adapted from little john

7/31/2019 Adapted From Little John

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Adapted from Littlejohn, Stephen W. Theories of Human

Communication. Second Ed. Belmont, California: Wadsworth, 1983.

Sociologist Amatai Etzioni: Our society is an organizational society. We are born in

organizations, educated in organizations, and most of us spend much of our lives working for

organizations. We spend much of our leisure time playing and praying in organizations. Most of uswill die in an organization, and when the time comes for burial, the largest organization of all-the

state-must grant official permission (AmataiEtzioni,Modern Organizations (Englewood

Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1964), p. 1.)

I. An Overview of Organizations and Communication

A. Berelson and Steiner give 4 characteristics of an organization that distinguish it from

other social groupings. (Bernard Berelson and Gary Steiner,Human Behavior: AnInventory of Scientific Findings (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1964), p. 364.)

1. formality The typical organization has a set of goals, policies, procedures, andregulations that give it form.

2. hierarchy typically expressed in terms of pyramidal structure.

3. more impersonal many people, enough so that close personal relations among all

are impossible.

4. long lastingOrganizations usually last longer than a human lifetime.

B. Strothers definition of organization (George B. Strother, Problems in theDevelopment of a Social Science of Organization, in The Social Science of

Organizations: Four Perspectives, ed. H. J. Leavitt (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-

Hall, 1963), p. 23.)

According to Strother, organizations consist of two or more people involved in a

cooperative relationship, which implies that they have collective goals. The members of

the organization differ in terms of function, and they maintain a stable hierarchicalstructure. Strother also recognizes that the organization exists within an environment ormilieu (Comments by Littlejohn)

C. Organizations are often studied from the perspective of communication. Littlejohn: A

survey on organizational communication indicates that a large portion of speechcommunication graduate programs offers courses in organizational communication

stressing theory, research, and application (Gerald Goldhaber, OrganizationalCommunication (Dubuque, Iowa: William C. Brown, 1974), p. 8.).

D. Three Broad Groups of Organizational Theory

(Goldhaber, Organizational Communication, p. 24. See also James March and Herbert

Simon, Organizations (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1958), p. 6.).1. Classical theory

a. Classical Theory rests on assumptions that organizational members are

instruments of management or, more broadly, of the bureaucracy.

b. Classical theories attempt to answer questions such as the following(Goldhaber, Organizational Communication, p. 7.):

1.) How is the work divided?


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2.) How is the labor force divided?

3.) How many levels of authority and control exist?

4.) How many people exist at each level?

5.) What are the specific job functions of each person?

c.

One of the weaknesses of classical theory is that it deals little withcommunication.

2. Human Relations School

a. It rests on propositions asserting that peoples attitudes, values, and personalneeds are all important.

b. Fundamental human relations questions include:

1.) What roles do people assume in the organization?

2.) What status relationships exist as a result of various roles?

3.) What is the morale and attitude of the people?

4.) What social and psychological needs exist for the people?

5.) What informal groups exist within the organization?

3. SocialSystems School

a. Assumes that organizations are based on decision making and problem solving.

b. Tends to answer the following kinds of questions:

1.) What are the key parts of the organization?

2.) How do they relate interdependently to each other?

3.) What processes in the organization facilitate these interdependent

relationships?

4.) What are the main goals of the organization?

5.) What is the relationship between the organization and its environment?c. The systems approach is the most popular perspective for viewing

organizations.

II. Webers Classical Bureaucratic Theory

A. Overview

1. Max Weber (1864 -1930) was one of the most prominent sociology and economicstheorists of all time. In his lifetime, from, he produced a quantity of work on the

nature of human institutions (Littlejohn)

2. Key is his theory of bureaucracy, part of a larger work found in The Theory of

Social and Economic Organization, edited by Talcott Parsons.Max Weber, The Theory of Social and Economic Organizations, trans. A. M.

Henderson and Talcott Parsons (New York: Oxford University Press; 1947). A

lengthy interpretation and discussion of Webers theory can be found in Parsonsintroduction to the above book. Other secondary sources include: Strother,

Problems; Dwight Waldo, Organizational Theory: An Elephantine

Problem, General Systems 7 (1962): 247-60; March andSimon, Organizations; Etzioni,Modern Organizations; ReinhardBendix,Max Weber:


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An Intellectual Portrait(Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1962); Julien Freund, The

Sociology of Max Weber(New York: Pantheon Books, 1968). For a more complete

bibliography of primary and secondary sources on Weber, see S. N. Eisenstadt,MaxWeber on Charisma and Institution Building(Chicago: University of Chicago

Press, 1968).

3. Webers ideas form the heart of what is commonly known as structuralism(Littlejohn).

4. Weber defines organization as follows: An organization is a system of

continuous, purposive activity of a specified kind. A corporate organization is an

associative social relationship characterized by an administrative staff devoted tosuch continuous purposive activity (Weber, Social and Economic Organizations,

p. 151.).

B. Weber notion of bureaucracy involves power, authority, and legitimacy.

1. Poweris the ability of a person in any social relationship to influence others and toovercome resistance. Power in this sense is fundamental to most social

relationships (Littlejohn).

a. When power is legitimate, compliance is effective and complete.

b. Etzioni summarizes this concept: Webers study oflegitimation introduces awhole new dimension to the study of organizational discipline. He

usedpowerto refer to the ability to induce acceptance or orders; legitimation to

refer to the acceptance of the exercise of power because it is in line with valuesheld by the subjects; and authority to refer to the combination of the two; i.e., to

power that is viewed as legitimate (Etzioni,Modern Organizations, p. 51.)

c. Legitimate power is a central communication concern. Whether

communications will be accepted in an organization hinges on the degree towhich the superior has legitimate authority (Littlejohn).

2. Weber outlines three types of authority (Weber, Social and EconomicOrganizations, pp. 330-32.).

a. Traditional authority occurs when orders of the superior are perceived asjustified by tradition. Ones power is seen as legitimate because it has always

been legitimate (Littlejohn).

b. Rational-legal authority is most relevant in bureaucracies. The authorities in a

bureaucracy derive their power from the bureaucracys rules, which govern andare accepted by all organization members.

1.) Weber sees bureaucracy as the most efficient pattern for mass

administration: Experience tends to show that the purely bureaucratic type

of administrative organizationthat is, themonocratic variety of bureaucracyis, from a purely technical point of view, capable of attaining the highest

degree of efficiency and is in this sense formally the most rational known

means of carrying out imperative control over human beings. It is superiorto any other form in precision, in stability, in the stringency of its discipline,

and in its reliability.

2.) Principles of Bureaucracy (Weber, Social and Economic Organizations, pp.330-34. See also Etzioni,Modern Organizations, pp. 53-54.).


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a.) Bureaucracy is based on rules. Such rules allow the solution of

problems, standardization, and equality in the organization.

b.) Bureaucracies are based on the concept of sphere of competence. Thusthere is a systematic division of labor, each role having clearly defined

rights and powers.

c.) The essence of bureaucracy is hierarchy.

d.) Administrators are appointed on the basis of their knowledge andtraining. They are not generally elected, nor do they inherit their

positions.

e.) The members of the bureaucracy must not share in the ownership of the

organization.

f.) Bureaucrats must be free to allocate resources within their realms of

influence without fear of outside infringement.

g.) A bureaucracy requires carefully maintained records-a communication

issue.

i.) Administrative acts, decisions, and rules are formulated andrecorded in writing, even in cases where oral discussion is the rule

or is even mandatory. This applies to preliminary discussions andproposals, to final decisions, and to all sorts of orders and rules. The

combination of written documents and a continuous organization of

official functionsconstitutes the office which is the central focus of

all types of modern corporate action (Weber, Social and EconomicOrganizations, p. 332.).

h.) A bureaucracy is usually headed by a non-bureaucrat.

i.) Non-bureaucratic heads are often elected or inherit their positions.

ii.) They include presidents, cabinets, boards of trustees, and kings.iii.)Bureaucrats are dispensable; they may be replaced by similarly

trained individuals, but the succession of the non-bureaucratic head

may well be a crisis, precipitating innovation and change.

c. Charismatic authority under which power is justified through the charismaticnature of the superior individuals personality.

1.) Unlike bureaucratic authority charisma defies order and routine.

2.) The charismatic leader is revolutionary and establishes authority in

opposition to the traditions of the day.

3.) Ones leadership as a prophet or demagogue comes about through the

demonstration of magical powers and heroism.4.) Weber does not have much faith in this kind of mass persuasion.

C. Criticism from Littlejohn: Webers theory:

1. provides a classical or standard picture with which the other theories can becontrasted.


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2. presents the common traditional view of organizations, relating the essence of the

classical notion of organizations. Notice that communication and human behavior

are downplayed in the theory; the thrust is structure and task factors.

3. Does not account for communication and human behavior-its greatest weakness.

The theory gives implicit ideas of what communication is like in organizations,

but communication is not treated as an explanatory variable, nor is it seen as theessence of organizational life. This failure is significant.

4. Is prescriptive or normativelike most other classical treatments. It does not

explain how or why organizations operate the way they do. Hence we do not get an

adequate idea of how organizations operate. While the claims of classical theorieshave some validity, the philosophical appropriateness of the assumptions of these

theories is not adequate, nor is their heuristic value high.

III. Human Relations School

A. Overview

1. Developed partially as a reaction to the sterile classical theories and partially as areaction to the depression of the 1930s.

2. By the mid-1940s it had become very popular.

3. Began with the Hawthorne Studies

a. The Hawthorne studies received considerable attention in the 1920s and 1930s

(For an excellent brief description of the Hawthorne studies, seeCharles Perrow, Complex Organizations: A Critical Essay (Glenview, Ill.:

Scott, Foresman, 1972), p. 97.).

b. Directed by F. J. Roethlisberger, a Harvard industrial psychologist, and R.Dickson, a Western Electric manager. Elton Mayo of

the Harvard Business School later acted as a consultant.

c. This team directed some three hundred interviewers who talked with Western

Electric employees about their problems and perceptions. These originalinterviews led to additional research on group functioning.Management and

the Workera summary of the Hawthorne works (F. Roethlisbergerand W.

Dickson,Management and the Worker, Cambridge: Harvard University Press,1939).

d. Elton Mayo is considered the founder of the movement because of his impact

on the beginnings of human relations.

e. Kurt Lewin is also an important early contributor.

B. Two Branches of the Human Relations Movement (Perrow, Complex Organizations,

p. 97.).1. Leadership in organizations

a. Thesis of leadership school: leadership facilitates morale, which in turn leads

to increased productivity.

b. Emphasized leadership training and T-groups (training groups).

2. Organizational Climate

a. Again, productivity and worker welfare are stressed.


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b. Etzioni points out that above all, the Human Relations School . . . emphasized

the role of communication, participation, and leadership (Etzioni,Modern

Organizations, p. 32.).

C. Basic tenets of human relations

1. Productivity is determined by social norms, not physiological factors.

2. Non-economic rewards are all important in motivating workers.

3. Workers usually react as group members rather than individuals.

4. Leadership is extremely important and involves both formal and informal aspects.

5. Communication is the most important facilitator of shared decision making

(Etzioni,Modern Organizations, p. 38.).

D. Argyris and Interpersonal Competence as a Reaction to the Classical School

1. Overview

Stresses the individual-organization relationship and interpersonal relationshipswithin an organization as a source of energy within the organization.

The core ofArgyriss framework is found in Chris Argyris,Personality andOrganization: The Conflict between System and the Individual(New York: Harper

& Brothers, 1957). It is updated in part I ofIntegrating the Individual and theOrganization (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1964). Shorter versions are available

in part I ofInterpersonal Competence and Organizational

Effectiveness (Homewood, Ill.: Richard D. Irwin, 1962) and UnderstandingHuman Behavior in Organizations, inModern Organization Theory, ed.

Mason Haire (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1959).

2. Argyriss Postulates (from Littlejohn)

a. There is a lawful unity in every individual, which defines the self.

b. This self or personality develops interpersonally from interaction with others.The person sees the world through this self-filter, accepting stimuli that are

congruent with the self and distorting, denying, or rejecting stimuli that cannot

be integrated readily into the self.

c. Thus threatening stimuli arouse defensiveness, which blocks the persons

ability to become aware of new possibilities.

d. Persons have a basic need to increase self-acceptance and acceptance of others,

a need that is hard to fulfill in the presence of threat and defensiveness.

Argyris: We come to the conclusion that it is impossible for a human being to

enhance his awareness and acceptance of (aspects of) his self without

simultaneously creating the conditions for others to do the same. Put in another

way, an individuals growth and learning (on the interpersonal level) isinexorably tied up with his fellow man (Argyris,Interpersonal Competence, pp.

20-21.).

e. An authentic relationship is one in which both parties can increase their senseof self-worth and self-awareness. Such a relationship is marked by a high

degree of descriptive (non-evaluative) feedback, trust, and experimentation. It is

low in defensiveness and threat.


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3. Argyris applies these postulates to organizational life.

a. The needs of the organization conflict with the needs of the individual.

Argyris see a basic dilemma between the needs of individuals aspiring forpsychological success and self-esteem and the demand of the pyramidal

structure (Argyris,Integrating, p. 58.).

b. Thus, the structures so important to classical organizational theory require the

person to separate from important dimensions of the self (Littlejohn).

c. This separation happens in six ways.

1.) The person is required to behave rationally, thus divorcing the self from

feelings.

2.) The principle of specialization prohibits the worker from pursuing the needto utilize the range of abilities.

3.) The mechanisms used by individuals to compensate (or escape), including

daydreaming, absenteeism, turnover, trade unions, and noninvolvement,

further drive the person from the need to be a producing, growing person.

4.) The principle of power places the individual in subordinate, passive, and

dependent states. This condition worsens the lower the level in the chain of

command.

5.) The same principle removes the worker from self-responsibility.

6.) The principle of control (separation) places the evaluation of ones work in

the hands of another.

d. The pattern is cyclical: as the individual self is suppressed, people are forced to

take on organizational values, which deepens the problem. Argyriss: technicalcompetence is high, but interpersonal competence is reduced.


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(Argyris,Interpersonal Competence, p. 43.).

5. Argyris envisions an organization in which human values are as important as

production values. The pyramid structure may still apply, but he would encourage


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other concurrent forms in which individuals participate in organizational decision

making and evaluation (For a detailed exposition of Argyriss ideas on changing

organizations, see parts II and III ofIntegrating).

E. The Managerial Grid as Another Human Relations Model

1. Robert Blake and Jane Mouton (Robert Blake and Jane S. Mouton, The Managerial

Grid(Houston: Gulf Publishing, 1964). This book describes the nature of a numberof managerial styles in some detail.

2. Three dimensions of organizations: purpose (production), people, and hierarchy.

3. The Managerial Grid maps possible relationships between these dimensions relative

to managerial styles. (Blake and Mouton, p. 10).

4. Each style is related to communication. Communication is increasingly open, twoway, and adaptive, as the style moves along the diagonal from 1,1 to 9,9.

a. At point 9,1 communication is highly formal, task oriented, and one way. At

1,9 it is very informal, social, and approval oriented.

b. At 9,9 the goal is open, authentic, and candid communication; that is full

disclosure (Blake and Mouton, pp. 160-61.).


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F. Likerts Four Systems: Another Human Relations Theory1. Overview

a. Most detailed and most explanatory theory of human relations

b. RensisLikert (Perrow, Complex Organizations).

c. This rather elaborate theory can be found in RensisLikert,New Patterns of

Management(New York: McGraw-Hill, 1961); Likert, The Human

Organization (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967)


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2. Three broad groups of organizational variables

a. Causal variables are those that can be changed or altered. In this sense they

may be considered as the independent variables in the model.

b. Intervening variables are those that lead to the results of the causal

manipulations. They reflect the general internal state and health of the

organization.

c. End-result variables are dependent variables or outputs and reflectorganizational achievement.

3. These variables define a continuum of four systems

a. System 1: exploitative-authoritative system. Under this system the executive

manages with an iron hand. Decisions are made by the executive, with no use offeedback.

b. System 2: benevolent authoritative leadership, is similar to system 1, except

that the manager is sensitive to the needs of the worker.

c. System 3: consultative system in which authority figures still maintain control,

but they seek consultation from below.

d. System 4:participative management, allows the worker to participate fully in

decision making. According to Likert, system 4 leads to high performance and

an increased sense of responsibility and motivation. (Likert,HumanOrganization, pp. 76-137.)

4. Likert does include communication as an intervening variable, related to the

interaction-influence system and a subpart of the category of attitudinal,motivational, and perceptual variables.(Likert,Human Organization, pp. 16-19.).


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Organizational and performance characteristics of different management systems based on a comparative analysis

OperatingCharacteristics

System of Organization

Authoritative Participative

ExploitativeAuthoritative

Benevolent Authoritative Consultative Participative Group

a. Amount of interactionand communicationaimed at achievingorganizations ob-

jectives

Very little Little Quite a bitMuch with both individualsand groups

b. Direction ofinformation flow

Downward Mostly downward Down and up Down, up, and with peers

c. Downwardcommunication

1. Where initiatedAt top of organization orto implement top directive

Primarily at top or patternedon communication from top

Patterned oncommunication from topbut with some initiative atlower levels

Initiated at all levels

2. Extent to which

communications areaccepted bysubordinates

Viewed with greatsuspicion

May or may not be viewedwith suspicion

Often accepted but at

times viewed withsuspicion. May or may notbe openly questioned

Generally accepted, but ifnot, openly and candidlyquestioned

d. Upward communi-cation

1. Adequacy ofupward communica-tion via line or-ganization

Very little Limited Some A great deal

2. Subordinatesfeelingof responsibility forinitiating accurateupward

communication

None at all

Relatively little, usuallycommunicates filteredinformation but only whenrequested. May yes theboss

Some to moderate degreeof responsibility to initiateaccurate upwardcommunication

Considerable responsibilityfelt and much initiative.Group communicates allrelevant information

3. Forces leading toaccurate ordistortedinformation

Powerful forces to distortinformation and deceivesuperiors

Occasionally forces todistort; also forces forhonest communication

Some forces to distortalong with many forces tocommunicate accurately

Virtually no forces to distortand powerful forces to com-municate accurately

4. Accuracy of upwardcommunication vialine

Tends to be inaccurate

Information that boss wantsto hear flows; otherinformation is restricted andfiltered

Information that bosswants to hear flows, otherinformation may be lim-ited or cautiously given

Accurate

5. Need forsupplementaryupwardcommunicationsystem

Need to supplementupward communication byspy system, suggestionsystem, or some similardevices

Upward communicationoften supplemented bysuggestion system andsimilar devices

Slight need forsupplementary system;suggestion system maybe used

No need for any supple-mentary system

e. Sidewardcommunication, itsadequacy andaccuracy

Usually poor because ofcompetition betweenpeers and correspondinghostility

Fairly poor because ofcompetition between peers

Fair to good Good to excellent

f. Psychologicalcloseness of superiorsto subordinates (thatis, how well doessuperior know andunderstand problems

Far apart Can be moderately close if proper roles are kept

Fairly close Usually very close


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faced by sub-ordinates?)

1. Accuracy ofperceptions bysuperiors and sub-ordinates

Often in errorOften in error on somepoints

Moderately accurate Usually quite accurate

G. Criticism from Littlejohn

1. The movement helped practitioners and scholars understand that human beingshave needs and values related to organizational functioning and that communication

and group process are important aspects of organizational life.

2. It has provided thought on the nature of organizational communication, group

dynamics, and leadership, and it has produced a useful set of guidelines forimproving interpersonal communication in organizations.

3. However, the movement was basically extreme and embodied a number of serious

problems. For a comprehensive critique, see Perrow, Complex Organizations.

4. Objections

a. Little empirical evidence of a positive correlation between high morale and

productivity.

1.) In many cases the correlations have not been found in research, and where

they do appear, serious methodological objections have been raised.

b. Fail to account for the affect of nonhuman variables such as structure and

functional elements.

c. Shares the limitiations of humanistic psychology; e.g. assumes conflict is

minimal and that anything that might frustrate workers will stifle creativity and

understanding. However, natural conflict can be positive.

d. Has practical value for teaching and developing strategies, but has little

theoretical or explanatory value. Ironically, the ideology of the right, classicalstructural theory, and the ideology of the left, human relations, share this fault:

Each calls for particular kinds of practices to improve organizational

functioning without providing a basis for understanding how organizations

operate.

IV. The Systems Approach

A synthesis of structure (classical theory) and human needs (human relations).

A. A Quick Survey of Some Systems TheoriesFor a more detailed summary of these theories, see the first edition of Stephen W.

Littlejohn, Theories of Human Communication (Columbus: Charles E. Merrill,1978), pp. 303-20.

1. Chester Barnard

a. Chester Barnard, The Functions of the Executive (Cambridge: Harvard

University Press, 1938)


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b. President of the New Jersey Bell Telephone Company and, therefore, a

practicing executive, he produced one of the most influential treatises on

management and organization (Littlejohn).

c. Barnard provided two theories, one on organization and one on communication.

d. Barnards thesis is that organizations can only exist through human cooperation

and that cooperation is the medium through which individual capabilities can becombined to achievesuperordinate tasks.

e. Perrow on Barnard: This enormously influential and remarkable book contains

within it the seeds of three distinct trends in organizational theory that were to

dominate the field for the next three decades. One was the institutional school[systems approach]; . . . another was the decision-making school as represented

by Herbert Simon; . . . the third was the human relations school. . . . The leading

theorists of these schools freely acknowledged their debt to Barnard

(Perrow, Complex Organizations, p. 75.).

f. Strothercalls him the last of the practical theorists; He draws on the work of

the classical theorists, psychologists, sociologists, and institutional economists,

as well as his own wealth of experience, to develop a closely reasoned, almostEuclidean treatment of industrial organization (Strother, Problems, p. 16.).

2. James March and Herbert Simon in Organizations (March and Simon,

Organizations. A helpful secondary source is the interpretive work

of Perrow, Complex Organizations).

a. This technical treatise exemplifies theory in its purest form.

b. Present hundreds of propositions related to decision making and organizational

functioning.

c. Conducted for the purpose of providing a more complete conceptualization thanthat found in the machine models of the past.

d. Perrow writes: Herbert Simon and James March have provided . . . the muscle

and flesh for the Weberian skeleton, giving it more substance, complexity, and

believability without reducing organizational theory to propositions aboutindividual behavior [as the human relations movement has done]

(Perrow, Complex Organizations, p. 146.).

3. Daniel Katz and Robert Kahn (Daniel Katz and Robert Kahn, The SocialPsychology of Organizations (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1966)).

a. Present a clear and strong argument in favor of the open system model.

b. Unlike a physical system the organization is social, created by people and

bonded by psychological forces.

c. Organizations as social systems are unique in their need for maintenance inputsor control mechanisms to keep human variability in check.

d. Like Barnard, Katz and Kahn teach that the system involves overriding goals

that necessitate the subordination of individual needs.

e. Such is the nature of rule enforcement, accomplished through role behavior,norms, and values. These interrelated components provide a necessary

integration within the system.


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B. Weick: The Process of OrganizingCarl Weick(Carl Weick, The Social Psychologyof Organizing(Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1969)

1. Overview

a. Significant in the communication field because:

1.) It uses communication as a basis for human organizing

2.) It provides a rationale for understanding how people organize.

3.) It is one of the few truly organizational communication theories.

b. The basic elements ofWeicks model. They are environment, equivocality ,

enactment, selection, retention, choices, assembly rules, behavior cycles,and equivocality removed. Weickenvisions these elements working together in a

system, each element related to the others.

2. Weick and the Nature of Organizations

a. Sees organizations not as structures or entities but as activities. It is moreproper to speak of organizing than of organizations, because organizations are

something that people accomplish, via a process that must be constantly

reenacted. Thus when people do what they do in an organization, their activitiescreate organization, so that organizing is continual (Littlejohn).

b. WeickThe word, organization, is a noun and it is also a myth. If one looks for

an organization one will not find it. What will be found is that there are events,

linked together, that transpire within concrete walls and these sequences, theirpathways, their timing, are the forms we erroneously make into substances

when we talk about an organization (Carl Weick, Middle Range Theories of

Social Systems,Behavioral Science 19 (1974): 358).

c. The essence of any organization is that people are acting in such a way thattheir behaviors are interlocked; one persons behavior is contingent on

anothers.d. A fundamental quality of interlocking is that communication takes place among

the people in the organization.

e. Thus all organizing activities consist of double interacts.

1.) An act is a statement of communicative behavior of one individual.

2.) An interact involves an act followed by a response.

3.) A double interact consists of an act followed by a response and then anadjustment or follow-up act by the first person.

4.) Consider an executive and a secretary as an example. The executive asks

the secretary to undertake an activity (act); the secretary then asks for

clarification (interact); and the executive explains (double interact). Or theexecutive asks the secretary a favor (act), and the secretary follows through

(interact), after which the executive responds with a thank you (double

interact) (Littlejohn).

f. Organizing activities fulfill the function of reducing the equivocality of

information received from the environment. In a sense, human beings organize

to make sense out of their environment.


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3. Equivocality is ambiguity or uncertainty.

a. All information from the environment, according to Weick, is equivocal;

organizing activities are instituted by the members of the organization to makethe information unequivocal.

b. Of course equivocality is a matter of degree, and the organizing is done to

reduce equivocality in the direction ofunequivocality.

c. Lets return to the example of the executive again. Suppose the executivereceives a directive from the firms president to solve a problem of plant safety.

What is the nature of this problem, and how should the executive go about

solving it? The answers to these questions are not clear, inasmuch as theproblem can be defined and solved in a number of ways. In other words the

executive is faced with equivocal information (Littlejohn).

d. Note the similarity to entropy from information theory: information is a

measure of uncertainty in a stimulus situation and messages or communicationreduce the uncertainty.

e. Organizing is accomplished through processes that are developed to deal withequivocal information.

4. TheEnvironmentis dependent upon individual perception

a. Instead of seeing the environment as a distinct entity opposed to the

organization as the classical theorists do, Weicksees the environment as a

product of the person, not something outside the person. What makes the

environment salient for the individual is the persons attention to particularaspects of the stimuli.

b. Hence, environments are not preexistent; they are enactedby the humans in the

organization. People are continually reenacting their environments, dependingon their attitudes, values, and experiences of the moment.

c. For example, the executive of our example is faced with a situation in which

interpretation is necessary. Immediately, he or she will attend to certain aspects

of the safety problem. In enlisting the aid of others, for example the secretary,the executive is beginning processes that will enable the group to treat the

safety problem as its environment of the moment. To deal with this equivocal

environment, group members make proposals (acts) to which others respond(interacts) so that theproposers can refine their initial proposals (double

interacts). For example, the executive may ask the secretary to check the files

for accident records. This constitutes a proposal, an attempt to reduce

the equivocality . The secretary may comply, pulling the appropriate file, so thatthe executive can be assured that the company knows the extent of the safety

problem. Here the sequence of the double interact would be as follows: request

file (act), provide file (interact), take file and review it (double interact). Noticehow the participants behaviors are interlocked. The secretarys activity of the

moment depends on the executives request, and the executives subsequent

behavior depends on the secretarys compliance (Littlejohn). (double interact).Notice how the participants behaviors are interlocked. The secretarys activity

of the moment depends on the executives request, and the executives

subsequent behavior depends on the secretarys compliance (Littlejohn).


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5. Organizing relies on a series of three major processes: enactment,selection,

and retention, followed by a choice

a. Enactment

1.) The definition of the situation or the registering of equivocal information

from outside.

2.) The mere acceptance of certain aspects of the environment removes

some equivocality.

b. Selection

1.) A process that enables the group to admit certain aspects of information and

reject others.

2.) This process therefore removes even more equivocality from the initialinformation.

c. Retention

1.) Further removes equivocality by deciding what aspects of the initial information

will be saved for future use.

2.) Retained information is integrated into the existing body of information onwhich the organization operates.

d. Choice

1.) After retention, organization members face two kinds of decisions.

a.) Whether to reenact the environment in some way: Should we (or I)attend to some aspect of the environment that was rejected before?

b.) Whether to modify ones behavior or actions: Should I take a different

action than I did before?

e. These processes occur simultaneously throughout the organization. While some

members may specialize in a particular process, nearly everybody undertakesall of them in one form or another most of the time. Such is the essence of

organizing (Littlejohn).

6. Two elements occur within each of these processes to reduce equivocality.

a. Assembly rules guide the choice of routines that will be used to accomplish the

process being conducted (enactment, selection, or retention).

1.) Rules are sets of criteria on which organizers decide what to do to

reduce equivocality.

2.) The question answered by assembly rules is this: Out of all the possible

behavior cycles in this organization, which shall we use now?

3.)

For example, in the selection process the executive might invoke theassembly rule that two heads are better than one and on this basis call ameeting of plant engineers.

b. Behavior cycles are sets of interlocked behaviors that enable the group to come

to an understanding about which meanings should be included and whichrejected.


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1.) Thus the safety meeting called by the executive would enable interested

individuals to discuss the safety problem and decide how to proceed in

defining and solving it.

C. Structural Functionalism

1. Overview

Richard V. Farace, Peter R. Monge, and Hamish Russell, Communicating and

Organizing(Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1977)).

a. A relatively recent theory

b. An eclectic system approach, drawing from the best insights of previous work.

c. One of the few strictly organizational communication theories.

2. The Nature of an Organization, Information and Communication

a. An organization is a system of at least two people (usually many more), withinterdependence, input, throughput, and output. This group communicates and

cooperates to produce some end product by using energy, information, and

materials from the environment (Littlejohn).

b. One of the most important resources in organizationsis information. the reduction of uncertainty.

c. Communication is in part the reduction of uncertainty via information.

d. Communication, however, also involves the use of commonsymbolic forms that

refer to mutually understood referents.

3. Two types of communication, which correspond to two types of information.

a. Absolute information: what is known

1.) consists of all the pieces of knowledge present in the system.

2.) Thus the totality of communicated information in an organization is

absolute communication.b. Distributed information: who knows itis that which has been diffused through

the organization.

1.) The fact that information exists in an organization does not guarantee that it

will be communicated adequately in the system.

2.) Failures in distribution policies are due to failures by managers to identify

which groups of personnel need to know certain things, or to establish

where these groups are supposed to be able to obtain the information theyneed (Farace et al, p. 28).

4. The framework for organizational communication rests on three analytic

dimensions.a. System levelmade up of four sublevels that function in a hierarchy.

1.) individual

2.) dyadic

3.) group

4.) organizational


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b. Functional leveldeals with the content of messages. These authors stress three

above the rest: production, innovation, and maintenance.

1.)Production refers to the direction, coordination, and control of activities.

2.)Innovation generates change and new ideas in the system.

3.)Maintenance preserves individual values and interpersonal relations

necessary to keep the system together.

c. Structural levelwhich deals with the emergent patterns or regularities in thetransmission of messages.

5. Key Concepts for Communication Levels

a. Individual Level: Communication Load

1.) the rate and complexity of information inputs to a person.

a.) Rate is the quantity of inputs such as messages or requests

b.) Complexity is the number of factors that must be dealt with inprocessing the information.

2.) Two problem areas relate to load.a.) Underloadoccurs when the flow of messages to a person falls below the

persons ability to process them.

b.) Overloadoccurs when the load exceeds the persons capacity.

3.) Also applies to dyads, groups, and organizations

b. Dyadic Level: Communication rules

1.) Rules function to pattern expectations.

2.) Rules can be explicit or implicit policies.

3.) Some common rule topics include the following:

a.) who initiates interactions;

b.) how delays are treated;

c.) what topics are discussed and who selects them;

d.) how topic changes are handled;

e.) how outside interruptions are handled;

f.) how interactions are terminated;

g.) and how frequently communication occurs.

c. Group Level:Multiple Structures

1.) Three types of group structure:

a.) Communication structure ormicro-network: the pattern of interaction in

the group.

i.) Who communicates with whom within the group?

b.)Powerstructure.

i.) Who has what kind of power over whom?

c.)Leadership structure: role distribution in the group,

i.) Who has influence over whom?


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d. Organizational Level: A macro-network

1.) A repetitive pattern of information transmission among the groups in an

organization (Littlejohn).

2.) Usually multiple networks operating at once.

3.) Can be formal (the org chart) or informal (social groups).

4.) Two fundamental parts: the members and theirlinks.

a.)Links are characterized by five properties.

i.) Symmetry: the degree to which the members connected by a linkinteract on an equal basis. In asymmetricalrelationship the

members give and take information relatively equally.

An asymmetric link is one way, with a distinct information senderand receiver.

ii.) Strength: a simple function of interaction frequency. Members who

communicate more often have astrongerlink, while those who

communicate less often have a weakerlink.

iii.)Reciprocity: the extent to which members agree about their links. If

one person believes that he or she often communicates with another,

but the other denies it, the link is unreciprocated.

iv.)Contentof the interaction: Is the communication primarily aboutwork, social matters, or some other content area? By probing the

content of links in a network, we can discern the networks overall

function.

v.)Mode: How is communication achieved, by what channel? Modesmay be face-to-face conversations, group meetings, or

communication via letter or telephone.

b.) Members within an organization take on different rolesi.) Isolates have no links with other network members.

ii.) Groups, relatively stable structures which are characterized by four

criteria:

(1.)More than half of the groups communication is within the

group;

(2.)Each person must be linked with all others in the group

(3.)The group will not break apart with the exit of one person or the

destruction of one link

(4.)The group must have at least three members.

c.)Bridges: group members who also are linked to other groups.

d.)Liaisons: not members of any group, yet they link two or more groups.


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D. Criticism from Littlejohn

1. Exciting and quite different from classical and human relations theory.

2. They are valuable for us because they stress communication in organizations,emphasizing the ways transfer of information binds elements into holistic

organization. With system theory the emphasis changes from components and

structure to relations and interactions.

3. Objections

a. (See BengtAbrahamsson,Bureaucracy or Participation: The Logic of

Organization (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1977)).


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b. Systems theory is so abstract, different applications are inconsistent.

1.) Weicks theory presents a view of the most general organizing processes, with

little attention to the actual activities that can occur.

2.) The theory ofFarace and his colleagues, however, looks at how people are

grouped into organizational structures by virtue of their information links.

3.) Although these theories are not inconsistent with one another, they are

hardly comparable. Even though both theories are system approaches, andeven though both relate to organizational communication, they cannot be

compared in terms of power or utility. They also illustrate that system

concepts are slippery and difficult to pin down when they are applied toparticular observed events.

c. System concept is more a way of thinking than a theoryper se.

d. System theories tend toward oversimplification.

1.) System theories tend to exaggerate the system claims in regard to an

organization, ignoring aspects of the organization that are not system-like.

2.) Certain variables are downplayed because they do not fit well into thesystem paradigm.

3.) Weickcalls for a tempered approach that would address questions such as the

following: When will a set of related entitiesthe standard definition of asystemact like a system and when will they not; what conditions tighten

and loosen interdependencies; what conditions freeze or extend the range of

values a variable will take; what conditions diffuse or intensifyboundaries? (Weick, Middle Range, p. 357)

e. System approaches rarely are specific enough to explain or to predict individual

variation. Consequently they are not often falsifiable.

1.) Most philosophers of science agree that the validity of a theory that is notfalsifiable never really can be known and that such theories therefore should

be rejected as inadequate.

f. These system theories are ahistorical, ignoring the developmental course of

organizations.

g. These system theories downplay the role of power in the organization,

suggesting that system outcomes are a natural result of the mechanism

ofinteractional structure and not of the influence of individuals and groups.

Are there literate businessmen who still use agendum or datum? The very sounds ofthese words make them fit for the museum, with which they rhyme.

adapted from little john

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