdictionstoselectindicatorsapplicabletotheircircumstancesfromalargerset.Thesecondavenueusescontext‐specificmetricsthatarenotstandardizedbutthatrelatetocommonthemes,whichoffersflexibilitybutlimitstheextenttowhichoverallresultscanbequantifiedandcompared.Finally,thethirdavenueincludesinformallinkages,suchasnetworkingandinformationexchangeamonggovernments.Thesethreeavenuescanbepursuedtogethersothat,overall,thestrengthsandweaknessesofthevariousapproachesbalanceoneanotherout.Forexample,standardizedmetricscanbecombinedwithflexibleuseofcontext‐specificmetrics.ThiscombinationofapproachesisonepotentialwayforwardforassessingtheglobalgoalonadaptationproposedbyCraftandFisher,whosuggestedthatcommonthemesforthecontext‐specificindicatorscouldincludeclimate‐resilientecosystemsandecosystemmanagement,disasterpreparednessandearlywarningsystems,institutionalmainstreamingintogovernmentinstitutions,andmore.47

31. Insteadofdirectlyaddressingthechallengeofhowtoextractandaggregateinformationacrossscales,otherauthorshavesuggestedthattheglobalstocktakereturntofirstprinciplesandbrokeragreementontheoutstandingcontentiousorambiguouselementsoftheglobalgoalonadaptation.Forexample,Tompkins,Vincent,Nicholls,andSuckallproposewhattheycalla“stocktakingapproach”thatincludesfourstepsintendedtotrackobservedadaptationactionacrosslargescales.48Thefirststepinvolvesreachingconsensusontheobjectivesofadaptationaction.Second,relevantstakeholdersmustagreesourcesofevidencethatcanfeedintothestocktakingapproach.Third,theymustagreesearchmethodsfortrackingadaptation.Finally,theymustcategorizetheadaptations.Thisapproachdoesnotfocusonevaluatingthesuccessofadaptationaction,butratheronestablishingabaselineofadaptationbydocumentingthenumberofpeoplewhoareadaptingtoclimatechange,andwhereandbywhomadaptationactionistakingplace.Ontheobjectivesofadaptation,theauthorsargueforthreespecificobjectivesasastartingpointforthestocktakingapproach:reducingsocioeconomicvulnerability,disasterriskreduction,andsupportingsocioecologicalresilience.

32. Inasimilarvein,Olhoff,Väänänen,andDicksonarguethattrackingprogresstowardstheglobalgoalonadaptationrequiressignificantpreparatoryworkandarrivingatagreementinkeyareas.49Specifically,theauthorsholdthatitisnecessarytoagreeonwhattotrack(establishingconceptualclarityontheglobalgoal)andonhowtotrackit(identifyingappropriatemethodologies,metrics,andindicators).Athirdkeyactionareatheauthorshighlightisaddressingchallengesrelatedtoexistinginformationanddata,includingthatsuchdataislimited,broad,andgenerallynottailoredenoughtoadaptation.Theauthorscontend,however,thatitis“highlyunlikely”thattheUNFCCCprocesscanaddressthischallengeonitsown.50

33. Alsoemphasizingtheneedforfurtherclarityontheelementsoftheglobalgoalonadaptation,NgwadlaandEl‐Bakrinonethelessproposeaframeworkofmetricstotracktheimplementationofthegoal.51Thisframeworkincludesthreebroadcategoriesofmetrics:riskmetricsthataretiedtodifferenttemperaturescenarios;metricsthatassessglobalreadinesstoaddressrisk;andmetricsthatassesssupportrequiredandavailableforadaptation.Thefirstcategoryofriskmetricswouldinclude,theauthorssuggest,acompositeindexofeconomy‐wideriskandanassessmentofriskforspecificsectors;bothwouldbelinkedtovaryingtemperaturescenarios.Metricsassessingglobalreadinesstoaddressrisk,bycontrast,wouldexaminethreedifferentelements,namely,theglobalstateofadaptationplanningreadiness,thestateofsector‐basedplanning,andwhetherplanningisappropriateinlightofrisksandvulnerability.Finally,thethirdcategoryofsupport‐relatedmetricswouldservetoassesstheinvestmentrequiredtoaddressrisks

47CraftBandFisherS.2018.MeasuringtheadaptationgoalintheglobalstocktakeoftheParisAgreement.ClimatePolicy.18(9):pp.1206.48TompkinsEL,VincentK,NichollsRJ,etal.2018.DocumentingthestateofadaptationfortheglobalstocktakeoftheParisAgreement.WIREsClimateChange.9(5):pp.1‐9.49OlhoffA,VäänänenE,andDicksonB.2018.Trackingadaptationprogressatthegloballevel:Keyissuesandpriorities.In:ZZommersandKAlverson(eds.).Resilience:TheScienceofAdaptationtoClimateChange.Amsterdam,Cambridge,andOxford:Elsevier.pp.51‐61.50OlhoffA,VäänänenE,andDicksonB.2018.Trackingadaptationprogressatthegloballevel:Keyissuesandpriorities.In:ZZommersandKAlverson(eds.).Resilience:TheScienceofAdaptationtoClimateChange.Amsterdam,Cambridge,andOxford:Elsevierpp.57.51NgwadlaXandEl‐BakriS.2016.TheGlobalGoalforAdaptationundertheParisAgreement:Puttingideasintoaction.London,UK:ClimateandDevelopmentKnowledgeNetwork.Availableat:https://cdkn.org/wp‐content/uploads/2016/11/Global‐adaptation‐goals‐paper.pdf

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linkedtovaryingtemperaturescenarios,domesticadaptationinvestmentsmade(torecognizetheeffortsofdevelopingcountryParties),andsupportprovidedforadaptation.Thisapproachthusadvocatesforassessingprogresstowardsthegoalmoreholisticallyandbeyondthethreeindividualelements,consideringprogressinlightoftheParisAgreement’stemperaturegoalandtheglobalstocktake’smandatetoalsorecognizetheadaptationeffortsofdevelopingcountryPartiesandreviewtheadequacyandeffectivenessofadaptationandsupportprovidedforadaptation.

34. The2017UNEPAdaptationGapReport,whichfocusedonthetopicofglobalassessmentofadaptation,concludedthatframeworksforassessingadaptationprogressthatfollowaproximity‐to‐targetapproach“havethegreatestpotentialtorespectadiversityofnationalcontextswhilefacilitatingglobalassessmentofprogress.”52Suchframeworksgenerallyuseagovernment’sowntargetsandgoalsasabenchmarkandseektodeterminewhetherthesearebeingreached.53Theycouldalsoaccommodatemoresubjectiveandnormativeassessmentsofthesufficiencyorappropriatenessofagovernment’sgoalsortheinstrumentsbeingdeployedtoworktowardsthesegoals.DupuisandBiesbroekcontendthatsuchanapproachmayhelpsolvethe“dependentvariableproblem”complicatingthecomparisonofadaptationpoliciesbetweenandwithincountries,whereinthescope,boundaries,andconceptofthephenomenonbeingassessedareambiguous.54Theirsuggestion,however,istodevelopaproximity‐to‐targetframeworkwhereinthecomparisonismadetoanidealmodelofadaptationpolicy.This,ofcourse,requiresagreementonwhatconstitutesanidealmodel.

35. Followingthisoverarchingproximity‐to‐targetapproach,Berrang‐Fordetal.proposeanoverarchingconceptualframeworkforsystematicallytrackingglobaladaptationeffortsthatisdesignedtobebothflexibleandsensitivetonationalcontextsontheonehand,butalsoscalableandsuitabletodiversecontextsontheotherhand.55Theframeworkcombinesdescriptiveassessmentoffourkeyelements(vulnerability,adaptationgoals/targets,adaptationefforts,andadaptationresults)withanevaluativeassessmentinthreeareas(sufficiencyofgoalsandtargets,sufficiencyofadaptationefforts,andattributionandcontributionofadaptationefforts).Acombinationofevaluativeanddescriptivecomponentsisbeneficialbecausewhiledescriptiveassessmentsarebettersuitedtotrackingprogressobjectivelyovertime,evaluativeassessments,thoughmoresubjective,canpotentiallycapturemoremeaningfulsnapshotsofadaptationprogress.56Inthiscase,theevaluativeassessmentenablesthoseusingtheframeworktogaininsightintohowwell‐alignedthefourkeydescriptiveelementsareineachcontext.Forexample,itpromptsanexaminationofwhethergoalsandtargetsarealignedwiththevulnerabilityprofileandcontext,whetherthegovernment’sadaptationeffortsarealignedwithitsowngoalsandtargets,and,inturn,whetherthereisevidencethatvulnerabilitychangedasaresultofthegovernment’seffortsorwhethertheresultsmeetthegoalsandtargetsspecified.

36. Notably,theapproachdoesnotintroducenewtoolsoridentifyaparticulargroupofindicators,butratherpresentsasetofcoreconceptsandquestionsinanoverarchingframeworkwithinwhichrelevanttoolsandindicatorscanbeused.Thisiswhatenablestheframeworktobedeployedindifferentcontextsandatdifferentscales,thoughthetypeofindicators,dataquality,andotherfactorswillthereforebeinconsistentdependingontheplaceandlevelatwhichitisused.Theframeworkalsoallowsforadeepdiveintoassessingthealignmentofpoliciesinagivencontext,eitherhorizontallybyassessingwhetheron‐the‐groundandpolicy‐levelgoalsanddetailsalignwithhigh‐levelideas,andverticallybyassessingpolicy

52UNEP.2017.TheAdaptationGapReport2017:TowardsGlobalAssessment.Nairobi:UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme(UNEP).pp.xvi.Availableathttps://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/22172/adaptation_gap_2017.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y53Berrang‐FordL,WangFM,LesnikowskiA,etal.2017.Towardstheassessmentofadaptationprogressatthegloballevel.In:AOlhoff,HNeufeldt,PNaswaetal.(eds).TheAdaptationGapReport:TowardsGlobalAssessment.Nairobi:UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme.pp.38.Availableathttps://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/22172/adaptation_gap_2017.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y54DupuisJandBiesbroekR,2013.Comparingapplesandoranges:Thedependentvariableproblemincomparingandevaluatingclimatechangeadaptationpolicies.GlobalEnvironmentalChange23(6):pp.1476‐1487.55Berrang‐FordL,BiesbroekR,FordJ,etal.2019.Trackingglobalclimatechangeadaptationamonggovernments.NatureClimateChange9(6):pp.440‐449.56NeufeldtHandBerrang‐FordL.2017.Considerationsforafutureframeworkforassessingadaptationprogressatthegloballevel.In:AOlhoff,HNeufeldt,PNaswaetal.(eds).TheAdaptationGapReport:TowardsGlobalAssessment.Nairobi:UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme.pp.49‐55.

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mechanismschosenatonelevelalignwiththepolicygoalarticulatedatthatlevel.ForthepurposeofassessingtheglobalgoalonadaptationinamannerthatisconsistentwiththespiritoftheParisAgreement,descriptiveproximity‐to‐targetassessmentscouldbeundertakenbygovernments,whiletheevaluativeportioncouldbeundertakenthroughparticipatory,expertreview,orcountry‐ledmechanisms.57

2.4. Opportunitiesandlimitationsofusingmetricsandindicatorstoassesstheglobalgoalonadaptation

37. Thequestionofhowtoassessadaptationprogressisrelatedinteraliatothesearchforadaptationmetricsandindicators(seebox4foradiscussiononthesetermsandhowtheyareusedinthispaper).Thissearchhasnotbeenstraightforward;onthecontrary,ithasbeen,andwilllikelyremain,contentious.58Thisisinstarkcontrasttotherealmofmitigation.Mitigationeffectivenessismeasuredinunitsofauniversallyapplicablemetric(tonnesofGHGs)againstanobjectiveandquantifiablegoal(e.g.limitingtemperaturerisetowellbelow2oCorto1.5oCabovepreindustriallevels)andpresentedinauniformandeasilycomparableformat(GHGemissionsinventories).Adaptation,ontheotherhand,doesnoteasilylenditselftoauniversal,objective,quantifiablemeasureofsuccessoreffectiveness.

Box4.Metricvsindicator

38. Nonetheless,giventheneedtounderstandhowadaptationinterventionsareaffectingthecapacityofpeopleandecosystemstocopewithclimatechangeimpacts,thedevelopmentanduseofadaptationindicatorsbyacademics,donors,sub‐nationalandnationalgovernmentshaveproliferatedrecently.TheIPCC(2014)hasidentifiedatleastthreeusesofmetricsforassessingadaptation:1)determiningtheneedforadaptation,2)measuringtheprocessofimplementingadaptation,and3)measuringtheeffectivenessofadaptation.Metricsrelatedtotheneedforadaptationtypicallytrytomeasurevulnerability,thoughitisnotclearwhethertheycangobeyondidentifyingpeopleandplacesthatarevulnerabletoeffectivelyshedlight57Berrang‐FordL,WangFM,LesnikowskiA,etal.2017.Towardstheassessmentofadaptationprogressatthegloballevel.In:AOlhoff,HNeufeldt,PNaswaetal.(eds).TheAdaptationGapReport:TowardsGlobalAssessment.Nairobi:UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme.pp.38.Availableathttps://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/22172/adaptation_gap_2017.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y58IPCC.2014.AdaptationNeedsandOptions.In:ClimateChange2014:Impacts,Adaptation,andVulnerability.PartA:GlobalandSectoralAspects.ContributionofWorkingGroupIItotheFifthAssessmentReportoftheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange.CambridgeUniversityPress,Cambridge,UnitedKingdomandNewYork,NY,USA,pp.833‐868.Availableathttps://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/WGIIAR5‐Chap14_FINAL.pdf;(2)

TheIPCCdistinguishedbetweentheterms“metric”and“indicator”bydefiningametricasa“groupofvalues(measures)thattakentogethergiveabroaderindicationofthestateorthedegreeofprogress”whileanindicator“isasignorestimateofthestateofsomething.”1Nonetheless,theIPCCnotesthatthisdifferentiationisnotconsistentintheliteratureand,indeed,forthepurposesofthispaperthisdistinctionisnotclearinmostoftheworkreviewedinthissection.Forexample,the2017UNEPAdaptationGapReport,bycontrast,definedindicatorsas“Quantitativeorqualitativefactororvariablethatprovidesasimpleandreliablemeanstomeasureachievement,toreflectthechangesconnectedtoanintervention,ortohelpassesstheperformanceofadevelopmentactor”whereasmetricsorindicesare“asystemofmeasurementthatincludestheitembeingmeasured,theunitofmeasurement,andthevalueoftheunit.”Whilethetwosetsofdefinitionsthusoverlap,theyemphasizeandhighlightdifferentaspects.Therefore,thetwocloselyrelatedtermsareusedinterchangeablyinthispaper,guidedbyhowthetermsareusedintheliteratureandexamplesunderdiscussion.Sources:(1)IPCC.2014.AdaptationNeedsandOptions.In:ClimateChange2014:Impacts,Adaptation,andVulnerability.PartA:GlobalandSectoralAspects.ContributionofWorkingGroupIItotheFifthAssessmentReportoftheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange.CambridgeUniversityPress,Cambridge,UnitedKingdomandNewYork,NY,USA,pp.833‐868.Availableathttps://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/WGIIAR5‐Chap14_FINAL.pdf;(2)UNEP.2017.TheAdaptationGapReport2017:TowardsGlobalAssessment.Nairobi:UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme(UNEP).p.xvi.

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onthenatureofthevulnerability.Metricsthatmeasuretheprocessofimplementingadaptationactionincludeassessmentsofprogressinareassuchasspendingonadaptationactionorthenumberofearlywarningsystemsimplemented.Ascomparedwiththeothertwouses,selectingappropriatemetricsforsuchmeasurementstendstobelesscontentious,thoughthereisdoubtaboutwhethersuchmetricsareeffectiveproxiesformeasuringadaptationasopposedtodevelopment.Finally,metricsthatstrivetomeasuretheeffectivenessofadaptationareimportantformeasuringprogressbutareespeciallydifficulttofindduetothelong‐timehorizonsofadaptationoutcomesandthechangingconditionsinwhichtheymaterialize.

39. Intheliteratureonmonitoringandevaluatingadaptation,anothercommoncategorizationframeworkforadaptationmetricsandindicatorsdifferentiatesbetweeninput,output,outcome,andimpactindicators.Whereasinputandoutputindicatorslooktocapturethepotentialforadaptation,outcomeandimpactindicatorslooktocapturetherealizationofadaptation.59Process‐orientedinputandoutputindicatorshavebeenthemostcommontodate.60Relyingontheseindicators,however,maygenerate“misleadingconclusions”abouttheextenttowhichadaptationisactuallytakingplace.61LeiterandPringlenotethattheIPCC’slattertwocategoriesincombinationcanpaintapictureofadaptationprogress.Whilethesecondcategoryrepresentsaprocess‐orientedassessmentofwhatisbeingdonetoadvanceadaptation(inputandoutput),thethirdcategoryrepresentsanoutcome‐orientedassessmentofwhatisresultingfromtheseefforts.

40. Indicatorscanbequalitativeorquantitative,thoughKatoandEllisarguethattheportionoftheglobalstocktakethatassessesprogresstowardstheglobalgoalonadaptationislikelytobequalitativeratherthanquantitativeduetothechallengessuchascontext‐specificity,theflexibilityintimeandcontentaffordedtocountriesinreportingontheiradaptation‐relatedeffortsundertheParisAgreement(i.e.adaptationcommunicationsinparticular),andvaryingnationalpracticesandcapacitiesinmonitoringandevaluatingthethreeelementsofthegoal.62Theauthorsnotethatthisassessmentcouldyieldquantitativeinformationthatisbasedonnationalself‐assessmentsconductedthroughscorecardsorreportstotheUNFCCC,orbasedonthird‐partyassessmentssuchasIPCCreportsorregion‐orcountry‐specificanalyses.Othershavevoicedasimilaropinion.Forexample,MilkoreitandHaapalaholdthat,assessingcollectiveprogresstowardstheglobalgoalonadaptation“isaqualitativeratherthanquantitativeexercisethatdoesnotlenditselfeasilytodataaggregationefforts.”63

41. Whilethereareexistingindiceswithmetricsthattrackthethreeelementsoftheglobalgoalonadaptation(i.e.resilience,vulnerability,andadaptivecapacity),thelackofagreementontherelativemeritsoftheseindicesandthevalidityoftherankingsthattheygeneraterendersitunlikelythattheycanplayaprominentrole,ifany,intheglobalstocktake.64Indeed,effortsthusfarhavenotyieldedconsensusonhowtosystematicallyassess,measure,expressandcomparecountries’vulnerabilitytoclimatechangeandnoneoftheexistingindiceshasbeenendorsedbytheConferenceoftheParties(COP)totheUNFCCC65ortheCMA.Theindicesthatexistgeneratesignificantlydifferentcountryrankingsasaresultofthedifferent

59LeiterT,OlhoffA,AlAzarR,etal.2019.Adaptationmetrics–CurrentLandscapeandEvolvingPractices.RotterdamandWashington:GlobalCommissiononAdaptation.Availableathttps://unepdtu.org/adaptation‐metrics‐current‐landscape‐and‐evolving‐practices/60OlhoffA,VäänänenE,andDicksonB.2018.Trackingadaptationprogressatthegloballevel:Keyissuesandpriorities.In:ZZommersandKAlverson(eds.).Resilience:TheScienceofAdaptationtoClimateChange.Amsterdam,Cambridge,andOxford:Elsevier.pp.51‐61.61LeiterTandPringleP.2018.Pitfallsandpotentialofmeasuringclimatechangeadaptationthroughadaptationmetrics.In:LChristiansen,MartinezG,andPNaswa(eds.).Adaptationmetrics:Perspectivesonmeasuring,aggregatingandcomparingadaptationresults.Copenhagen:UNEPDTUPartnership.pp.36.62KatoTandEllisJ.2016.CommunicatingProgressinNationalandGlobalAdaptationtoClimateChange.Paris:OECD.63MilkoreitMandHaapalaK.2018.“Theglobalstocktake:designlessonsforanewreviewandambitionmechanismintheinternationalclimateregime.InEnvironAgreements.Pp.6.64OlhoffA,VäänänenE,andDicksonB.2018.Trackingadaptationprogressatthegloballevel:Keyissuesandpriorities.In:ZZommersandKAlverson(eds.).Resilience:TheScienceofAdaptationtoClimateChange.Amsterdam,Cambridge,andOxford:Elsevier.pp.51‐61.65MoehnerA.2018.TheevolutionofadaptationmetricsundertheUNFCCCanditsParisAgreement..In:LChristiansen,MartinezG,andPNaswa(eds.).Adaptationmetrics:Perspectivesonmeasuring,aggregatingandcomparingadaptationresults.Copenhagen:UNEPDTUPartnership.pp.15‐28.

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indicatorsandweightingsused.66Therefore,thequestionofwhetheranyindexcanbeusedtohelpdeterminewhatprogresshasbeenmadetowardstheglobalgoalonadaptationinevitablywadesintocontentiousnormativeandpoliticaldebatessurroundinghowtodeterminethevulnerabilityofindividualcountriestoclimatechange.

42. Otherthanusingvulnerabilityindicators,MichaelowaandStadelmannhighlighttwootherapproachesforassessingtheeffectivenessofadaptation,namely,cost‐benefitandcost‐effectivenessanalyses.67Cost‐benefitanalysesgenerateestimatesoftheeconomicbenefitsderivedfromadaptationefforts,thoughtheydonotconsidernon‐monetarybenefits(e.g.health‐relatedbenefits).Bycontrast,cost‐effectivenessanalysesidentifytheleastcostlymeansofreachingadefinedgoal,thoughthisapproachislesswellsuitedtocaseswheretherearemultiplegoals.MichaelowaandStadelmannproposetheindicatorsofSavedWealthandSavedHealthaseffectivewaystoshedlightontothemonetaryandnon‐monetaryoutcomesofadaptationefforts.68WhereastheSavedWealthindicatorwouldofferacalculationofassetssavedbyanadaptationmeasure,theSavedHealthindicatorwouldestimatehealthbenefitsusingtheconceptofDisabilityAdjustedLifeYearsSaved,whichiscommoninthepublichealthpolicyspace.Similarly,MagnanandRiberaalsoargueforaspecificproxythattheybelievecandistilsomeofthemostimportantoutcomesofadaptationintosimpleandclearsummariesofadaptationoutcomesandprogress.69Specifically,theyproposetrackingtheglobalgoalforadaptationviatheproxyofhumansecurity.Theyofferaninterpretationoftheglobaladaptationgoalthat,theybelieve,ismorepreciseandthereforeeasiertotrackatagloballevel:“thecommitmentoftheinternationalcommunitytoensurehumansecurityina‘wellbelow+2oC’worldbytheendofthecentury,meaningfirst,enhancingadaptationeffortswhenpossible,andsecond,providingadequateanswersforthosewhosesecuritycouldnotbecoveredinawellbelow+2oCworld.”70

43. Althoughmetricsandindicatorshavethusreceivedalotofattentionintheliteratureonmonitoring,evaluating,andaggregatinginformationonadaptation,itisimportanttobearinmindtheirlimitations.AsLeiterandPringlenote,whilemetricsandindicatorscanhelprevealsomedimensionsofprogressonadaptation,theycannotofferexplanationsforwhythatprogresshas(orhasnot)takenplace.71This,inturn,limitstheextenttowhichthesemetricsorindicatorscaninformsubsequentadaptation‐relateddecisionstakenonthebasisoftheassessment.ThisisanimportantconsiderationforassessingprogresstowardstheglobalgoalonadaptationintheglobalstocktakegiventhattheoutcomeofthestocktakewillinformPartiesastheyupdateandenhancetheiradaptation‐relatedactionandsupport.

44. Inlightofthechallengestiedtoindices,Olhoff,Väänänen,andDicksonsuggestthatsectoralapproachescouldofferanalternativewayforwardfortheglobalstocktake.72ThiswouldalignwiththesectoralapproachestakeninmanyNDCs,NAPs,andotherreporting,monitoring,andevaluationframeworks.Sector‐specificliteraturedoesoffersomeinsightsintopotentialavenuesformeasuringprogressand/orsuccessinadaptation.TheLancetCommissiononhealthandclimatechange,forexample,

66LeiterTandPringleP.2018.Pitfallsandpotentialofmeasuringclimatechangeadaptationthroughadaptationmetrics.In:LChristiansen,MartinezG,andPNaswa(eds.).Adaptationmetrics:Perspectivesonmeasuring,aggregatingandcomparingadaptationresults.Copenhagen:UNEPDTUPartnership.pp29‐48.67MichaelowaAandStadelmannM.Developmentofuniversalmetricsforadaptationeffectiveness..In:LChristiansen,MartinezG,andPNaswa(eds.).Adaptationmetrics:Perspectivesonmeasuring,aggregatingandcomparingadaptationresults.Copenhagen:UNEPDTUPartnership.pp.63‐72.68MichaelowaAandStadelmannM.Developmentofuniversalmetricsforadaptationeffectiveness..In:LChristiansen,MartinezG,andPNaswa(eds.).Adaptationmetrics:Perspectivesonmeasuring,aggregatingandcomparingadaptationresults.Copenhagen:UNEPDTUPartnership.pp.63‐72.69MagnanAandRiberiaT.2016.GlobaladaptationafterParis:Climatemitigationandadaptationcannotbeuncoupled.Science352(6291):pp.1280‐1282.70MagnanAandRiberiaT.2016.GlobaladaptationafterParis:Climatemitigationandadaptationcannotbeuncoupled.Science352(6291):pp.1282.71LeiterTandPringleP.2018.Pitfallsandpotentialofmeasuringclimatechangeadaptationthroughadaptationmetrics.In:LChristiansen,MartinezG,andPNaswa(eds.).Adaptationmetrics:Perspectivesonmeasuring,aggregatingandcomparingadaptationresults.Copenhagen:UNEPDTUPartnership.pp29‐48.72OlhoffA,VäänänenE,andDicksonB.2018.Trackingadaptationprogressatthegloballevel:Keyissuesandpriorities.In:ZZommersandKAlverson(eds.).Resilience:TheScienceofAdaptationtoClimateChange.Amsterdam,Cambridge,andOxford:Elsevier.pp.51‐61.

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hasasetofindicatorsspecificto“adaptation,planning,andresilienceforhealth.”Aswithothereffortstomeasureandtrackadaptation,however,theindicatorsarelargelyprocess‐based,makingitdifficulttoderiveanyconclusionsabouttheeffectivenessoftheprocessesbeingtracked.Intheir2018report,theLancetCommissionacknowledgedthis,notingthat“althoughadaptationactivitiesmayhaveincreased,theydonotguaranteeresilienceagainstfutureclimatechange.”73OftheCommission’seightadaptation‐relatedindicators,onlyone—theirnewestindicatorwhichmeasuresclimatechangeadaptationtovulnerabilitiesfrommosquito‐bornediseases—attemptstomeasurehealthoutcomes.Thereareadditionalsectoraltoolsorframeworksthatrelatetoclimatechangeadaptation,suchastheClimateResilienceandFoodSecurityframeworkfromtheInternationalInstituteforSustainableDevelopment,theFutureFloodingandCoastalErosionRiskAssessmentundertakenintheUnitedKingdom,ortheWorldBank’sEconomicEvaluationofClimateChangeAdaptationProjectsintheAgriculturalSector.74Berrang‐Fordetal.argue,however,thatbyvirtueofthegoalsandfocusofsuchframeworks,they“arenotdesigned—andhavenegligiblepotential—tobeusedforsystematicglobalaggregationorsynthesisofnationally‐reporteddata.”75

2.5. Opportunitiesandproceduresfromexistingmultilateralreviewmechanisms

45. Severalresearchers76notethat,inimplementingtheglobalstocktake,theinternationalclimatechangeregimecanlooktootherinternationalreviewmechanismsandborrowrelevantprocessesand/orindicators.Inparticular,theParisAgreement’ssiblingsamongthepost‐2015developmentagendas,especiallytheSustainableDevelopmentGoals(SDGs)andtheSendaiFrameworkforDisasterRiskReduction,aswellasotherRioConventionsarecitedasofferingasetofindicatorsalreadytailoredtothegloballevelthatpotentiallycanbeappliedtorevealinsightsintoglobalprogressonadaptation.

46. Olhoff,Väänänen,andDicksonarguethat“tweaking”theseindicatorsforuseintheglobalstocktake“mayprovidecost‐effectivewaysforgatheringinformationonadaptationinclimatechangeimpactareasthathavebeenalreadyagreedasglobalpriorities.”77Othersarguefor“expanding”theglobalandnationalmonitoringeffortsundertheSDGs“toprovidemeaningfulcoverageofadaptation.”78Forexample,theFoodandAgricultureOrganizationisalreadylookingtousetheexistingSDGindicatorsthatitmonitorstoassessadaptation,andthisapproachcanbetakenfortheotherrelevantindicatorsincludedintheframework.79

47. Likewise,oneofthekeymessagesemergingfromtheAC’s2018expertmeetingonnationaladaptationgoals/indicatorsandtheirrelationshipwiththeSDGsandtheSendaiFrameworkwasthat,incombination,thetop‐downassessmentapproachesputinplacebytheSDGsandSendaiandthebottom‐upapproach

73WattsN,AmannM,ArnellNetal.2018.The2018reportoftheLancetCountdownonhealthandclimatechange:shapingthehealthofnationsforcenturiestocome.TheLancet392(10163):2491.74Berrang‐FordL,WangFM,LesnikowskiA,etal.2017.Towardstheassessmentofadaptationprogressatthegloballevel.In:AOlhoff,HNeufeldt,PNaswaetal.(eds).TheAdaptationGapReport:TowardsGlobalAssessment.Nairobi:UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme.pp.35‐48.75Berrang‐FordL,WangFM,LesnikowskiA,etal.2017.Towardstheassessmentofadaptationprogressatthegloballevel.In:AOlhoff,HNeufeldt,PNaswaetal.(eds).TheAdaptationGapReport:TowardsGlobalAssessment.Nairobi:UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme.pp.39.76E.g.HuangJ.2018.WhatcantheParisAgreement’sglobalstocktakelearnfromtheSustainableDevelopmentGoals?CarbonandClimateLawReview12(3):pp.218‐228;OlhoffA,VäänänenE,andDicksonB.2018.Trackingadaptationprogressatthegloballevel:Keyissuesandpriorities.In:ZZommersandKAlverson(eds.).Resilience:TheScienceofAdaptationtoClimateChange.Amsterdam,Cambridge,andOxford:Elsevier.pp.51‐61;LeiterTandPringleP.2018.Pitfallsandpotentialofmeasuringclimatechangeadaptationthroughadaptationmetrics.In:LChristiansen,MartinezG,andPNaswa(eds.).Adaptationmetrics:Perspectivesonmeasuring,aggregatingandcomparingadaptationresults.Copenhagen:UNEPDTUPartnership.pp.29‐48.77OlhoffA,VäänänenE,andDicksonB.2018.Trackingadaptationprogressatthegloballevel:Keyissuesandpriorities.In:ZZommersandKAlverson(eds.).Resilience:TheScienceofAdaptationtoClimateChange.Amsterdam,Cambridge,andOxford:Elsevier.pp.59.78LeiterT,OlhoffA,AlAzarR,etal.2019.Adaptationmetrics–CurrentLandscapeandEvolvingPractices.RotterdamandWashington:GlobalCommissiononAdaptation.Availableathttps://unepdtu.org/adaptation‐metrics‐current‐landscape‐and‐evolving‐practices/79LeiterT,OlhoffA,AlAzarR,etal.2019.Adaptationmetrics–CurrentLandscapeandEvolvingPractices.RotterdamandWashington:GlobalCommissiononAdaptation.Availableathttps://unepdtu.org/adaptation‐metrics‐current‐landscape‐and‐evolving‐practices/

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takenbytheParisAgreementcouldhelp“assesscollectiveprogresstowardsglobalgoals.”80Besideslesseningtheburdenofreportingonadaptation,borrowingtheseindicatorsforassessingadaptationcanhelpbetterconnectthepolicydomainsofsustainabledevelopment,disasterriskreduction,andclimatechangeadaptation81whichalreadyhavewell‐recognizedsynergies.82

48. PotentiallyrelevantindicatorsundertheSDGframeworkinclude,forexample,thenumberofdeaths,missingpersonsanddirectlyaffectedpersonsattributedtodisastersper100,000population(indicator13.1.1);thenumberofcountriesthathavecommunicatedtheestablishmentoroperationalizationofanintegratedpolicy,strategy,orplanwhichincreasestheirabilitytoadapttoclimatechangeandfosterclimateresilienceandlowemissionsdevelopment(indicator13.2.1);andthenumberofcountriesthatadoptandimplementnationaldisasterriskreductionstrategiesinlinewiththeSendaiFramework(indicator11.b.1).83

49. ThisisonlyasmallsampleofindicatorsundertheSDGframeworkthatmayberelevantforassessingadaptationprogress;selectindicatorsundergoal2(“Endhunger,achievefoodsecurityandimprovednutritionandpromotesustainableagriculture”)goal6(“Ensureavailabilityandsustainablemanagementofwaterandsanitationforall”),goal15(“Protect,restoreandpromotesustainableuseofterrestrialecosystems,sustainablymanageforests,combatdesertification,andhalfandreverselanddegradationandhaltbiodiversityloss”),aswellasthoseunderseveralothergoalscanalsocontributetoassessingglobaladaptationaction.Indeed,insomecases,reportingundersomeoftheseindicatorsisalreadyexplicitlyreferencingadaptationaction;forexample,reportingunderSDGindicator6.5.2(“Proportionoftransboundarybasinareawithanoperationalarrangementforwatercooperation”)hashelpedshedlightonthedegreetowhichadaptationhasbeenintegratedintotransboundarywatercooperation.84Inadditiontohavingrelevantindicatorsaspartofitsassessmentframework,theSDGprocessisinvokedasapotentialmodelbecauseitsharessimilaroverarchinggoalswiththeglobalstocktake,namely,assessingcollectiveprogress,offeringanopportunityforcountriestoshareexperiencesandlessonslearned,andbolsteringambitionandimplementation.85

50. UndertheSendaiFramework,examplesofindicatorsrelevanttoadaptationincludedirecteconomiclossattributedtodisastersinrelationtoglobalGDP(indicatorC‐1);damagetocriticalinfrastructureattributedtodisasters(indicatorD‐1);andthenumberofcountriesthathavemulti‐hazardearlywarningsystems(indicatorG‐1).86TheSendaiFramework,however,encompassesdisasterscausedbynaturalandman‐madehazards;tousedatacollectedthroughitsprocesses,itwouldthereforebenecessarytodisaggregatethedatatoincludeonlyclimate‐relatednaturaldisasters.87What’smore,drawingonthese

80UNFCCCAdaptationCommittee.2018.Reportontheexpertmeetingonnationaladaptationgoals/indicatorsandtheirrelationshipwiththeSustainableDevelopmentGoalsandtheSendaiFrameworkforDisasterRiskReduction.Bonn:UNFCCC,p.4.Availableathttps://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/ac14_indicators.pdf.81LeiterTandPringleP.2018.Pitfallsandpotentialofmeasuringclimatechangeadaptationthroughadaptationmetrics.In:LChristiansen,MartinezG,andPNaswa(eds.).Adaptationmetrics:Perspectivesonmeasuring,aggregatingandcomparingadaptationresults.Copenhagen:UNEPDTUPartnership.pp29‐48.82UNFCCC.2017.OpportunitiesandoptionsforintegratingclimatechangeadaptationwiththeSustainableDevelopmentGoalsandtheSendaiFrameworkforDisasterRiskReduction2015‐2030.Bonn:UNFCCCsecretariat.Availableathttps://unfccc.int/files/adaptation/groups_committees/adaptation_committee/application/pdf/techpaper_adaptation.pdf83ForafulllistofSDGindicators,seehttps://unstats.un.org/sdgs/indicators/Global%20Indicator%20Framework%20after%202019%20refinement_Eng.pdf84UnitedNationsandUNESCO.2018.ProgressonTransboundaryWaterCooperation:GlobalbaselineforSDGindicator6.5.2.France:UNESCO.Availableathttps://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/water/publications/WAT_57/ECE_MP.WAT_57.pdf85HuangJ.2018.WhatcantheParisAgreement’sglobalstocktakelearnfromtheSustainableDevelopmentGoals?CarbonandClimateLawReview12(3):pp.218‐228.86ForafulllistofSendaiFrameworkindicators,seehttps://www.preventionweb.net/sendai‐framework/sendai‐framework‐monitor/indicators87VallejoL.2017.Insightsfromnationaladaptationmonitoringandevaluationsystems.Paris:OECD.Availableathttps://www.oecd.org/environment/cc/Insights%20from%20national%20adaptation%20monitoring%20and%20evaluation%20systems.pdf

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indicatorsborrowedfromtheSDGsandtheSendaiFrameworkcanshedonlysomelightonadaptationprogress,offering“aroughsnapshotofsomeadaptationoutcomes;”inordertoaccuratelydepictprogressandhelpsteeradaptation‐relateddecision‐making,“country‐tailorednationaladaptationmetricsthatrelyonquantitativeandqualitativedata”88arenecessary.

51. AlthoughtheSDGsandtheSendaiFrameworkarethemostcommonlycitedmultilateralreviewmechanismsafterwhichtheglobalstocktakecouldbemodelled,MilkoreitandHaapalaalsopresentausefulcontrastbetweenthestocktakeandthreeothermechanisms:theInternationalMonetaryFund’s(IMF)BilateralSurveillance,theWorldTradeOrganization’s(WTO)TradePolicyReviewMechanism(TPRM)andtheMontrealProtocol’sImplementationReview.89Notably,theglobalstocktake’sfocusonassessingcollective,ratherthanindividual,progressdifferentiatesitfromtheseothermechanismswherethecollectiveassessmentisundertakenoverandabovetheprimaryfunctionofassessingindividualaction.Thestocktakealsodiffersinitstimehorizon,whichissignificantlylongerthanthoseintegratedinotherreviewmechanisms.

52. ComparisonswiththeothertwoRioConventions—namely,theConventiononBiologicalDiversity(CBD)andtheUNConventiontoCombatDesertification(UNCCD)—canalsoofferinsightsintohowtheinternationalcommunityhascollectivelysetobjectivesandmeasuredprogresstowardsthoseobjectivesincomplementaryarenas.UndertheCBD,theStrategicPlanforBiodiversity2011‐2020adoptedin2010outlined5strategicgoalsand20correspondingtargets,titledthe“AichiBiodiversityTargets.”InadecisiontakenbytheConferenceofthePartiestotheCBDin2014,PartiesrequestedthattheExecutiveSecretaryoftheCBD“conveneameetingoftheAdHocTechnicalExpertGrouponIndicatorsfortheStrategicPlanforBiodiversity2011‐2020,”90andrequestedthatthisgroup“identifyasmallsetofmeasurablepotentialindicatorsthatcouldbeusedtomonitorprogressatthegloballeveltowardstheAichiBiodiversityTargets.”91

53. TheTechnicalExpertGroupidentifiedbothgenericandspecificindicatorsforeachofthe20AichiTargets;thisincluded58specificindicators,ofwhich30wereconsideredeasytocommunicateandsuitableforuseatthenationallevelandwerethereforeputforwardasthe“smallsetofindicators”requestedbyParties.92Anadditional27indicatorsidentifiedwereunderactivedevelopment,andseentoholdpotentialtofillgapsleftbytheindicatorsinthesmallset.Initsreport,theTechnicalExpertGroupnotedthatwhilethesetofglobalindicatorsofferedasolidfoundationforassessingprogress,itshouldbecomplementedwithadditionalsourcesofinformationsuchasnationalreports,contributionsfromothermultilateralenvironmentalagreements,andcontributionsfromindigenouspeoplesandlocalcommunities.

54. ThelistofAichiTargetindicatorswaslaterrevised;therevisedlistincludes79genericindicatorsand147specificindicators.93Ofthesespecificindicators,40arealsoindicatorsincludedundertheSDGframework.ExamplesofspecificindicatorswithpotentialrelevanceforassessingglobaladaptationprogressincludetheGlobalEcosystemRestorationIndex(acompositeindexmeasuredbytheGrouponEarthObservationsBiodiversityObservationNetwork);theprevalenceofmoderateorseverefoodinsecurityinthepopulation(alsoSDGIndicator2.1.2);andthenumberofcountrieswithecosystemimpactmonitoringand/orassessmentprogrammes.AsthetimelinesetfortheStrategicPlanforBiodiversity2011‐2020issoonelapsing,andPartiesarecurrentlyworkingtowardsapost‐2020biodiversityframework.Inthedecisionwelcomingtheupdatedlistofindicators,theCBDCOPencouragedParties“[t]ouseavarietyofapproaches,accordingtonationalcircumstances,inassessingprogresstowardsnationalimplementationoftheStrategicPlanforBiodiversity2011‐2020,includingquantitativeindicators,expertopinion,stakeholder

88MoehnerA.2018.TheevolutionofadaptationmetricsundertheUNFCCCanditsParisAgreement..In:LChristiansen,MartinezG,andPNaswa(eds.).Adaptationmetrics:Perspectivesonmeasuring,aggregatingandcomparingadaptationresults.Copenhagen:UNEPDTUPartnership.pp.15‐28.89MilkoreitMandHaapalaK.2017.DesigningtheGlobalStocktake:AGlobalGovernanceInnovation.WestLafayette,Indiana:CenterforClimateandEnergySolutions.90SeeUNEP/CBD/COP/DEC/XII/1,para.20(b).91SeeUNEP/CBD/COP/DEC/XII/1,AnnexII.92SeeUNEP/CBD/ID/AHTEG/2015/1/393SeeCBD/COP/DEC/XIII/28

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consultationandcasestudies,clearlydocumentedinordertorecorduncertainty,contradictoryevidenceandgapsinknowledgetoenablecomparableassessmentstobeundertaken.”94

55. PartiestotheUNCCDadoptedthe2018‐2030StrategicFrameworkin2017,whichincludedfivestrategicobjectivesintendedtoguidetheactionsofallUNCCDstakeholdersandpartnersinthetwelve‐yearperiodcoveredbytheStrategicFramework.95TheStrategicFrameworkspecifiesthatmonitoringprogressmadetowardsimplementingtheStrategicFrameworkwilltakeplacethroughnationalreporting,sharingnationalexperiences,bestpracticesandlessonslearned,aswellasareviewandevaluationbytheCommitteefortheReviewoftheImplementationoftheConvention(CRIC)whichisundertheauthorityandguidanceoftheUNCCDCOP.

56. Partiesidentifiedindicatorsfortrackingprogressmadeinachievingthestrategicobjectives.Severaloftheseindicatorsarerelevantforclimatechangeadaptationandresilience‐building.Forexample,understrategicobjectiveone,whichseeks“toimprovetheconditionofaffectedecosystems,”indicatorsinclude“trendsinlandcover”and“trendsinlandproductivityorfunctioningoftheland.”Tofacilitatenationalreportingontheseindicators,theUNCCDsecretariatprovidedPartieswithnationalestimatesforeachindicatoronthebasisofavailabledata(e.g.fromtheClimateChangeInitiativeLandCoveroftheEuropeanSpaceAgencyortheSoilGrids250moftheInternationalSoilReferenceandInformationCentre);Partieswerethenaskedtoverifyorreplacetheseestimateswithnationalorlocaldata.96Theassessmentof“global”progresstowardsthisstrategicobjectiveisthereforelimitedtothosePartiesthatsubmitanationalreportbythereportingdeadlinewhichincludesdataonthisstrategicobjectivethatisappropriateforglobalandregionalanalysis.Bythesecriteria,thefirst(andmostrecent)assessmentofprogressincludedaggregateddatafrom135Partiesoutofatotalof197PartiestotheUNCCD.Strategicobjectivetwo,whichaims“toimprovethelivingconditionsofaffectedpopulations,”alsoincludesindicatorsrelevantforadaptation:“trendsinpopulationlivingbelowtherelativepovertylineand/orincomeinequalityinaffectedareas”and“trendsinaccesstosafedrinkingwaterinaffectedareas.”Bycontrasttotheprogressassessmentforstrategicobjectiveone,Partiesdidnotreceiveestimatesoftheseindicators,buttheywerepointedtosuitabledatasources(e.g.theWorldBankestimateoftheGiniindexortheUnitedNationsStatisticsDivisionStatisticalServicesBranchSDGindicatorsdatabase)intheabsenceof,orasacomplementto,nationaldata.97Forstrategicobjectivethree,whichaims“tomitigate,adaptto,andmanagetheeffectsofdroughtinordertoenhanceresilienceofvulnerablepopulationsandecosystems,”howeverthereisnoindicatorspecifiedintheStrategicFramework.Fortheinitialreportingcycle,Partieswerethereforeaskedtoreportonnational‐levelindicatorsinusetoestimateprogresstowardstheobjective,qualitativetrendassessmentsinthoseindicators,andrelatedtargetsthathadbeenset.98

57. TheStrategicFrameworkdidnotoutlineamechanismanalogoustotheglobalstocktaketoperiodicallyassessprogressandinformfurtheraction;attheUNCCDCOP14in2019,however,theCOPagreedonthemodalities,criteria,andtermsofreferenceforamidtermevaluationoftheStrategicFramework.99Accordingly,amidtermevaluationwilltakeplacein2024‐2025andexamineprogressmadeinachievingthefivestrategicobjectives,alongwithfactorssuchascontinuedrelevanceandefficiency.Theevaluationwillbesupervisedbyanintergovernmentalworkinggroupandwillincludeanindependentassessmentconductedbyanexternalexpert,aparticipatoryconsultationontheconclusionsandrecommendationsofsaidassessment,andaUNCCDCOPdecisiononactiontofurtherenhancetheimplementationofthestrategicframework.100

Reviewingprogressatthenationallevel58. Existingnational‐levelandsupranationalsystemsfortrackingadaptationprogressmayofferinsightsintohowareviewofadaptationprogresscanbedoneinpractice.Suchnational‐levelmonitoringand

94SeeCBD/COP/DEC/XIII/2895SeeICCD/COP(13)/L.1896SeeICCD/CRIC(17)/297SeeICCD/CRIC(17)/498SeeICCD/CRIC(17)/599SeeICCD/COP(14)/23100SeeICCD/COP(14)/3

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evaluationframeworksshedlightonoptionsforaggregatingadaptationassessments;nationalsystemsaggregateinformationbothacrosssectors(horizontally)andacrossdifferentlevelsofgovernment(vertically).101Whilethepracticeofimplementingnational‐levelsystemsformonitoringandevaluatingadaptationeffortsisstillrelativelynascent,severalcountrieshavealreadybegunpilotingsuchsystems.102Thedesignofthesesystemsvariesconsiderably,withdifferingcombinationsofqualitativeanalysesandqualitativeandquantitativeindicators.Thischapterpresentsvariousexamplesofnational‐levelsystemsdrawnfromdifferentregionsoftheworld.

3.1. Usingascoreboardtoassessprogressacrosscountries

59. TheEuropeanUnionadoptedastrategyonadaptationtoclimatechangein2013andpublishedanevaluationofthestrategyin2018.Thestrategydefinedthreecoreobjectives:1)promotingadaptationactionbyitsMemberStates,2)climate‐proofingactiontakenattheEUlevel,and3)leadingtobetterinformeddecision‐making.Italsooutlineseightactionstomeettheseobjectives.Toevaluatethestrategy,theEUdecidedtodevelopanadaptationpreparednessscoreboardwithkeyindicatorsforassessingthereadinesslevelofMemberStates.103BasedondiscussionswithMemberStates,adraftscoreboardmethodologywascreatedandthenpilotedin2015.ThepilotphasegeneratedanunpublishedassessmentconsistingofnationalscoreboardsforeachMemberState,andthelessonslearnedfromthispilotwereusedtorevisethemethodology.Themethodologyfocuseson11mainperformanceareasthatrelatetothefivestepsoftheEU’sadaptationpolicycycle.Foreachofthe30indicators,thestatusisassessedaseitherbeingmet(“Yes”)ornotmet(“No”),andinsomecases“inprogress.”Eachindicatorscoreisaccompaniedbyashortnarrativeexplainingthereasonforthescore.AnaggregatescoreboardfortheentireEUcanthenbebuiltbaseduponthenationalscoreboards;thisaggregatescoreboardshowsthestatusforeachindicatoratthebloclevel(i.e.theextenttowhichanindicatorismet,notmet,orinprogressacrossthebloc–seeFigure1).

60. Thismethodologyoffersoneoptionforcollectingandpresentinginformationonadaptationprogressacrosscountries,thoughinthiscasethecountriesundergoingtheassessmentareboundtogetherunderthesameregionalpolicy.Despitethis,thereareanumberoflimitationstothemethodology.First,theinformationgatheredtoconducttheanalysiswascollectedthroughdeskresearch,sotheaccuracyandthecomprehensivenessdependsuponwhatinformationwaspublishedand/orvolunteeredbyMemberStaterepresentatives.Further,theevaluationreportdiscouragesusingtheresultsoftheassessmenttodirectlycompareMemberStatesagainstoneanother;thoughtwoMemberStatesmayhavethesamescoreonagivenindicator,whatthatscorerepresentscoulddiffersignificantlybetweenthetwo.

101VallejoL.2017.Insightsfromnationaladaptationmonitoringandevaluationsystems.Paris:OECD.Availableathttps://www.oecd.org/environment/cc/Insights%20from%20national%20adaptation%20monitoring%20and%20evaluation%20systems.pdf102VallejoL.2017.Insightsfromnationaladaptationmonitoringandevaluationsystems.Paris:OECD.Availableathttps://www.oecd.org/environment/cc/Insights%20from%20national%20adaptation%20monitoring%20and%20evaluation%20systems.pdf103EuropeanCommission.2018.Horizontalassessmentoftheadaptationpreparednesscountryfiches.Brussels:EuropeanCommission.Availableathttps://ec.europa.eu/clima/sites/clima/files/adaptation/what/docs/horizontal_assessment_en.pdf.

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Figure1.AggregatedadaptationscoreboardofrEUmemberstates(reproducedfromEuropeanCommission2018)

3.2. Assessingprogresstowardsdesiredadaptationoutcomes

61. Totrackitstransitiontoaclimate‐resilientandlow‐carbonsociety,SouthAfricaestablishedaNationalClimateChangeResponseMonitoringandEvaluationSystem.104Itconsistsoffiveprimarycomponents:monitoring,evaluation,guidance,outputs,andfeedback,learning,andreview.Thesefivecomponentsapplytotrackingnotonlyadaptationandresilience,butalsomitigationandclimatefinance.Withrespecttoadaptationinparticular,SouthAfrica’sM&Esystemincludesthreebuildingblocks,namely,climateinformation;climaterisks,impacts,andvulnerability;andadaptationresponsemeasures.Aspartofthissystem,ninecross‐cuttingandcross‐sectoral“desiredadaptationoutcomes”weredevelopedtocomplementthesebuildingblocks.Together,theseoutcomespaintapictureofamoreclimate‐resilientSouthAfricaagainstwhichprogresscanbeassessed.Sixofthesedesiredoutcomescapturetheinputs

104DepartmentofEnvironmentalAffairs,RepublicofSouthAfrica.2015.TheNationalClimateChangeResponseMonitoringandEvaluationSystemFramework.Pretoria:DepartmentofEnvironmentalAffairs,RepublicofSouthAfrica.Availableathttps://www.environment.gov.za/sites/default/files/reports/nationalclimatechangeresponse_MESF.pdf

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necessarytoenableeffectiveadaptation(e.g.capacitybuilding,education,andawarenessprogrammesforadaptation),andtheremainingthreecapturetheimpactsofadaptationinterventions(e.g.securefood,water,andenergysuppliesforallcitizens).105

62. AccordingtoSouthAfrica’slatestbiennialupdatereport,a“trafficlight”scoringapproachhasbeenproposedtoassesstheprogressmadetowardsthedesiredadaptationoutcomes.106Suchanapproachwouldscoreprogressbyassigningacolour(red,amber,orgreen)foreachoutcomebasedontheextenttowhichlegalframeworks,plans,strategies,policies,programmes,andprojectshavebeeninformedbyriskandvulnerabilityprofilesincludingclimatechange‐relatedrisksandimpacts.Itwouldaggregateinformationprovidedbydifferentstakeholdersandpresentitgraphically.Overtime,comparingthesesummariesisexpectedtoshedlightontheeffectivenessofadaptationinterventionsandprogressmadeindeliveringclimateresilience.Notably,aspartoftheoutputscomponent,theresultsoftheevaluationprocesscontributetofulfillingSouthAfrica’sreportingobligationsundertheUNFCCC,includingnationalcommunicationsandbiennialupdatereports.

3.3. Usingindicator‐basedframeworks

63. UnderitsCambodiaClimateChangeStrategicPlan(CCCSP2014‐2023),Cambodiahasatwin‐trackindicator‐basedmonitoringandevaluationframework,basedontheTrackingAdaptationandMeasuringDevelopment(TAMD)approach,whereinonetrackincludesinstitutionalreadinessindicatorsandtheothertrackincludesimpactindicators.107Thisframeworkservestoassessbothadaptationandmitigationactionsinthecountry,aswellasinformpolicymaking,supporttheintegrationofclimatechangemonitoringandevaluationintokeysectorsandnationalplanningefforts,andhelpthecountryfulfilitsreportingobligationsundertheUNFCCCandtoitsdevelopmentpartners.Itfunctionsatboththesubnationalandnationallevelsandconsidersthecountry’skeyclimate‐sensitivesectors.

64. Theframeworkincludesfiveindicatorstoassessinstitutionalreadiness;theseindicatorsassessthestatusofclimatepolicyandstrategies,climateintegrationintodevelopment,coordination,climateinformation,andintegrationintofinancing.108Theseareassessedthroughscorecardsonaregularbasistotrackprogressagainstabaseline.ScorecardsarecompletedbykeysectorsandtheministriesthatformpartofCambodia’sClimateChangeTechnicalWorkingGroup.Theyincorporatea“readinessladder”approachwhereintherungsoftheladdercorrespondtomilestonesandscoresareassignedforeachmilestoneaccordingtowhetherithasbeenreached,hasnotbeenreached,orhasbeenpartiallyreached.109Thisallowsforatotalscoretobecalculatedforeachoftheindicators,helpingtoillustrateCambodia’sprogresstowardsbuildingupitsinstitutionalreadiness.Accompanyingthescoresarenarrativesandotherpiecesofsupportingevidencethathelpcontextualizeandexplainthescore.

65. Inadditiontothereadinessindicators,thereareeightcoreimpactindicators.Ofthese,adaptation‐relatedindicatorsincludethepercentageofvulnerablecommunes(asassessedthroughvulnerabilityindexvalues)andfamiliesaffectedbyfloods,storms,anddroughts.110Toassessthepercentageofvulnerable

105DepartmentofEnvironmentalAffairs,RepublicofSouthAfrica.2018.NationalClimateChangeAdaptationStrategy,RepublicofSouthAfrica.Pretoria:DepartmentofEnvironmentalAffairs,RepublicofSouthAfrica.Availableathttps://www.preventionweb.net/files/65184_20181130nccasv4.pdf106DepartmentofEnvironmentalAffairs,RepublicofSouthAfrica.2018.SouthAfrica’s3rdBiennialUpdateReporttotheUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange.Pretoria:DepartmentofEnvironmentalAffairs,RepublicofSouthAfrica.Availableathttps://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/Final%203rd%20BUR%20of%20South%20Africa%20100.pdf107RaiN,BrooksN,PonlokT,etal.2015.DevelopingaNationalM&Eframeworkforclimatechange:TrackingAdaptationandMeasuringDevelopment(TAMD)inCambodia.London:IIED.Availableathttps://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/10118IIED.pdf108DeutscheGesellschaftfürInternationaleZusammenarbeit(GIZ)GmbH.2017.Cambodia:Thenationalclimatechangemonitoring&evaluationframework.Eschborn:DeutscheGesellschaftfürInternationaleZusammenarbeit(GIZ)GmbH.Availableathttps://www.adaptationcommunity.net/wp‐content/uploads/2017/11/13‐giz2017‐en‐factsheet‐cambodia.pdf109RaiN,BrooksN,PonlokT,etal.2015.DevelopingaNationalM&Eframeworkforclimatechange:TrackingAdaptationandMeasuringDevelopment(TAMD)inCambodia.London:IIED.Availableathttps://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/10118IIED.pdf110DeutscheGesellschaftfürInternationaleZusammenarbeit(GIZ)GmbH.2017.Cambodia:Thenationalclimatechangemonitoring&evaluationframework.Eschborn:DeutscheGesellschaftfürInternationaleZusammenarbeit(GIZ)GmbH.

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communes,CambodiausesavulnerabilityindexconstructedwiththeInternationalInstituteforEnvironmentandDevelopmentonthebasisofexistingvulnerabilityindicesalreadyinuseinthecountry.111

66. In2017,CanadalaunchedanExpertPanelonClimateChangeAdaptationandResilienceResultstoinvestigateandmakerecommendationsonhowtobestassessprogressinthecountry’seffortstoadaptandbuildresiliencetoclimatechange.112ThisExpertPanelwastaskedwithrecommendingindicatorsformeasuringprogressthatalignwiththefiveactionareasdefinedundertheadaptationandresiliencepillarofthecountry’sframeworkclimatepolicy.Attheconclusionofitsdeliberations,thepanelrecommended54indicators,includinginput,output,andoutcomeindicators.Examplesofindicatorsincludethenumberofhealthcarepractitionerstrainedtoidentifyandrespondtoclimate‐relatedhealtheffects(fortheactionareaonprotectingandimprovinghealthandwell‐being);maximumresponsetimesinnorthern,remote,andcoastalregionsrelatedtosearchandrescue/emergencyresponse(fortheactionareaonsupportingparticularlyvulnerableregions);percentageoftotalfinanciallossesrestored(fortheactionareaonreducingclimate‐relatedhazardsanddisasterrisks);thenumberofdaysofdisruptiontobasicservicesandcriticalinfrastructure(fortheactionareaonbuildingclimateresiliencethroughinfrastructure);andthenumberofcommunity‐basedclimate‐relatedmonitoringandadaptationprogramsthatincludeindigenous,local,andscientificknowledge(fortheactionareaontranslatingscientificinformationandindigenousknowledgeintoaction).

67. Inadditiontothesuggestedindicators,thereportoffersaproposedoverarchingapproachtomonitoringprogress.Afterdefiningapurposeandcontextanddeveloping(orrefining)indicators,thenextstepiscollectingdata.Forthisstep,althoughtheExpertPaneldoesnotspelloutpreciselyhowdatashouldbeaggregatedacrosstheprovincesandterritoriesinthecountry,itnotesthatthesystemisscalableandcanbeappliedbyindividualregionsorsectors.Further,theExpertPaneldoesrecommendfirstevaluatingdataavailabilityandexistingorpotentialdataexchangeagreementsandconsideringvariousdatacollectionandreportingrelationships(e.g.federal‐provincial/territorial,municipal‐municipal,orfromNGOorIndigenousorganizations).Theremainingstepsincludedataanalysisandevaluation,communicatingresults,andcontinuallyimprovingthesystem.Canadahasnotyetmadeavailableadecisiononthewayforwardafterthepublicationofthereport.

68. Germanyisyetanothercountrythathasestablishedanational‐levelprocessforevaluatingitsadaptationefforts.TheresultsofthefirstevaluationoftheGermanStrategyforAdaptationtoClimateChange(DAS)werepublishedin2019,showcasingtheoutputsofamethodologydevelopedtoassesswhethertheDAS’sinstrumentsandmeasuresareconducivetoachievingitsgoalof“thereductionofthevulnerabilityandthemaintenanceandimprovementoftheadaptabilityofnatural,societalandeconomicsystemstotheunavoidableimpactsofglobalclimatechange.”113Theevaluationrevolvesaroundfivecentralquestionsthatassesse.g.whattheimplementationstatusofGermany’sAdaptationActionPlanII,towhatextentadaptationhasbeenmainstreamedatthefederalgovernmentlevel,andwhetherithasbeenpossibletoenhanceadaptabilityandreducevulnerability.Thequestionswereansweredthroughdocumentanalyses,interviews,asurveyonimplementationstatus,andindicatoranalysis.

69. ThisevaluationoftheDASitselfcomplementsotherperiodiceffortstoassessthestatusofclimaterisksandadaptationinGermany,namely,theprogressreportontheimplementationofthestrategyandthemonitoringreportandvulnerabilityanalysisonwhichtheprogressreportwasbased.AttheheartofthemonitoringreportistheindicatorsystemdevelopedfortheDAS,whichconsistsof102indicators.114Of

Availableathttps://www.adaptationcommunity.net/wp‐content/uploads/2017/11/13‐giz2017‐en‐factsheet‐cambodia.pdf111RaiN,BrooksN,PonlokT,etal.2015.DevelopingaNationalM&Eframeworkforclimatechange:TrackingAdaptationandMeasuringDevelopment(TAMD)inCambodia.London:IIED.Availableathttps://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/10118IIED.pdf112ExpertPanelonClimateChangeAdaptationandResilienceResults.2018.MeasuringProgressonAdaptationandClimateResilience:RecommendationstotheGovernmentofCanada.Gatineau:EnvironmentandClimateChangeCanada.Availableathttp://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2018/eccc/En4‐329‐2018‐eng.pdf113GausH,SilvestriniS,KindC,etal.2019.PolitikanalysezurEvaluationderDeutschenAnpassungsstrategieandenKlimawandel(DAS).Dessau‐Roßlau:Umweltbundesamt.Availableathttps://www.umweltbundesamt.de/sites/default/files/medien/1410/publikationen/politikanalyse_zur_evaluation_der_deutschen_anpassungsstrategie_an_den_klimawandel_das_‐_evaluationsbericht.pdf114SchönthalerKandvonAndrian‐WerburgS.2015.EvaluationoftheGermanStrategyforAdaptationtoClimateChange

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these,55describeclimatechangeimpacts.Anadditional42areresponseindicatorswhichdescribeadaptationmeasuresorfactorsaffectingtheprocessofadaptation.Finally,fivecapturetheoverarchingactivitiesoftheGermangovernment.Theimpactandresponseindicatorsarespreadacrossthe13actionfieldsoftheDAS,whichcorrespondtovariousat‐risksectorssuchashealth,agriculture,tourism,andtrade,aswellasthetwocross‐sectionalissues,i.e.developmentplanningandcivilprotection.

70. Incircumstanceswheredatacannotyetbecalculatedfortheentirecountryoravailabledatadoesnotmeetthedesiredqualitystandards,themonitoringsystemallowsfortheuseofcasestudiestoprovideinsightsintoclimatechangeimpactsoradaptationefforts.Thesystemenvisagesthatcasestudieswillbereplacedbyanationwideindicatorintheforeseeablefutureoncetherequireddataisavailableacrossthecountryandholdsthatcasestudieshavethepotentialtoencouragesub‐nationalgovernmentstomakerelateddataavailableiftheydonotdosoalready.Alternatively,proxyindicatorsmaybeusedwheredirectmeasurementofanindicatorparameterisnotyetpossibleorfurtherconceptualormethodologicaldevelopmentisnecessary.Thesearesomeofthewaysinwhichthemonitoringsystemhasbeendesignedtobeadaptedasnewknowledgeordatabecomesavailable.

71. Moroccoestablishedanindicator‐basedmonitoringandevaluationsystemforadaptationthataimstoassessboththeprocessofimplementingadaptationmeasuresandtheimpactofthosemeasuresonvulnerabilitytoclimatechangeimpacts.115Itssystemwasbuiltonthefoundationofanexistingsystem,namelytheRegionalInformationSystemsonEnvironmentandSustainableDevelopment;integratingthenewmonitoringandevaluationsystemintothisexistinginformationsystemwasintendedtoavoidredundancies,takeadvantageofsynergies,andoptimizetheuseofresources.Theseexistingsubnationalsystemswerewell‐functioningandthereforeoffereda“goodentrypoint”forintegratingsystematicmonitoringandevaluationofadaptation.116Additionally,Moroccooptedtogatherdataforthesystemthroughexistingnetworksandinter‐sectoralexchangeplatforms,whichfurthercontributedtothecost‐efficiencyandpragmatismofthesystem.117

72. Thenationalmonitoringandevaluationapproachincludedfivecoreelements:pre‐selectingvulnerablesectorsonwhichtofocus;acontextanalysisforadaptationmonitoring;introducingcausalitychainsforeachvulnerablesectorasapre‐cursortodefiningandselectingindicators;developinginformationsheetsfortheindicators;andanalyzingandvisualizingindicators(e.g.throughgraphs,maps,ortables).118Moreover,thesystemincludedfivetypesofindicators:indicatorsassessingvulnerability;indicatorstrackingadaptationmeasures;indicatorsmeasuringtheimpactofadaptationactions;climatefinanceindicators;andgovernanceindicators.Thedataiscentralizedinanonlinedatabasewhichincludesbothregion‐specificindicatorsaswellasstandardindicatorsthatwillbeaggregatedatthenationallevel.119Exampleofprocess‐relatedindicatorstrackingtheimplementationofadaptationmeasuresintheagriculturesectorincludecultivatedsurfaceareawithdroughtresistantvarieties;forestedareascoveredby

(DAS):ReportingandClosingIndicatorGaps.Dessau‐Roßlau:Umweltbundesamt.Availableathttps://www.umweltbundesamt.de/sites/default/files/medien/1410/publikationen/neuclimate_change_16_2015_evaluation_of_the_german_strategy_for_adaption_to_climate_change_das.pdf115DeutscheGesellschaftfürInternationaleZusammenarbeit(GIZ)GmbH.2017.Morocco:AdaptationmonitoringandevaluationaspartoftheRegionalInformationSystems.Eschborn:DeutscheGesellschaftfürInternationaleZusammenarbeit(GIZ)GmbH.Availableathttps://www.adaptationcommunity.net/wp‐content/uploads/2017/11/05‐giz2017‐en‐factsheet‐morocco.pdf116InternationalInstituteforEnvironmentandDevelopment.2019.SubnationaladaptationmonitoringandevaluationinMorocco.London:IIED.Availableathttps://www.iied.org/subnational‐adaptation‐monitoring‐evaluation‐morocco117DeutscheGesellschaftfürInternationaleZusammenarbeit(GIZ)GmbH.2017.Morocco:AdaptationmonitoringandevaluationaspartoftheRegionalInformationSystems.Eschborn:DeutscheGesellschaftfürInternationaleZusammenarbeit(GIZ)GmbH.Availableathttps://www.adaptationcommunity.net/wp‐content/uploads/2017/11/05‐giz2017‐en‐factsheet‐morocco.pdf118DeutscheGesellschaftfürInternationaleZusammenarbeit(GIZ)GmbH.2017.Morocco:AdaptationmonitoringandevaluationaspartoftheRegionalInformationSystems.Eschborn:DeutscheGesellschaftfürInternationaleZusammenarbeit(GIZ)GmbH.Availableathttps://www.adaptationcommunity.net/wp‐content/uploads/2017/11/05‐giz2017‐en‐factsheet‐morocco.pdf119InternationalInstituteforEnvironmentandDevelopment.2019.SubnationaladaptationmonitoringandevaluationinMorocco.London:IIED.Availableathttps://www.iied.org/subnational‐adaptation‐monitoring‐evaluation‐morocco

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territorialplans;andthenumberoffarmersinvolvedinpilotirrigationservices.120Examplesofindicatorsmeasuringtheimpactofadaptationmeasuresintheagriculturesectorincludedemandforwaterbysector,shareofadditionalfodderforgrazinglivestock,andthepovertyrateinruralareas.121

73. Whenrollingoutthesystem,thecountrylimiteditselftousingthoseindicatorsforwhichdatawasalreadyavailable.122Atthesametime,however,thestakeholderdialogueswhereintheindicatorswereprioritizedalsogeneratedalistofindicatorssavedforpotentialfutureuseifdataandtheotherrequiredresourcesbecomeavailable.Moroccowillhavetheopportunitytoreviseandadaptthemonitoringandevaluationsystemduringanenvisionedrevisionphase.123

74. MozambiquepublisheditsNationalClimateChangeMonitoringandEvaluationSystem(SNMAMC)in2014.124TheSNMAMCaddressesmitigation,adaptation,andcross‐cuttingelements.Notably,Mozambiqueestablisheditsnationalsystempartlytohelpfulfilitsinternationalreportingrequirements,includingundertheUNFCCC,andtomitigatetheriskofproliferatingreportingrequirementsarisingfrommultilateralandbilateralsourcesofclimatefinance.Attheoutset,Mozambiqueacknowledgedthatthesystemwouldlikelyhavetoberevisedovertimeasexperiencewiththesystemgrowsandasmethodsfordesigningandimplementingsuchsystemsimprovesovertime.Toreducethecostofthesystem,improveintegration,andincreaseefficiencyindatacollection,analysis,andreporting,thesystemwasdesignedcomplementandbeintegratedwiththeexistingmonitoring,reporting,andevaluationsysteminplaceforthecountry’sdevelopmentplanningandrelyasmuchaspossibleonindicatorsanddataalreadyinusebygovernmentdepartmentsandministries.Thesystemincludesanationalandsectorallevelindicatorframework,climatefinancetracking,vulnerabilityassessmentsatlocalandsectorallevels,long‐termprogramevaluation,alearningmechanism,andacommunicationsandresultssharingcomponent.

75. Theindicatorframework123indicatorsintotal,ofwhich3areimpactindicators(whichmeasuretheultimateeffectsofpoliciesonreducingvulnerabilityandimprovingriskmanagement)and120resultindicators(thatmeasurehigh‐levelintendedachievementsratherthandeliveredoutputsorproducts).Thirteenoftheresultindicatorsarecoreindicators,whichareprioritized,whiletheremaining107aresecondary.Thethreeimpactindicatorscorrespondtothethreepillarsandstrategicobjectivesofthesystem;ofthese,theindicatorrelatedtoadaptationseekstomeasurevariationsintheclimatechangevulnerabilityindexaggregatedacrosshouseholds.Thiswillbebasedonthehouseholdbudgetsurvey,whichwasamendedtoincludequestionsrelatedtovulnerability.Toaccompanythesurveyresults,locallevelassessmentsandcasestudieswillalsobeconductedinordertoshedmorelightonthecontextinwhichvulnerabilityischanging.Theindicatorframeworkincludesonlynational‐levelindicatorsbecauselocal‐andproject‐levelindicatorswouldbehighlycontextspecificandcouldnoteasilybestandardizedtoaggregateacrossthecountry.

120FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations(FAO)andUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme(UNDP).2019.Strengtheningmonitoringandevaluationforadaptationplanningintheagriculturesectors.Rome:FAOandUNDP.Availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/ca5271en/ca5271en.pdf121FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations(FAO)andUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme(UNDP).2019.Strengtheningmonitoringandevaluationforadaptationplanningintheagriculturesectors.Rome:FAOandUNDP.Availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/ca5271en/ca5271en.pdf122FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations(FAO)andUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme(UNDP).2019.Strengtheningmonitoringandevaluationforadaptationplanningintheagriculturesectors.Rome:FAOandUNDP.Availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/ca5271en/ca5271en.pdf123DeutscheGesellschaftfürInternationaleZusammenarbeit(GIZ)GmbH.2017.Morocco:AdaptationmonitoringandevaluationaspartoftheRegionalInformationSystems.Eschborn:DeutscheGesellschaftfürInternationaleZusammenarbeit(GIZ)GmbH.Availableathttps://www.adaptationcommunity.net/wp‐content/uploads/2017/11/05‐giz2017‐en‐factsheet‐morocco.pdf124RepublicofMozambiqueNationalCouncilforSustainableDevelopment.2014.NationalClimateChangeMonitoringandEvaluationSystem(SNMAMC).RepublicofMozambiqueNationalCouncilforSustainableDevelopment.Availableathttp://www.cgcmc.gov.mz/attachments/article/176/SNMAMC%20English%20Final%20Version%2020150929%20Final.pdf

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76. InthePhilippines,aResults‐BasedMonitoringandEvaluationSystem(RBMES)hasbeendevelopedtotrackprogressmadeinimplementingtheNationalClimateChangeActionPlan(NCCAP)2011‐2028.125TheNCCAPhasseventhematicpriorityareasthataddressbothadaptationandmitigation,includingfoodsecurity,watersufficiency,ecosystemandenvironmentalstability,humansecurity,climate‐smartindustriesandservices,sustainableenergy,andknowledgeandcapacitydevelopment.126Fortrackingpurposes,eachofthesesevenareasisaccompaniedbyaresultschainthatincludesultimate,intermediate,andimmediateoutcomes,outputareas,andindicators.127Indicatorsarepredominantlyinput‐andoutput‐oriented.Forexamplestheyassessvariablessuchaswhetherwaterresourcesmanagementlawshavebeenreviewedandharmonizedinthepriorityareaofwatersufficiency,orthenumberofvulnerabilityandriskassessmentsconductedinthepriorityareaofknowledgeandcapacitydevelopment.

77. In2018,thecountry’sClimateChangeCommissionpublishedamonitoringandevaluationreportbrief,whichsummarizedprogressmadetowardstheintermediateoutcomesineachofthesevenareas.128Ratherthanlistingscoresforalltheindicators,thebriefinsteadhighlightstheaccomplishmentsandgapsunderfivekey,generalheadingsforeachpriorityarea.Thefiveheadingsincludethepolicycontext,institutionalcooperation,theadaptation‐developmentcontinuum,targetingofadaptationinitiatives,andpublicfinancepriorities.Thebriefthereforeoffersgovernmentagenciesandotherdecision‐makersaconcise,qualitativedescriptionofwhatmeaningfulprogresshasbeenmadewhilealsodirectingtheirattentiontoareaswhereprogresshassofarfallenshort.

78. TheUnitedKingdom’sClimateChangeActof2008initiatedacyclicalprocessofassessingclimatechange‐relatedrisks,developingobjectives,policies,andproposalstoaddresstheserisks,andperiodicallyassessprogresstowardsthesemeasures.129Aspartofthisprocess,theindependentCommitteeonClimateChange,whichwascreatedbytheAct,preparesandsubmitsreportstoParliamenteverysecondyearthatassessprogressmadeinachievingthegovernment’sNationalAdaptationProgramme.Toconductitsassessment,theClimateChangeCommitteeusesatwo‐partframework.Partoneconsistsofanindicatorframeworkthatanalysestrendsinriskfactors(includinghazards,vulnerability,andexposure),adaptationaction,andimpacts.Parttwoconsistsofadecision‐makinganalysisthatassesseswhetherandtowhatextentplansarebeingmadetoprepareforclimatechange,andtheadequacyoftheseplansinconsideringclimatechange‐relatedrisksandopportunities.130

79. Thecurrentassessmentframeworkinplaceassignsanumericalscorebetweenoneandninefor33adaptationprioritiesrelatedtothecategoriesofclimateriskincludedinthegovernment’slatestclimatechangeriskassessment.Scoresareassignedonthebasisofthequalityofplaninplaceandprogressmadeinmanagingrisks.Ascoreofonecorrespondstoalow‐qualityplanandlowlevelofprogressinmanagingriskoralackofevidenceavailableonriskmanagement.Bycontrast,ascoreofninecorrespondstoahigh‐qualityplaninplaceandgoodprogressmadeinriskmanagement.Toearnahigh‐qualityplanscore,aplanmustmeetcriteriasuchasconsideringclimatechange,settingoutspecificactions,havinganeffectivemonitoringandevaluationcomponent,andbeinguptodate.Toearnagoodriskmanagementscore,there

125InternationalInstituteforEnvironmentandDevelopment.2019.HowthePhilippines’nationalM&Esystemintegratesclimateanddevelopment.London:IIED.Availableathttps://www.iied.org/how‐philippines‐national‐me‐system‐integrates‐climate‐development126ClimateChangeCommission.2019.ExecutiveBrief:ThePhilippineNationalClimateChangeActionPlan,MonitoringandEvaluationReport2011‐2016.Manila:ClimateChangeCommission.Availableathttps://climate.gov.ph/public/ckfinder/userfiles/files/Knowledge/The%20Philippine%20NCCAP%20M%26E%20Executive%20Brief_FINAL%20for%20Printing.pdf127OECD.2015.NationalClimateChangeAdaptation:EmergingPracticesinMonitoringandEvaluation.Paris:OECDPublishing.pp.71‐79.https://read.oecd‐ilibrary.org/environment/national‐climate‐change‐adaptation_9789264229679‐en#page74128ClimateChangeCommission.2019.ExecutiveBrief:ThePhilippineNationalClimateChangeActionPlan,MonitoringandEvaluationReport2011‐2016.Manila:ClimateChangeCommission.Availableathttps://climate.gov.ph/public/ckfinder/userfiles/files/Knowledge/The%20Philippine%20NCCAP%20M%26E%20Executive%20Brief_FINAL%20for%20Printing.pdf129Seehttp://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2008/27130CommitteeonClimateChange.2019.Progressinpreparingforclimatechange:2019ReporttoParliament.London:CommitteeonClimateChange.Availableathttps://www.theccc.org.uk/publication/progress‐in‐preparing‐for‐climate‐change‐2019‐progress‐report‐to‐parliament/

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mustbesomeevidencethatriskisbeingreducedatanappropriaterateorgoodevidenceoftheimpactactionsarehavingonrisks.Thissystemwasusedforthefirsttimeinthe2019assessmentreport;inpreviousassessments,adaptationprioritiesweregivenascoreofRed,Amber,Green,orGreyonthequestionsofwhethertherewasaplan,whetheractionsaretakingplace,andwhetherprogressisbeingmadeinmanagingvulnerability.

3.4. Usinginformalknowledge‐exchange

80. Norway’sinitialapproachtoassessingitsadaptationprogressdoesnotrelyonindicatorsoronaformalmonitoringandevaluationsystem.131Rather,itmadeuseofexistingsystemsinplacefortrackingprogressandunderscoredtheimportanceofcontinuouslearninginadaptation.Theapproachsoughttobuildanunderstandingofwhatisworkingandwhy,andtousethatinformationtoinformpolicydecisions.Theprocesswasmadeuseofalargescaleknowledge‐exchangeprocessthatincludedbothinformalmeansofgatheringinformationandlearningaboutadaptationprogress,suchasstakeholderdialoguesandnetworksupport,aswellasformalmeans,suchasresearchandregularquantitativesurveysofmunicipalities.132Informationisalsodrawnfromannualbudgetreportingonprogressmadetowardsreachinggoalsanddownscaledclimateprojections.Theresultswerethenfedintonationalvulnerabilityandadaptationassessmentsthatassessthecountry’sprogressonadaptation.Asaprinciple,thisapproachwaspursuedsuchthatreportingburdensplacedonmunicipalitieswerereduced,andexistingonlineandofflineplatformsforlearningandknowledgeexchangewereusedtoincreaseefficiency.Itisalsoflexible,andavoidsputtinginplacearigid,sequentialprocessforassessingprogressandlearning,sothatpolicydevelopmentanddecisionmakingcanbemoreresponsive.InitsseventhnationalcommunicationtotheUNFCCC,Norwaynotedthatanationalsystemformonitoringandevaluatingadaptationisunderway;therefore,thisapproachmaychangeinthefuture.133

3.5. Usingquestionnairesandinformationcollectioncardstoassessprogress

81. SimilartothemonitoringandevaluationreportbriefpublishedbythePhilippines,Brazil’sfirstmonitoringandevaluationreportforitsnationaladaptationplan(NAP)highlightsthemainachievements,challenges,andactionscorrespondingtothecross‐cuttinggoals,sectoralandthematicstrategies,andprivatesectorcontributionsbeingmadetoadvanceimplementationoftheNAP.Thereportwasgeneratedbasedinpartoninformationcollectioncardssentto13governmentministriesthatsoughtinformationon,amongotherthings,thestatusofimplementingadaptationactions,whethertheseactionsrelatedtotheSDGs,andwhethertheywererelatedtootherinternationalframeworksornationalpolicies.134Asanaggregateassessment,thereportpresenteddescriptivestatisticshighlightingthepercentageofgoalsandsectoralguidelineswhereactionhadbeentakeninthepastyear,aswellasthepercentageofactionscontributingtoeachoftheNAP’sthreeprimaryobjectives.TheassessmentofaggregateoutcomesalsosummarizesthekeyachievementsundereachobjectiveandthenumberofinternationalframeworkstowhichNAP‐relatedactivitiescontributed;thisincludedanoverviewofhowmanyoftheSDGsandSDGtargetswereadvancedthroughworkontheNAP.Lookingahead,theevaluationreportnotedthatBrazil

131DeutscheGesellschaftfürInternationaleZusammenarbeit(GIZ)GmbH.2014.Norway:Learningbydoingformeasuringprogressinadaptation.Eschborn:DeutscheGesellschaftfürInternationaleZusammenarbeit(GIZ)GmbH.Availableathttps://www.adaptationcommunity.net/?wpfb_dl=228132DeutscheGesellschaftfürInternationaleZusammenarbeit(GIZ)GmbH.2014.Norway:Learningbydoingformeasuringprogressinadaptation.Eschborn:DeutscheGesellschaftfürInternationaleZusammenarbeit(GIZ)GmbH.Availableathttps://www.adaptationcommunity.net/?wpfb_dl=228133NorwegianMinistryofClimateandEnvironment.2018.Norway’sSeventhNationalCommunicationUndertheFrameworkConventiononClimateChange.Oslo:NorwegianMinistryofClimateandEnvironment.Availableathttps://unfccc.int/files/national_reports/annex_i_natcom/submitted_natcom/application/pdf/529371_norway‐nc7‐br3‐1‐nc7_‐_br3_‐_final.pdf134PresentationbyarepresentativeoftheMinistryofEnvironmentofBrazilduringaworkshoponnationaladaptationgoals/indicatorsandtheirrelationshipwiththeSDGsandtheSendaiFrameworkforDisasterRiskReductioninTokyo,Japan.2018.MonitoringandEvaluationofNAP:Brazil’sexperience.Availableathttps://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/2Brazil%E2%80%99s%20experience%5B2%5D.pdf

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aimstoenhancethemonitoringandevaluationsystemofitsNAPinthefuturebyfindingawaytoincludeactionsreportedbycivilsocietyandsubnationalgovernments.135

82. St.LuciadevelopedamonitoringandevaluationsystemtotrackprogresstowardsitsNAPandthecoreelementsofitsbroaderclimatechangeadaptationpolicy.136Thesystemisdesignedtobesimpleandreadytoimplementimmediately;itdoesnotrequiretheuseofadditionalgovernmentresources.Bydesigningasimpleandcost‐efficientsystem,St.Luciahopedtoencouragelong‐termuseofthesystem.ItisbuiltinpartonthefoundationlaidbythePPCRprogramme,whichcollectedinformationsince2012tomonitortheimplementationofitsprojectsinthecountry.Themonitoringandevaluationsystemusedfortheprogrammeitselfwasdeemedtootimeconsumingtobecontinuedinthelongtermintheabsenceofadditionalsupport.

83. ThenewsystemwillworkbycollectinginformationthroughsimplequestionnairesonmeasuresthatcontributetotheimplementationoftheNAPorotheradaptationinitiatives;questionnaireswillbedistributedalongwiththeannualrequestforinformationtomonitorprogressmadeunderthePPCRprojects.Questionnairesaredistributedtomembersofthecountry’snationalclimatechangecommitteeandagencyrepresentatives,andsolicitdescriptiveinformationonelementssuchaswhethersectoralstrategieswereelaborated,majorprojectsandprogrammesthatintegrateadaptation,whetherfundingwassecuredforimplementingtheNAPorsectoralplan,whetheradaptation‐relatedpartnershipswereestablished,andtheimplementationstatusofmeasuresincludedintheNAP(whethernotinitiated,initiated,ongoing,orcompleted).Basedonthecompletedquestionnaires,theSt.Lucia’sDepartmentofSustainableDevelopmentwillcompleteamonitoringtemplatethataggregatestheinformation.Theaggregatewillofferinsightsintothetotalnumberofsectoralstrategiescompletedduringtheyear,theproportionofmajorprogrammesapprovedthatexplicitlyincludeadaptation,thetotalnumberofsectoralandcross‐sectoraladaptationmeasuresthatwereinitiated,completed,orareongoing,thevulnerablegroupsspecificallytargetedinmeasures,etc.Asneeded,thequestionnaireswillbecomplementedbyindividualorfocusgroupinterviews.

3.6. Assessingprogressbyclimatefund

84. National‐levelapproachestoreviewingadaptationprogressarenotlimitedtothosesystemsoreffortsinitiatedbynationalgovernments.ThemonitoringandreportingsystemestablishedbytheClimateInvestmentFund’sPilotProgramforClimateResilience(PPCR)offersanexampleofnational‐levelsystemsthatareappliedtovariouscountries.ThePPCR,aUSD1.2billionprogramme,supportsdevelopingcountriesinadaptingtoclimatechangebyhelpinggovernmentsintegrateresilienceintotheirstrategicplanningandofferingconcessionalorgrantfundingtoimplementtheplansandpilotinnovativesolutions.Totrackinvestmentperformanceandensureaccountability,learning,progress,andresultsinitswork,thePPCRdevelopedamonitoringandresults(M&R)systemthatcombinesquantitativeandqualitativemethodsandfollowsacountry‐driven,participatoryapproach.137ItisbasedonthePPCR’sresultsframework,whichincludesfivecoreindicatorsincludingthedegreeofintegrationofclimatechangein

135BrazilMinistryofEnvironment.2017.NationalAdaptationPlanBrazil:1stMonitoringandEvaluationReport2016‐2017.Brasilia:MinistryofEnvironment.Availableathttp://euroclimaplus.org/intranet/_documentos/repositorio/Plan%20Nacional%20de%20Adaptaci%C3%B3n_2016.pdf136GovernmentofSaintLucia.2018.MonitoringandEvaluationPlanofSaintLucia’sNationalAdaptationPlanningProcess.Castries:SaintLuciaMinistryofEducation,Innovation,GenderRelationsandSustainableDevelopment.Availableathttps://www4.unfccc.int/sites/NAPC/Documents/Parties/Saint%20Lucia%20Monitoring%20and%20Evaluation%20for%20NAP.pdf137ClimateInvestmentFunds.2018.PPCRMonitoringandReportingToolkit.Washington:ClimateInvestmentFunds.Availableathttps://www.climateinvestmentfunds.org/sites/cif_enc/files/ppcr_mr_toolkit_july_2018_1.pdf

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nationalplanningandthenumberofpeoplesupportedtocopewithclimatechangeimpacts.Additionally,therearesixoptionalindicatorsthatcanbeadaptedtothenationalcontextwhentheyaredeemeduseful.138

85. DatacollectionandreportingthroughtheM&Rsystemfollowstwoparallel,complementarytracks:national‐levelcountryreportingandreportingfromthemultilateraldevelopmentbanksthatimplementthePPCRfunding.139Datacollectionandreportingiscompletedonanannualbasis.Annualresultsreportsaresubmittedby15originalpilotcountriesandtworegionalprograms(intheCaribbeanandPacific)whileproject‐levelreportsandproject‐levelreportingsubmittedbythemultilateraldevelopmentbanksimplementingthefunding.140Altogether,PPCRM&Rresultsreportingcovers62multilateraldevelopmentbank‐approvedprojectsin17countriesandtworegions.141Atthecountrylevel,PPCRfocalpointsconvenescoringworkshopstoestablishscoringcriteriaandthatreflectdomesticdevelopmentprocessesandinstitutionalandpolicyecosystems,andsubsequentlyusethesecriteriatoassessprogressovertime.Forindicatorsthatarequalitativeinnature,thisprocessofdefiningandabidingbyclearscoringcriteriahelpsensurethatsubjectiveassessmentsbecomemoreconsistent,reliable,andobjectivewhileremainingsensitivetonationalcircumstancesandpriorities.Tolessentheburdenofthisprocess,PPCR’sM&Rsystemisdesignedtobecompatiblewithexistingnationalsystemsandavoidduplication.

86. In2017,thePPCRconductedastocktakingreviewofitsM&Rsystem.142Themajorityofcountriesparticipatinginthesystemrateditseffectivenessas“good,”andnotedvariousbenefitsdrawnfromthesystem,includingthattheparticipatoryapproachenabledwidespreadstakeholderengagementandthatsystemhelpedbuildcapacityintheareaofclimateresilienceandinmonitoringandevaluationmorebroadly.Countriesalsooutlinedseveralchallenges,suchasweakmonitoringandevaluationcapacityasafoundationalchallengetothesystem,logisticalchallengesthathinderedinclusiveandcost‐effectivedatacollection,andinconsistentparticipationinthescoringworkshopsyear‐to‐year.Countriesalsoquestionedthelong‐termsustainabilityoftheM&Rsystem;indeed,St.Lucia’sexperience,detailedinsection3.7.2above,builtonthefoundationofthePPCRsystembutdidnotcontinueitassuchbecauseitwastootime‐intensivetosustainintheabsenceofcontinuedsupport.TheCIFnotes,however,thatthedifficultiesidentifiedrelateprimarily“toimplementationchallengesandtechnicalclarificationsratherthanmacro‐designissues.”143

3.7. Existingtransboundaryapproachestoassessingadaptationprogress

87. Ripariancountrieshavelongbeenengagingintransboundarycooperationwithaviewtomanagingtheirsharedwaterresources.Increasingly,thesetransboundaryarrangementsareexpandingtoincludecooperationonclimatechangeadaptation.Goodpracticesforpursuingadaptationintransboundarywaterbasinsincludedevelopingacommonmonitoringsystemamongripariancountries,ensuringthatsuchsystemsareabletoadjusttochanginginformationneeds,buildingabasin‐wideevaluationsystemforadaptationactions,andusingaportfolioofmonitoringandevaluationtools.144

138ClimateInvestmentFunds.2012.RevisedPPCRResultsFramework.Washington:ClimateInvestmentFunds.Availableathttps://www.climateinvestmentfunds.org/sites/default/files/meeting‐documents/revised_ppcr_results_framework_0.pdf139ClimateInvestmentFunds.2018.PPCRMonitoringandReportingToolkit.Washington:ClimateInvestmentFunds.Availableathttps://www.climateinvestmentfunds.org/sites/cif_enc/files/ppcr_mr_toolkit_july_2018_1.pdf140Seehttps://www.climateinvestmentfunds.org/results/ppcr‐results141Seehttps://www.climateinvestmentfunds.org/results/ppcr‐results142ClimateInvestmentFunds.2017.ReportonPPCRMonitoringandReportingStocktakingReview.Washington:ClimateInvestmentFunds.Availableathttps://www.climateinvestmentfunds.org/sites/default/files/meeting‐documents/ppcr_20_4_report_on_ppcr_monitoring_and_reporting_stocktaking_review_0.pdf143ClimateInvestmentFunds.2017.ReportonPPCRMonitoringandReportingStocktakingReview.Washington:ClimateInvestmentFunds.Availableathttps://www.climateinvestmentfunds.org/sites/default/files/meeting‐documents/ppcr_20_4_report_on_ppcr_monitoring_and_reporting_stocktaking_review_0.pdfpp.10.144UnitedNationsEconomicCommissionforEuropeandInternationalNetworkofBasinOrganizations.WaterandClimateChangeAdaptationinTransboundaryBasins:LessonsLearnedandGoodPractices.Geneva:UnitedNations.Availableat.https://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/water/publications/WAT_Good_practices/ece.mp.wat.45.pdf

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88. TheInternationalCommissionfortheProtectionoftheDanubeRiver—ajointendeavourcomprising15countriesascontractingparties—launcheditsTransNationalMonitoringNetwork(TNMN)in1996toofferanoverviewofpollutionandlong‐termtrendsinwaterqualityandpollutionloadsintheDanubeRiverBasin’smajorrivers.145Overall,theTNMNincludes101monitoringstationswithuptothreesamplingpoints.Itsworkincludesmonitoringtheimpactsofclimatechangeintheriverbasin.146Ina2018updateofitsadaptationstrategy,theInternationalCommissionfortheProtectionoftheDanubeRiverincludedfurthermonitoringandevaluationasapotentialadaptationmeasuretopursuegoingforward.147

89. Somecountrieshavealsobegunundertakingnational‐levelassessmentsoftransboundaryclimaterisks.RecognizingthepossibletransboundarychannelsthroughwhichclimatechangemayimpacttheSwisseconomy,Switzerlandconductedastudytoexaminethesechannelsandestimatetheirsignificance.148Atthebasisofthisstudywasamulti‐countryinput‐outputmodelthatillustratesSwitzerland’seconomicinterdependencewiththerestoftheworldasaresultofgoodsimportsandexports.Itaccountsforbothdirectlinksandindirectlinksviathirdcountries.TheassessmentestimatedtheexposureoftheSwisseconomytotransboundaryclimateimpactsbothinthepresentandin2050.Exportflowswerequantitativelyassessed,whereasimports,tradeinservices,naturalresourceavailability,migration,globalconflict,andcapitalmarketswereassessedqualitatively.Germanyhasalsoconductedanational‐levelassessment.149

90. Thepreviousexamplesspeaktoclimatechangeimpactsthataretransboundaryinthesensethattheyaffectawaterbasinthatissharedbymultiplecountries.Asdescribedabove,however,transboundaryrisksandimpactscanextendfarbeyondcountriesthatshareecosystems(i.e.throughotherbiophysicalpathways,aswellasfinance,people,andtradepathways).TheTransnationalClimateImpacts(TCI)Index,developedbyHedlundetal.,isthefirstattempttocreateaglobalquantitativeindexoftransnationalclimatechangerisks.150Thisindexassessesexposuretotransnationalclimaterisksfor172countriesandincorporates9indicatorscoveringthebiophysicalpathway(transboundarywaterdependency);thefinancepathway(bilateralclimateweightedforeigndirectinvestmentandremittanceflows);thepeoplepathway(opennesstoasylumandmigrationfromclimatevulnerablecountries);thetradepathway(tradeopenness,generalimportdependency,andembeddedwaterrisk);andtheglobalcontext(theKOFGlobalisationIndex).Itdoesnotaccountfordimensionsofvulnerabilityotherthanexposure,suchasadaptivecapacity.Ascorewascalculatedforeachcountryforwhichtherewassufficientdata(i.e.dataforatleastsixofthenineindicators),andaglobalTCIscorewascalculatedusingthemeanvalueofthenineindicators.

91. TheTCIIndexillustratesthecomplexityinherentintherelationshipbetweenexposuretoclimatechangerisksandlevelsofdevelopment,aswellasinthegeographicaldistributionofexposure.Italsounderscorestheimportanceofenhancinginternationalcooperationonadaptation.Althoughtheindexthereforeplaysanimportantroleinsheddinglightonvulnerabilitytotransboundaryclimatechangerisks,itsdevelopersnotethatinitscurrentstateit“shouldbeusedprimarilytoraiseawarenessandstartdiscussionsabouttherelevanceoftransnationalclimateimpacts,butnotyettoinformdecision‐makingor

145Seehttp://www.icpdr.org/main/activities‐projects/tnmn‐transnational‐monitoring‐network146InternationalCommissionfortheProtectionoftheDanubeRiver(ICPDR).2019.ClimateChangeAdaptationStrategy.Vienna:ICPDR.Availableathttp://www.icpdr.org/flowpaper/app/services/view.php?doc=icpdr_climatechangeadaptationstrategy_2.pdf&format=pdf&page={page}&subfolder=default/files/nodes/documents/147Seehttp://www.icpdr.org/main/activities‐projects/climate‐change‐adaptation148INFRAS,Ecologic,andRütter+Partner.2007.AuswirkungenderKlimaänderungaufdieSchweizerVolkswirtschaft(InternationaleEinflüsse).[EffectsofclimatechangeontheSwisseconomy(internationalinfluences)].Bern:BundesamtfürUmwelt.Availableathttps://www.ecologic.eu/sites/files/download/projekte/200‐249/201‐19/201‐19_schlussbericht.pdf149INFRAS.2019.FolgendesglobalenKlimawandelsfürDeutschland,inGerman(TranslatedTitle:ConsequencesofglobalclimatechangeforGermany).Umweltbundesamt.Availableathttps://www.infras.ch/media/filer_public/00/0f/000f7523‐3924‐4cfe‐8950‐f227c519940e/teilbericht_die_wirkungsketten_in_der_ubersicht.pdf150HedlundK,FickS,CarlsenH,etal.2018.“Quantifyingtransnationalclimateimpactexposure:Newperspectivesontheglobaldistributionofclimaterisk.”GlobalEnvironmentalChange52(2018):pp.75‐85.

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provideamechanismforbenchmarkingprogresstowardsadaptationgoals.”151Theauthorsfurtherstatethatqualitativeanalysesareneededtocomplementthequantitativeanalysis.Whileintegratingsuchaquantitativeanalysisintoassessmentoftheglobalgoalonadaptationmaythereforebepremature,theIndexnonethelesstestifiestotheimportanceofexplicitlyconsideringtransboundaryfactorsinthisassessmentinordertounderstandthenatureofrisk,vulnerability,andexposureinaholisticmanner.

3.8. Reviewingprogressatthesubnationallevel

92. Inadditiontonationalsystemsforreviewingadaptationprogress,subnationalsystemsandtheirresultscanalsoofferimportantinsights.Subnationalsystemscanoffermoredetailedandrobustinformationtofeedintonationalplanningandcaninformthedesignanddevelopmentofnationalmonitoring,evaluation,andlearningsystems.152Indeed,countriesthatareintheprocessofcreatingorrevisingtheirownsystemscouldincreasetheefficiencyoftheirsystemandreducetheburdenitimposesbybuildingondataandindicatorsthatarealreadyinuseatthesubnationallevelwithintheirnationalcontext.Thisinformationmay,inturn,helptoinformglobalassessments.

93. Understandingresultsacrossasetofsubnationalsystemsonceagainposesthechallengeofbalancingcontext‐specificityandtheabilitytocombineandcollateinformationacrossthesesystems.Additionally,subnationalassessmentsofadaptationfacemanyofthesamechallengesasnationalsystems,includinguncertaintysurroundingclimatechangeimpacts,whichmaybeespeciallyhighforcitiesorothersubnationaljurisdictionsduetothedifficultyofinterpolatingclimatemodels.153

94. C40Cities,anetworkof96citiesaroundtheworldrepresenting700+millioncitizensandonequarteroftheglobaleconomy,developedamonitoring,evaluation,andreportingframeworktohelpguidethecitiesinthenetworkastheyseektodeveloptheirownsystemsforassessingadaptationprogress.Theobjectivesofthisframeworkincludingfacilitatinglearningacrosscities,encouragingparticipationandengagementininclusiveclimateaction,informingdecision‐making,enhancingtransparencyandaccountability,andhelpingtomakethecaseforadaptationactions.154Inthisframework,comparabilityacrosscitiesisrecognizedasapotentiallyworthwhileendeavour,butthisissecondarytotheprimarypurposeofhelpingcitypractitionersdesignasystemappropriatefortheirlocalcircumstancesthathelpsthemadvancetowardstheobjectivesoutlinedabove.Accordingly,theframeworkincludesasetofindicatorsfromwhichcitypractitionerscanselectortailortotheirparticularcontextasappropriate;wheremultiplecitiesmakeuseofthesameindicator,theseresultscanbecomparedrelativelyeasilyacrosscontexts.Indeed,theframeworknotesthat“[w]idespreadadoptionoftheseindicatorscouldenablebenchmarkingandstandardisationofclimateadaptationreportingamongtheworld’scities,helpingtobuildamorecomprehensivepictureofurbanprogressonclimateadaptation”butthat“unavoidabledifferencesindataandmethodsatparticipatingcities’disposal”willcontinuetorendercomparingfindingsdifficult.155

95. Theframework’sindicatorscorrespondtoactionsaddressingspecifichazardsormultiplehazards,andeachactionincludesoutput,outcome,andimpactindicators.Forexample,undertherainfallhazardcategory,oneactionlistedisadaptingassets(hardening,elevating)andtheassociatedoutputindicatoristhenumberofassetsretrofitted,theassociatedoutcomeindicatoristhepercentageofassetsprotectedfromfloods,andtheassociatedimpactindicatorsarethenumberofassetsaffected/damaged,thecostof

151HedlundK,FickS,CarlsenH,etal.2018.“Quantifyingtransnationalclimateimpactexposure:Newperspectivesontheglobaldistributionofclimaterisk.”GlobalEnvironmentalChange52(2018):pp.82.152InternationalInstituteforEnvironmentandDevelopment(IIED).2018.Howbottom‐upM&Einsightscaninformnationaladaptationplanningandreporting.London:IIED.Availableathttps://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/17488IIED.pdf153C40Cities,RambollFoundation,Ramboll.2019.MeasuringProgressinUrbanClimateChangeAdaptation:Monitoring–Evaluating–ReportingFramework.NewYork:C40Cities.Availableathttps://c40‐production‐images.s3.amazonaws.com/other_uploads/images/2154_20190228_MER_Framework_Final.original.pdf?1553033351154C40Cities,RambollFoundation,Ramboll.2019.MeasuringProgressinUrbanClimateChangeAdaptation:Monitoring–Evaluating–ReportingFramework.NewYork:C40Cities.Availableathttps://c40‐production‐images.s3.amazonaws.com/other_uploads/images/2154_20190228_MER_Framework_Final.original.pdf?1553033351155C40Cities,RambollFoundation,Ramboll.2019.MeasuringProgressinUrbanClimateChangeAdaptation:Monitoring–Evaluating–ReportingIndicatorMatrixManual.NewYork:C40Cities.pp.3.Availableathttps://c40‐production‐images.s3.amazonaws.com/other_uploads/images/2154_20190228_MER_Framework_Final.original.pdf?1553033351

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repairs,thecosttoeconomicproductivity,aswellaspeopledisplaced,injured,ordead.Oneexampleofamulti‐hazardactionisimplementingemergencymanagementandevacuationplans,andtheassociatedoutputindicatoristhepercentageofthecitycoveredundertheplan,theassociatedoutcomeindicatoristhepercentageofemergencysituationswhereemergencyservicesrespondedsafelyandtimely,andtheassociatedimpactindicatorsareonceagainthenumberofassetsaffected/damaged,thecostofrepairs,thecosttoeconomicproductivity,aswellaspeopledisplaced,injured,ordead.

96. DefiningindicatorsisonlyonestepintheC40monitoring,evaluation,andreportingframework,however.Precedingthissteparetargetinghazards,formulatingintendedimpact,anddevelopinginterventionlogic;thestepsfollowingdefiningindicatorsincludecollectingdata,reporting,andevaluating.Inthedatacollectionstep,theframeworkemphasizesthevalueofcollectingbaselinedatawherefeasible,theimportanceofusingexistingdatatoreducecostsandresourceburdens,andthepossibilityofcollectingqualitativeandquantitativedatathroughvariousmechanisms,includingobservations,interviews,focusgroups,householdsurveysandpanelsurveys.

97. TheGlobalCovenantofMayorsisaglobalallianceofcitiescommittedtoclimateleadership.Itincludesover10,000citiesandlocalgovernmentsfrom138countriesthatrepresentmorethan800millionpeople.156Throughthisalliance,whichfocusesonbothadaptationandmitigation,citiesregister,implement,andmonitorstrategicclimateactionplans,makinginformationrelatedtotheseareaspubliclyavailable.Recently,theGlobalCovenantofMayorshasmovedtowardsacommonreportingframeworktostreamlinemeasurementandreportingandallowforglobalaggregationanddatacomparisons.157Thecommonreportingframeworkwasendorsedin2018andhasbeeninoperationasofJanuary2019.158Itbuildsonexistingframeworks,suchasthosethatwereinuseamongcitiesandlocalgovernmentsataregionallevelinEurope.159Todeveloptheframework,adraftversionwascreatedonthebasisofin‐depthdiscussionswithexperts,whichwasthenopenforreviewandinputbystakeholderstoensurethatitwassuitedtothewiderangeoflocalcircumstancesencompassedbythealliance.Embeddedintheframeworkarevariousoverarchingprinciples,whichinclude,amongothers,providingflexibilitytoaccommodatelocalneedsandcircumstances;facilitatingconsistencywithnational,subnationalandUNFCCCreportingrequirements;allowingforthecontinuationofregionalreportingrequirementstowhichsomecitiesandlocalgovernmentsarecommitted;andenablingmeaningfulcomparisonandaggregationacrosscities.Tofacilitatethereportingprocess,detailedtableshavebeendevelopedtoguidelocalgovernmentsthroughtherangeofobligatoryandoptionalinformation.160

98. Thecommonreportingframeworkdelineatesrequirementsforriskandvulnerabilityassessmentsconductedaspartofadaptationandresilienceplans.161Thissectionoftheframeworkincludesfourbroadcategoriesofinformation,underwhichsomeinformationismandatorytoreportandothersareencouraged.Thesecategoriesincludeclimateriskandvulnerabilityassessment,climatehazards,adaptivecapacity,andmajorclimatehazardsthathaveoccurredinthepastyears.Underthecategoryofclimatehazards,examplesofmandatoryinformationincludethecurrentrisklevel(probabilityxconsequence)ofthemostsignificantclimatehazardsfacingthecommunityandallrelevantsectors,assets,orservicesexpectedtobemostimpacted,aswellasthemagnitudeoftheimpactonalloftheseidentifiedelements.Underthecategoryofadaptivecapacity,localgovernmentsareobligatedtoidentifyon,andreport,factors

156Seehttps://www.globalcovenantofmayors.org/about/157GlobalCovenantofMayors.2018.GlobalCovenantofMayorsCommonReportingFramework.GlobalCovenantofMayors.Availableathttps://www.globalcovenantofmayors.org/wp‐content/uploads/2019/04/FINAL_Data‐TWG_Reporting‐Framework_website_FINAL‐13‐Sept‐2018_for‐translation.pdf158Seehttps://www.globalcovenantofmayors.org/our‐initiatives/data4cities/common‐global‐reporting‐framework/159GlobalCovenantofMayors.2018.GlobalCovenantofMayorsCommonReportingFramework.GlobalCovenantofMayors.Availableathttps://www.globalcovenantofmayors.org/wp‐content/uploads/2019/04/FINAL_Data‐TWG_Reporting‐Framework_website_FINAL‐13‐Sept‐2018_for‐translation.pdf160ThesetablesareincludedintheAnnexofthecommonreportingframework,availableathttps://www.globalcovenantofmayors.org/wp‐content/uploads/2019/04/FINAL_Data‐TWG_Reporting‐Framework_website_FINAL‐13‐Sept‐2018_for‐translation.pdf161GlobalCovenantofMayors.2018.GlobalCovenantofMayorsCommonReportingFramework.GlobalCovenantofMayors.Availableathttps://www.globalcovenantofmayors.org/wp‐content/uploads/2019/04/FINAL_Data‐TWG_Reporting‐Framework_website_FINAL‐13‐Sept‐2018_for‐translation.pdf

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thatwillmostaffectthecity’sadaptivecapacityandenhanceclimateresilience,describingeachfactorandthedegreetowhichitchallenges(ratherthansupports)theadaptivecapacityorresilienceofthecity

99. Inadditiontothisriskandvulnerabilityassessmentsection,thereisasectiononclimateactionandenergyaccessplansthatcombinesbothadaptation‐andmitigation‐relatedreportingrequirements.Typesofadaptation‐relatedinformationthatlocalgovernmentsareobligatedtoreportoninthissectionincludeadaptation/climateresiliencegoal(s)andsynergies,trade‐offs,andco‐benefitsofmitigationandadaptationactions.Localgovernmentsarealsoencouragedtoreporton,foreachaction,actionarea,orsector,informationsuchasthefinancialstrategyforimplementation,theimplementationstatusandtimeframe,andstakeholdersinvolvedinplanningandimplementation.Thissectionalsoinstitutesabiennialreportingcycle,whereinlocalgovernmentsarerequiredtosubmitmonitoringreportseverytwoyearsaftersubmittedtheiractionplanorplans.Allmonitoringreportsarerequiredtoincludeinformationregardingtheimplementationstatusofeveryaction,actionarea,andsectorcontainedintheactionplantomonitorprogress.

Discussion

4.1. Reflectionsonexistingmethodologiesandcasestudies

100. Theprecedingchaptersillustratethebreadthofapproachestoassessingadaptationprogress.Thesechaptersalsoillustratesomeoftheconsiderationsthatmighthelpchooseordevelopanapproachorcombinationofapproachesforassessingprogresstowardstheglobalgoalonadaptation.Thesummaryofthesegeneralapproachesisarrangedhereinaspectrumfromthosewithlesstothosewithmorecurrentchallenges(e.g.methodological,empirical,political,etc.)(seeFigure2).Thisisawaytosimplifytheclassificationratherthanacomprehensivecharacterisationofpotentialapproachesforthecomplextaskofassessingtheglobalgoalonadaptation.

101. Giventhemethodological,empirical,political,andotherchallengestiedtothedevelopmentanduseofstandardizedindicatorsorindices,asdiscussedinChapterIIabove,thisapproacharguablyfallsonthemorechallengessideofthespectrum.Similarly,ifadescriptiveandevaluativeproximity‐to‐targetapproach,likethatdescribedbyBerrang‐Fordetal.isundertakeninacomprehensivemannerforeachcountry,thiswouldlikelyrequireagreatdealofresources.Ontheotherhand,reportingonbasicindicatorssuchasthenumberofNAPsinitiatedorsubmitted,usingexistingindicatorsordatafrominternationalframeworks,producingaqualitativesynthesisofPartyinputs,orconductinganinformalknowledgeexchangefallonthesideofthespectrumrepresentingfewerchallenges.Sucheffortswouldbuildoncommonpractices(i.e.reportingontheprogressofNAPsorsynthesizingdocumentssubmittedbyParties)orexistinginitiatives(i.e.trackingprogressunderothermultilateralagreements)thatarealreadyinplace.Inthemiddleareapproachessuchastweakingindicatorsordatafrominternationalframeworksorcreating,distributing,andanalysingvoluntarynational‐levelquestionnairesorself‐assessment.

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Figure2.Spectrumofapproachestoassessingadaptationprogressandmagnitudeofassociatedchallenges

102. Thisspectrumis,however,unidimensionalanddoesnotreflectthelimitationsortrade‐offsassociatedwiththevariousapproaches.Forexample,whilecollectingdataforbasicquantitativeindicatorssuchasthenumberofNAPssubmittedorthenumberofcountriesreportingonvulnerabilityassessmentsisarelativelystraightforwardexercise,anditcanofferinsightsintohowmanycountrieshavemadeprogressinunderstandingtheirvulnerabilitiesandplanningforadaptation,itcannotdirectlyshedlightontheextenttowhichvulnerabilityhasbeenreduced,adaptivecapacityhasbeenenhanced,orresiliencehasbeenstrengthened.Therefore,inadditiontoconsideringtherangeofchallengesassociatedeachapproach,itisimportanttosimultaneouslyexaminetheextenttowhicheachapproachyieldsameaningfulproxyofprogresstowardstheglobalgoalonadaptation.

4.2. Recurringthemesandoverarchingconsiderations

103. Currentchallengesarenottheonlyimportantfactorsforevaluatingapproachestoassessingadaptationprogress,whenitcomestoassessingprogresstowardstheglobalgoalonadaptationintheglobalstocktake.Aparticularlyimportantandrelatedconsiderationistheresourcesnecessarytopursueeachapproachandthecorrespondingburdenthatwillbeplacedoncountrieswithlowercapacity.Suchresourcesincludequalitydata,alongwiththecapacitytocollectandinterpretthisdata.ThecommunicationandreportinginstrumentsestablishedbytheParisAgreement,includingtheadaptationcommunicationsunderArticle7andthebiennialtransparencyreportsfortheenhancedtransparencyframeworkunderArticle13,aimtoavoidcreatinganyadditionalburdenfordevelopingcountryParties.Becausetheprocessofassessingprogresstowardstheglobalgoalonadaptationundertheglobalstocktakedoesnotcreateanyadditionalreportinginstruments,thisprinciplemustalsoberespectedwhenconsideringviableapproachestocarryingoutthisprocess.Indeed,efficiency,costreduction,andtakingadvantageofexistingsystemsanddataarerecurringthemesinboththescientificliteratureandtheexistingconcreteexamplesreviewed.MostcountriesreviewedinChapterIIIaboveemphasizetheimportanceoftheseprinciplesintheirnationalsystems.

104. Theseresource‐relatedconsiderationshavegivenrisetoconcertedeffortstoalignnewframeworksandsystemsatthenationalandotherlevelswiththereportingandreviewrequirementsundertheUNFCCC.Thisisevidentfromtheexamplesandcasestudiesreviewedabove(e.g.theGlobalCovenantofMayorscommonreportingframework,themonitoringandevaluationframeworkundertheCambodiaClimateChangeStrategicPlan,etc.).

105. TheAdaptationCommittee’seffortsinthisregard—bothinprovidingsupplementaryguidanceanditsconsiderationofapproachesforassessingtheglobalgoalonadaptationintheglobalstocktake—canfurtheradvancetheseeffortstomovetowardcoherence.Acrucialfoundationforthisworkisunderstandingclearly

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whatinformationPartiesareobligatedandencouragedtosubmitundertheUNFCCCandParisAgreement.ThesedetailswillbeelucidatedindepthintheAdaptationCommittee’ssupplementaryguidanceinrelationtoadaptationcommunications;162inaddition,someofthisinformationissummarizedinthisdiscussionsectionbelow.

106. Anotherimportantconsiderationthatwasconsistentlydemonstratedintheconceptualworkandpracticalexamplesreviewedintheprecedingchaptersistheneedtomaintainflexibility.ManyofthenationallevelsystemsreviewedinChapterIIIhadeitheralreadymadeadjustmentstotheirapproach,expressedtheintentiontodoso,oracknowledgedthatthiswouldlikelytakeplaceasmethodologies,data,andotherkeyfactorsimproveovertime.Althoughthefirstglobalstocktakewillsetanimportantprecedentregardinghowtoassessprogressmadetowardstheglobalgoalonadaptation,andtheotheradaptation‐relatedelementsofthestocktake,therewilllikewisealsoprobablybeopportunitiestoiterativelyimproveuponthisfirstattemptovertime.

107. Indeed,theCMAitselfenvisionedthepotentialforrefiningtheprocedureandlogisticsoftheglobalstocktakeovertimebasedonitsexperience.163Inasimilarspirit,NeufeldtandBerrang‐Fordsuggestedthat,giventhenumerouschallengesassociatedwithassessingglobaladaptationprogress,theglobalstocktakecouldbeginwithabasicbutflexibledesignthatworkstowardsmorecomprehensiveassessmentsinthefuture.164Somefundamentalorganizingprinciplesforsuchanapproachincludebeingbroadenoughtoabsorbthewidevarietyofsourcesandformatsofinformation,rigorousenoughtocapturedatatocharacterizeprogresstowardsthegoal,andopenenoughtoaccommodatenewdevelopmentsinthefieldofassessingadaptation.Beyondtheseoverarchingprinciples,however,itisdifficulttoalreadyprescribeanyspecificapproachtoupdatingthesystemovertime.Indeed,theCMAaskedtheChairsoftheSubsidiaryBodies“toworkonidentifyingopportunitiesforlearning‐by‐doing,includingforassessingcollectiveprogress.”165

108. Besidestheneedtoavoidcreatingadditionalburdensandmaintainflexibility,anotherrecurringthemeintheliteratureisthevalueofcombiningvariousapproachesinordertogenerateamoreholisticpictureofadaptationprogress.Suchcombinations(e.g.ofqualitativecasestudiesandquantitativeindicators,descriptiveandevaluativeassessments,standardandoptionalindicators)canhelpbalancethestrengthsandweaknessesofthedifferentapproaches.Deployingmixedmethods“isnecessarytoprovidetriangulatedevidenceuponwhichtobasepolicies,”166andisthereforeaparticularlyimportantconsiderationforaprocessintendedtoinformfurtherplanningandaction.Despitetheproliferationofquantitativeapproachestoassessingadaptationprogress,deployingsolelyquantitativeindicatorsdoesnotallowforaholisticandcomprehensiveunderstandingofconstructssuchasadaptivecapacity,vulnerability,andresilience,whicharegroundedincomplexsocioecologicalsystems.167Thisisapersistentthemethroughouttheliteratureandtheexamplesreviewedforthispaper;whilemetricsandindicatorscanfacilitatecomparisonacrosscountriesorotherjurisdictions,andofferinsightsrelatedtopatternsandtrends,qualitativereportingandanalysisoffersmuch‐neededcontextanddepthtolarge‐scaleassessments.Nonetheless,whileacombinationofdifferentapproachesmayhelpovercomesomeofthelimitationsofonegivenapproach,therewillnonethelesslikelycontinuetobelimitationswithanycombinationchosen.

162AdaptationCommittee.2020.DraftinitialoutlinefordraftsupplementaryguidanceforvoluntaryusebyPartiesincommunicatinginformationinaccordancewiththepossibleelementsofanadaptationcommunication.Bonn:UNFCCC.https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/ac17_6b_supl_guidance.pdf163Decision19/CMA.1,para.15.164NeufeldtHandBerrang‐FordL.Considerationsforafutureframeworkforassessingadaptationprogressatthegloballevel.In:AOlhoff,HNeufeldt,PNaswaetal.(eds).TheAdaptationGapReport:TowardsGlobalAssessment.Nairobi:UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme.pp.49‐55.165Decision19/CMA.1,para.15.166BeauchampE,MoskelandA,Milner‐GullandEJ,etal.2019.Theroleofquantitativecross‐caseanalysisinunderstandingtropicalsmallholderfarmers’adaptivecapacitytoclimateshocks.EnvironmentalResearchLetters14(2019):P.10167BeauchampE,MoskelandA,Milner‐GullandEJ,etal.2019.Theroleofquantitativecross‐caseanalysisinunderstandingtropicalsmallholderfarmers’adaptivecapacitytoclimateshocks.EnvironmentalResearchLetters14(2019):P.10

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109. Further,theapproachtakentoassessprogresstowardstheglobalgoalonadaptationshould,totheextentpossible,takeintoaccounttransnationalclimatechangerisks,impacts,andadaptationefforts.Assessmentsofprogresstowardsaddressingtransboundaryclimatechangeriskscanaddsignificantvalueintheefforttounderstandglobalprogresstowardsachievingtheglobalgoalonadaptation.Suchconsiderationscanaddnuancetothepictureofvulnerabilitytoclimatechangebydemonstratingthefundamentalinterconnectednessofthisvulnerabilityacrosstheglobe.What'smore,suchananalysisisparticularlyaptforassessingtheglobalgoalonadaptationasitunderscorestheinternationalnatureofclimatechangerisksandthenecessityofinternationalcooperationforcomprehensivelyworkingtowardstheglobalgoalonadaptation.

4.3. Reflectionsonotherpotentialmethodologies

110. Onthebasisoftheseconsiderations,aswellastheliteratureandexamplesreviewedabove,itmightbeusefultooutlinesomeinitialreflectionsontherangeofpotentialmethodologiesthatmaybeincorporatedintotheassessmentoftheglobalgoalonadaptationandtheirassociatedlimitationsandadvantages.Theapproachespresentedinthissectionarenotrecommendedwaysforward;theyinsteadconstituteanadditionallayerofanalysisforconsideration.

111. Aslongasitisnotburdensome—particularlyconsideringtheexistingcapacityconstraintsfacedbydevelopingcountriesinparticular—avoluntaryquestionnaireorself‐scoringexerciserepresentsonepotentialavenueforassessingadaptationprogress.Theadditionalburdenhererelatestothetime,resources,andexpertiserequiredtocompletesuchaquestionnaireintimeandwithsufficientdataforthecorrespondingassessment;aquestionnairethatrequirestoomuchtimeordatacollectionbeyondthecurrentcapacityofcountriescanleadtoresultsthatdisproportionatelyexcludethosecountrieswithoutsufficientcapacityforengaginginsuchanexercise.Thedatacollectedthroughsuchanapproachenablesgeneratinganaggregatescoreboard(whichmaybeakintotheEUmodel),withtheunderstandingthatthesamescoredoesnotnecessarilytranslateintothesameactionorresultacrosscountries.Astartingpointforsuchaquestionnaireorself‐assessmentcouldbewhethertherehavebeendemonstrableeffortsmadetoundertaketheactionsPartiesagreedtheyshouldorshallpursueinaccordancewithArticle7oftheParisAgreement.ThisincludeseffortstowardsstrengtheningcooperationonenhancingadaptationactionasoutlinedinArticle7.7:

a) Sharinginformation,goodpractices,experiencesandlessonslearned,including,asappropriate,astheserelatetoscience,planning,policiesandimplementationinrelationtoadaptationactions;

b) Strengtheninginstitutionalarrangements,includingthoseundertheConventionthatservetheParisAgreement,tosupportthesynthesisofrelevantinformationandknowledge,andtheprovisionoftechnicalsupportandguidancetoParties;

c) Strengtheningscientificknowledgeonclimate,includingresearch,systematicobservationoftheclimatesystemandearlywarningsystems,inamannerthatinformsclimateservicesandsupportsdecision‐making;

d) AssistingdevelopingcountryPartiesinidentifyingeffectivepractices,adaptationneeds,priorities,supportprovidedandreceivedforadaptationactionsandefforts,andchallengesandgaps,inamannerconsistentwithencouraginggoodpractices;and

e) Improvingtheeffectivenessanddurabilityofadaptationactions.

112. ThisalsoincludeseffortstoengageinadaptationplanningprocessesandtheimplementationofadaptationactionsasoutlinedinArticle7.9:

a) Theimplementationofadaptationactions,undertakingsand/orefforts;

b) Theprocesstoformulateandimplementnationaladaptationplans;

c) Theassessmentofclimatechangeimpactsandvulnerability,withaviewtoformulatingnationallydeterminedprioritizedactions,takingintoaccountvulnerablepeople,placesandecosystems;

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d) Monitoringandevaluatingandlearningfromadaptationplans,policies,programmesandactions;and

e) Buildingtheresilienceofsocioeconomicandecologicalsystems,includingthrougheconomicdiversificationandsustainablemanagementofnaturalresources.

113. Lookingahead,theadaptationcommunicationsandbiennialtransparencyreportscanprovidetherawmaterialforapotentialproximity‐to‐targetapproachthatassesseswhetherPartieshavefulfilled,orareontracktofulfilling,thetargetsandactionstheyset.Thiswouldentailcomparingtheactionsreportedinbiennialtransparencyreportsagainstthosecommunicatedinpreviouslypublishedadaptationcommunications.Adaptationcommunicationswereforeseentoplayaroleintheglobalstocktakeandtheassessmentofprogresstowardstheglobalgoalonadaptation;COP24“acknowledge[d]thatadaptationcommunications…willcontributetoreviewingtheoverallprogressinachievingtheglobalgoalonadaptation.”168Underthemodalities,proceduresandguidelinesfortheParisAgreement’senhancedtransparencyframework,thereareninebroadcategoriesofinformationthatPartiesareencouraged,thoughnotrequired,toreporton.169Underthecategoryof“progressonimplementationofadaptation,”itspecifiesthatPartiesshouldprovideinformation,asappropriate,onprogressontheimplementationofadaptationactionsidentifiedinadaptationcommunicationsaswellastheintheadaptationcomponentofNDCs,asapplicable.Partiesarethereforeencouragedtoreportonprogressmadetowardstheobjectivesandplanspreviouslyspecifiedintheirowncommitmentsandcommunications,therebylayingthegroundworkforaperiodicevaluationthatcomparesParties’intendedactionswiththeiractualprogress.

114. Becausethefirstbiennialtransparencyreportsarenotdueuntil31December2024,however,thisislikelynotfeasibleforthefirstglobalstocktakebutcanremainanoptionforfuturestocktakes.Moreover,becausereportingonadaptationundertheenhancedtransparencyframeworkisnotobligatory,theextenttowhichthisapproachcanyieldapictureofcollectiveprogresstowardstheglobalgoalonadaptationwilldependontheextenttowhichPartiesareableandwillingtoincluderelevantadaptationinformationintheirbiennialtransparencyreports.Itwillalsodependonthenumberofcountrieswhochoosetosubmitadaptationcommunications.Thisoptionispresentedhereforconsiderationanddiscussion.

115. Anotherpotentialapproach,buildingontheprevalenceofvulnerabilityandriskassessmentsinadaptationplanningandassessment,couldfocusonestablishingabaselineofclimatechange‐relatedrisksfacedbycountriesandtherebylayingafoundationforassessingchangesagainstthisbaselineovertime.Giventhechallengesdescribedabovewithregardtovulnerabilityindicesandrankings,andtherolesthatrisktoleranceandsocietalvaluesplayinassessingrisk,theseriskswouldlikelybeself‐assessedandreportedbycountries.Thisis,inturn,consistentwithsomeofthecoreprinciplesreflectedthroughouttheParisAgreementthatadaptationactionshouldfollowacountry‐drivenapproachbasedonthebestavailablescience.Suchriskassessmentscouldbedisaggregatedaccordingtohazardorsectorandtemperaturescenario/timescale,generatingavisualrepresentationofthedifferingdimensionsandlevelsofriskasperceivedbycountriesacrosstheworld.

Conclusionandnextsteps116. TakingplaceeightyearsaftertheadoptionoftheParisAgreementandtheestablishmentofitsglobalgoalonadaptation,thefirstglobalstocktakewillbreaknewgroundintheefforttounderstandhowmanystepstheworldhastakeninitsjourneytoadapttotheadverseimpactsofclimatechange.ThispaperisafirststepthataimstohelptheACinconsideringpotentialapproachestoassessingtheglobalgoalonadaptation.ItalsostrivestostimulatetheAC’sreflectionsonwhatotheranalysiswouldbehelpful,what

168Decision9/CMA.1,para.14.169Thesecategoriesinclude:nationalcircumstances,institutionalarrangementsandlegalframeworks;impacts,risksandvulnerabilities;adaptationprioritiesandbarriers;adaptationstrategies,policies,plans,goalsandactionstointegrateadaptationintonationalpoliciesandstrategies;progressonimplementationofadaptation;monitoringandevaluationofadaptationactionsandprocesses;informationrelatedtoaverting,minimizingandaddressinglossanddamageassociatedwithclimatechangeimpacts;andanyotherinformationrelatedtoclimatechangeimpactsandadaptationunderArticle7oftheParisAgreement.

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informationandprocessescanbeprioritizedintheshortterm,andwhatstepscanbetakentoworktowardsprogressivelymorecomprehensiveandrigorousassessmentsovertime.

117. TheACmaywishto:

a) Furtherreflecton:

i) Themeritsandlimitationsofthevariouspotentialapproachestoassessingtheglobalgoalonadaptationundertheglobalstocktake;

ii) Thetypesofdataandinformationthatcountrieswillneedtocollectinordertoassessandreportonadaptationprogressandspecificstepscountriescouldtaketoestablishtheinstitutionalarrangementsandtechnicalsystemsrequiredtocollectthatdataandinformation,withaviewtoharmonizingitsworkontheglobalgoalonadaptationwithitsworkonsupplementaryguidanceforvoluntaryusebyPartiesincommunicatingadaptationinformationaswellasitsworkonreviewingtheadequacyandeffectivenessofadaptationandsupport;

b) Discusswaystoreflecttheoutcomeofitsconsiderationofapproachestoreviewingtheoverallprogressmadeinachievingtheglobalgoalonadaptationinits2021annualreport.

DocumentinformationVersion Date Description

ReviseddraftReviseddraft

26October202027July2020

AC18ThisdraftreviseddocumentAC18/TP/5AisforconsiderationbytheAC.PostAC17Basedontheagreedcontinuationofwork,thisreviseddrafttechnicalpaper(AC17/TP/6A)waspreparedandsharedforfurtherconsideration.

n/a 20March2020 AC17TheACagreedtocontinueworkintheinter‐sessionalperiodontheproduceddrafttechnicalpaper(AC/2020/3)

Keywords:Adaptationassessment,progress,Globalstocktake,Resilience,AdaptationCommittee


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Survival Guide AC18 From Data to Knowledge€¦ · Survival Guide AC18 3 The Schedule The course will be from Thursday September 6th 2018 until Saturday September 15th 2018 (with

Presentation of the UNFCCC Technical Paper on Coastal Adaptation Technologies (FCCC/TP/1999/1)

Wandering 77697 - Alberta File Maps … · Tp 68 Tp 67 Tp 66 Tp 65 Tp 64 Tp 63 Tp 62 Tp 61 Tp 61 Tp 62 Tp 63 Tp 64 Tp 65 Tp 66 Tp 67 Tp 68 Tp 69 Tp 70 Tp 71 Tp 72 Tp 73 Rg 27 Rg 26

TP-8101, TP-8102, TP-8103, TP-8124, TP-8125 · 1. Wiring for the TP-8101, TP-8102 and TP-8103 is shown in Figures 4 and 5. See Figures 6 and 7 for TP-8124 and TP-8125 typical wiring

Adaptation Committee AC18/TP/7B · Adaptation Committee AC18/TP/7B 3 of 39 8. An indispensable aspect of encouraging data use is the provision of guidance in dealing with uncertainty

ROTA TP / TP-LH

Wests Road RDF & Waste Management Community ......Update report to CRG on Cell 4A hotspot 15/12/2016 Page 2 of 3 TP-04 TP-06 TP-05 TP-02 TP-03 TP-01 TP-11 TP-10 TP-09 TP-08 TP-13 TP-12

P0JP403 P0JP501 P0JP502 - STMicroelectronicstp 59 sol 2 tp 60 rl y1 tp 61 rl y2 tp 62 rl y3 tp 63 rl y4 tp 64 rl y5 tp 65 l ed1 tp 66 l ed2 tp 36 str1_drn tp 38 str1_src tp 39 str2_drn

Machine Learning From Imbalanced Data Sets · EVALUATION METRICS Accuracy = (TN + TP)/(TN+FN+FP+TP) Precision = TP/(TP+FP) i.e. completeness Recall = TP/(TP+FN) i.e. exactness F-measure:

soilmaster.co.zasoilmaster.co.za/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/TP-Mealie-Planter.pdf · ntp 981 tp 865 tp 821 tp 882 fs 486 tp 859/8 tp 866 seed hopper assembly description plate, base

TP-501 TP-502 OPERATION MANUAL SPARE PARTS LISTtoolrepair.strapsolutions.com/manuals/TP-502 (E).pdf · TP-501 TP-502 OPERATION MANUAL & ... OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF STRAPPING