Additive Manufacturing Technologies

I. Gibson l D. W. Rosen l B. Stucker

Additive ManufacturingTechnologies

Rapid Prototyping to Direct DigitalManufacturing

Dr. Ian GibsonDepartment of Mechanical & ProductionEngineeringNational University of Singapore9 Engineering Drive 1Singapore 117576Singaporempegi@nus.edu.sg

Dr. David W. RosenThe George W. Woodruff School ofMechanical EngineeringGeorgia Institute of Technology813 Ferst Drive, N.W.Atlanta, GA 30332-0405USAdavid.rosen@me.gatech.edu

Dr. Brent StuckerDepartment of Mechanical &Aerospace EngineeringUtah State University4130 Old Main HallLogan, UT 84322USAbrent.stucker@usu.edu

ISBN: 978-1-4419-1119-3 e-ISBN: 978-1-4419-1120-9DOI 10.1007/978-1-4419-1120-9Springer New York Heidelberg Dordrecht London

Library of Congress Control Number: 2009934499

# Springer ScienceþBusiness Media, LLC 2010All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the writtenpermission of the publisher (Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, 233 Spring Street, New York, NY10013, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use inconnection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computersoftware, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden.The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similar terms, even if they arenot identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not they are subjectto proprietary rights.

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Preface

Thank you for taking the time to read this book on Additive Manufacturing (AM).

We hope you benefit from the time and effort it has taken putting it together and that

you think it was a worthwhile undertaking. It all started as a discussion at a

conference in Portugal when we realized that we were putting together books

with similar aims and objectives. Since we are friends as well as colleagues,

it seemed sensible that we join forces rather than compete; sharing the load and

playing to each others’ strengths undoubtedly means a better all-round effort and

result.

We wrote this book because we have all been working in the field of AM

for many years. Although none of us like to be called “old,” we do seem to have

decades of experience, collectively, and have each established reputations as

educators and researchers in this field. We have each seen the technologies

described in this book take shape and develop into serious commercial tools, with

tens of thousands of users and many millions of parts being made by AM machines

each year. AM is now being incorporated into curricula in many schools, poly-

technics and universities around the world. More and more students are becoming

aware of these technologies and yet, as we see it, there is no single text adequate for

such curricula. We hope that now, with this book, there is.

Additive Manufacturing is defined by a range of technologies that are capable of

translating virtual solid model data into physical models in a quick and easy

process. The data is broken down into a series of 2D cross-sections of a finite

thickness. These cross-sections are fed into AM machines so that they can be

combined, adding them together in a layer-by-layer sequence to form the physical

part. The geometry of the part is therefore clearly reproduced in the AM machine

without having to adjust for manufacturing processes, like attention to tooling,

undercuts, draft angles or other features. We can say therefore that the AMmachine

is a What You See Is What You Build (WYSIWYB) process that is particularly

valuable the more complex the geometry is. This basic principle drives nearly all

AM machines, with variations in each technology in terms of the techniques used

for creating layers and in bonding them together. Further variations include speed,

v

layer thickness, range of materials, accuracy, and of course cost. With so many

variables, it is clear to see why this book must be so long and detailed. Having said

that, we still feel there is much more we could have written about.

The first three chapters of this book provide a basic overview of AM processes.

Without fully describing each technology, we provide an appreciation for why AM

is so important to many branches of industry. We outline the rapid development of

this technology from humble beginnings that showed promise but still requiring

much development, to one that is now maturing and showing real benefit to product

development organizations. In reading these chapters, we hope you can learn the

basics of how AM works.

The next seven chapters (Chaps. 4–10) take each group of technologies in turn

and describe them in detail. The fundamentals of each technology are dealt with in

terms of the basic process, whether it is photopolymer curing, sintering, melting,

etc., so that the reader can appreciate what is needed in order to understand,

develop, and optimize each technology. Most technologies discussed in this book

have been commercialized by at least one company; and these machines are

described along with discussion on how to get the best out of them.

The final chapters deal with how to apply AM technology in different settings.

Firstly, we look at how the use of this technology has affected the design process

considering how we might improve our designs because of the WYSIWYB ap-

proach. Having said that, there are many options concerning the type of machine

you should buy in relation to your application, so we provide guidelines on how to

select the right technology for your purpose. Since all AM machines depend on

input from 3D CAD software, we go on to discuss how this process takes place.

These technologies have improved to the extent that many manufacturers are

using AMmachine output for end-product use. Called Direct DigitalManufacturing,

this opens the door to many exciting and novel applications considered impossible,

infeasible or uneconomic in the past. We can now consider the possibility of mass

customization, where a product can be produced according to the tastes of an

individual consumer but at a cost-effective price. This moves us on nicely to the

subject of medical products made using AM where each part can be created accord-

ing to an individual patient’s data. Then we go on to discuss how to finish parts once

they come off the AM machine so that they can best suit the final application. We

complete the book with chapters on emerging areas of AM, with discussions on

multiple material and embedded systems, how these systems enable creative busi-

nesses and entrepreneurs to invent new products, and where AM will likely develop

in the future.

This book is primarily aimed at students and educators studying Additive

Manufacturing, either as a self-contained course or as a module within a larger

course on manufacturing technology. There is sufficient depth for an undergraduate

or graduate-level course, with many references to point the student further along the

path. Each chapter also has a number of exercise questions designed to test the

reader’s knowledge and to expand their thinking. Researchers into AM may also

find this text useful in helping them understand the state of the art and the

opportunities for further research.

vi Preface

Although we have worked hard to make this book as comprehensive as

possible, we recognize that a book about such rapidly changing technology will

not be up-to-date for very long. With this in mind, and to help educators and

students better utilize this book, we will update our course website at http://www.

springer.com/978-1-4419-1119-3, with additional homework exercises and other aids

for educators. If you have comments, questions or suggestions for improvement, they

are welcome. We anticipate updating this book in the future, and we look forward to

hearing how you have used these materials and how we might improve this book.

As mentioned earlier, each author is an established expert in Additive

Manufacturing with many years of research experience. In addition, in many

ways, this book is only possible due to the many students and colleagues with

whom we have collaborated over the years. To introduce you to the authors and

some of the others who have made this book possible, we will end this preface with

brief author biographies and acknowledgements.

Preface vii

Author Biographies

Dr. Brent Stucker is an Associate Professor of Mechanical & Aerospace

Engineering at Utah State University. After receiving his Ph.D. from Texas A&M

University in 1997, he joined the Industrial & Manufacturing Engineering faculty

of the University of Rhode Island, where he established the Rapid Manufacturing

Center. In 2002, he moved to Utah State, where he established and continues to lead

the Additive Manufacturing Laboratory. Dr. Stucker has taught courses on AM

technologies for more than 10 years, sits on the Rapid Technologies & Additive

Manufacturing Steering Committee for the Society of Manufacturing Engineers,

was a Selective Laser Sintering Users Group 2005 “Dinosaur Award” recipient, and

is the current Chairman of ASTM International’s Committee F42 on Additive

Manufacturing Technologies. His research focuses on metal AM, including Ultra-

sonic Consolidation, Direct Write, Laser Engineered Net Shaping, Selective Laser

Sintering, and their applications.

Prof. David W. Rosen is a Professor in the George W. Woodruff School of

Mechanical Engineering at the Georgia Institute of Technology. After receiving his

Ph.D. from the University of Massachusetts in 1992, he joined the faculty at

Georgia Tech. In 1995, the Rapid Prototyping & Manufacturing Institute

was started at Georgia Tech through an ARPA manufacturing education grant

and Dr. Rosen was asked to become its head. Since then, he has led the additive

manufacturing research and education program at Georgia Tech. He is active in the

Society of Manufacturing Engineers Direct Digital Manufacturing Tech Group and

the 3D Systems User Group conference. His research focuses on photopolymer

processing, ink-jet printing, and design for additive manufacturing.

Dr. Ian Gibson is an Associate Professor at the National University of

Singapore (NUS). Originally from Scotland, he moved to England where he gained

a Ph.D. in robotics at Hull University. His teaching career started at Nottingham

University, where he specialized in advanced manufacturing technology and first

came to learn about the AM technology that was then called Rapid Prototyping.

ix

In 1994, he moved to Hong Kong, where he helped establish the technology in Asia,

started the Rapid Prototyping Journal and the Global Alliance of Rapid Prototyping

Associations. In 2005, he joined NUS, where he concentrates mostly on medical

applications and direct digital manufacturing.

x Author Biographies

Acknowledgement

Dr. Brent Stucker thanks Utah State and VTT Technical Research Center of

Finland, which provided time to work on this book while on sabbatical in Helsinki.

Additionally, much of this book would not have been possible without the many

graduate students and post-doctoral researchers who have worked with Dr. Stucker

over the years. In particular, he would like to thank Dr. G.D. Janaki Ram of the

Indian Institute of Technology Madras, whose co-authoring of the “Layer-Based

Additive Manufacturing Technologies” chapter in the CRC Materials ProcessingHandbook helped lead to the organization of this book. Additionally, the following

students’ work led to one or more things mentioned in this book: Muni Malhotra,

Xiuzhi Qu, Carson Esplin, Adam Smith, Joshua George, Christopher Robinson,

Yanzhe Yang, Matthew Swank and John Obielodan. Special thanks are due to Dr.

Stucker’s wife Gail, and their children: Tristie, Andrew, Megan and Emma, who

patiently supported many days and evenings on this book. Lastly, as the right

atmosphere helps stir the creative juices, Dr. Stucker appreciates the many hours

he could spend at Cafe Carusel in Helsinki, Finland (which he highly recommends

to anyone passing through).

Prof. David W. Rosen acknowledges support from Georgia Tech and the many

graduate students and post-docs who contributed technically to the content in this

book. In particular, he thanks Drs. Fei Ding, Scott Johnston, Ameya Limaye,

J. Mark Meacham, Benay Sager, L. Angela Tse, Sanjay Vohra, Hongqing Wang,

Chris Williams, and Yong Yang, as well as Patrick Chang, Jane (Chen) Chu, Sarah

Engelbrecht, Greg Graf, Amit Jariwala, Lauren Margolin, and Xiayun Zhao.

A special thanks goes out to his wife Joan and children Erik and Krista for their

patience while he worked on this book.

Dr. Ian Gibson would like to acknowledge the support of NUS in providing

sufficient time for him to work on this book. L.K. Anand also helped in preparing

many of the drawings and images for his chapters. Finally, he wishes to thank his

lovely wife, Lina, for her patience, love and understanding during the long hours

preparing the material and writing the chapters. He also dedicates this book to his

father, Robert Ervin Gibson, and hopes he is proud of this wonderful achievement.

xi

Contents

1 Introduction and Basic Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 What is Additive Manufacturing?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.2 What Are AM Parts Used For? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.3 The Generic AM Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.3.1 Step 1: CAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.3.2 Step 2: Conversion to STL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.3.3 Step 3: Transfer to AM Machine and STL

File Manipulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.3.4 Step 4: Machine Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.3.5 Step 5: Build. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.3.6 Step 6: Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.3.7 Step 7: Postprocessing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.3.8 Step 8: Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.4 Why Use the Term Additive Manufacturing? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.4.1 Automated Fabrication (Autofab). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.4.2 Freeform Fabrication or Solid Freeform Fabrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1.4.3 Additive Manufacturing or Layer-based Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . 7

1.4.4 Stereolithography or 3D Printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1.4.5 Rapid Prototyping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1.5 The Benefits of AM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1.6 Distinction Between AM and CNC Machining. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1.6.1 Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1.6.2 Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

1.6.3 Complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

1.6.4 Accuracy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

1.6.5 Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

1.6.6 Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

1.7 Other Related Technologies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

1.7.1 Reverse Engineering Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

1.7.2 Computer-Aided Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

1.7.3 Haptic-Based CAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

xiii

1.8 About This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

1.9 Exercises. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

2 Development of Additive Manufacturing Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2.2 Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2.3 Computer-Aided Design Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

2.4 Other Associated Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

2.4.1 Lasers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

2.4.2 Printing Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

2.4.3 Programmable Logic Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

2.4.4 Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

2.4.5 Computer Numerically Controlled Machining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

2.5 The Use of Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

2.6 Classification of AM Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

2.6.1 Liquid Polymer Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

2.6.2 Discrete Particle Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

2.6.3 Molten Material Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

2.6.4 Solid Sheet Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

2.6.5 New AM Classification Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

2.7 Metal Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

2.8 Hybrid Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

2.9 Milestones in AM Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

2.10 AM Around the World. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

2.11 The Future? Rapid Prototyping Develops into Direct Digital

Manufacturing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

2.12 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

3 Generalized Additive Manufacturing Process Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

3.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

3.2 The Eight Steps in Additive Manufacture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

3.2.1 Step 1: Conceptualization and CAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

3.2.2 Step 2: Conversion to STL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

3.2.3 Step 3: Transfer to AM Machine and STL

File Manipulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

3.2.4 Step 4: Machine Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

3.2.5 Step 5: Build. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

3.2.6 Step 6: Removal and Cleanup. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

3.2.7 Step 7: Post-process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

3.2.8 Step 8: Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

3.3 Variations from One AM Machine to Another . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

3.3.1 Photopolymer-Based Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

xiv Contents

3.3.2 Powder-Based Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

3.3.3 Molten Material Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

3.3.4 Solid Sheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

3.4 Metal Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

3.4.1 The Use of Substrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

3.4.2 Energy Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

3.4.3 Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

3.4.4 Accuracy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

3.4.5 Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

3.5 Maintenance of Equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

3.6 Materials Handling Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

3.7 Design for AM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

3.7.1 Part Orientation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

3.7.2 Removal of Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

3.7.3 Hollowing Out Parts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

3.7.4 Inclusion of Undercuts and Other Manufacturing

Constraining Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

3.7.5 Interlocking Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

3.7.6 Reduction of Part Count in an Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

3.7.7 Identification Markings/Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

3.8 Application Areas That Don’t Involve Conventional

CAD Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

3.8.1 Medical Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

3.8.2 Reverse Engineering Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

3.8.3 Architectural Modeling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

3.9 Further Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

3.9.1 Exercises. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

4 Photopolymerization Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

4.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

4.2 Photopolymerization Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

4.2.1 UV Curable Photopolymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

4.2.2 Overview of Photopolymer Chemistry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

4.2.3 Resin Formulations and Reaction Mechanisms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

4.3 Reaction Rates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

4.4 Vector Scan SL. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

4.4.1 SL Process Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

4.4.2 SL Machines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

4.5 SL Resin Curing Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

4.5.1 Irradiance and Exposure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

4.5.2 Laser–Resin Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

4.5.3 Photospeed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

4.5.4 Time Scales. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

Contents xv

4.6 SL Scan Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

4.6.1 Layer-Based Build Phenomena and Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

4.6.2 WEAVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

4.6.3 STAR-WEAVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

4.6.4 ACES Scan Pattern. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

4.7 Vector Scan Microstereolithography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

4.8 Mask Projection Photopolymerization Technologies

and Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

4.8.1 Mask Projection SL Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

4.8.2 Commercial MPSL Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

4.8.3 MPSL Modeling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

4.9 Two-Photon SL. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

4.10 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

4.11 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

5 Powder Bed Fusion Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

5.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

5.2 SLS Process Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

5.3 Powder Fusion Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

5.3.1 Solid-state Sintering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

5.3.2 Chemically-induced Sintering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

5.3.3 Liquid-phase Sintering and Partial Melting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

5.3.4 Full Melting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

5.4 Powder Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

5.4.1 Powder Handling Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

5.4.2 Powder Handling Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

5.4.3 Powder Recycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

5.5 Approaches to Metal and Ceramic Part Creation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

5.5.1 Metal Parts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

5.5.2 Ceramic Parts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

5.6 Variants of Powder Bed Fusion Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

5.6.1 Laser-based Systems for Low-temperature

Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

5.6.2 Laser-based Systems for Metals and Ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

5.6.3 Electron Beam Melting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

5.6.4 Line-wise and Layer-wise PBF Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

5.7 Process Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

5.8 Applied Energy Correlations and Scan Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

5.9 Typical Materials and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

5.10 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

5.10.1 Capabilities and Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

5.11 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

5.12 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

xvi Contents

6 Extrusion-Based Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

6.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

6.2 Basic Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

6.2.1 Material Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

6.2.2 Liquification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

6.2.3 Extrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

6.2.4 Solidification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

6.2.5 Positional Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

6.2.6 Bonding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

6.2.7 Support Generation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

6.3 Plotting and Path Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

6.4 Fused Deposition Modeling from Stratasys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

6.4.1 FDM Machine Types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

6.5 Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

6.6 Limitations of FDM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

6.7 Bioextrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

6.7.1 Gel Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

6.7.2 Melt Extrusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

6.7.3 Scaffold Architectures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

6.8 Other Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

6.8.1 Contour Crafting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

6.8.2 Nonplanar Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

6.8.3 FDM of Ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

6.8.4 Reprap and Fab@home . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

6.9 Exercises. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

7 Printing Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

7.1 Evolution of Printing as an Additive Manufacturing Process . . . . . . . . . 171

7.1.1 Historical Development of 3D Printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

7.1.2 Commercially Available Printing Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

7.1.3 Advantages of Printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

7.2 Research Achievements in Printing Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176

7.2.1 Polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176

7.2.2 Ceramics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

7.2.3 Metals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

7.3 Technical Challenges of Printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

7.3.1 Droplet Formation Technologies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

7.3.2 Continuous Mode. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

7.3.3 Drop-on-Demand Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

7.3.4 Other Droplet Formation Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

7.4 Printing Process Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

7.5 Material Modification Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

7.5.1 Hot Melt Deposition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

Contents xvii

7.5.2 Solution- and Dispersion-Based Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

7.5.3 Prepolymer Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

7.6 Three-Dimensional Printing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

7.6.1 Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

7.6.2 Commercial Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

7.6.3 Other Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

7.7 Advantages of Binder Printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

7.8 Exercises. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

8 Sheet Lamination Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

8.1 Gluing or Adhesive Bonding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

8.1.1 Bond-then-Form Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

8.1.2 Form-then-Bond Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

8.2 Thermal Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

8.3 Processes Based on Sheet Metal Clamping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

8.4 Ultrasonic Consolidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

8.4.1 UC Bond Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216

8.4.2 UC Process Fundamentals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216

8.4.3 UC Process Parameters and Process Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

8.4.4 Microstructures and Mechanical Properties of UC Parts . . . . . . . 222

8.4.5 Modeling of UC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226

8.4.6 UC Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

8.5 Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234

8.6 Exercises. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235

9 Beam Deposition Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

9.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

9.2 General Beam Deposition Process Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

9.3 Material Delivery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240

9.3.1 Powder Feeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240

9.3.2 Wire Feeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

9.4 BD Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244

9.5 Process Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248

9.6 Typical Materials and Microstructure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248

9.7 Processing–Structure–Properties Relationships. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

9.8 BD Benefits and Drawbacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256

9.9 Exercises. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258

10 Direct Write Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

10.1 Direct Write Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

10.2 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

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10.3 Ink-Based DW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260

10.3.1 Nozzle Dispensing Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261

10.3.2 Quill-Type Processes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264

10.3.3 Inkjet Printing Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265

10.3.4 Aerosol DW. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266

10.4 Laser Transfer DW. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267

10.5 Thermal Spray DW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270

10.6 Beam Deposition DW. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

10.6.1 Laser CVD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

10.6.2 Focused Ion Beam CVD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274

10.6.3 Electron Beam CVD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275

10.7 Liquid-Phase Direct Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275

10.8 Beam Tracing Approaches to Additive/Subtractive DW. . . . . . . . . . . . . 276

10.8.1 Electron Beam Tracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277

10.8.2 Focused Ion Beam Tracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277

10.8.3 Laser Beam Tracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277

10.9 Hybrid Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278

10.10 Applications of Direct Write Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278

10.10.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281

11 Design for Additive Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283

11.1 Motivation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283

11.2 Design for Manufacturing and Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284

11.3 Core DFAM Concepts and Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287

11.3.1 Complex Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288

11.3.2 Customized Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288

11.3.3 Integrated Assemblies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288

11.3.4 Elimination of Conventional DFM Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289

11.4 AM Unique Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289

11.4.1 Shape Complexity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290

11.4.2 Hierarchical Complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

11.4.3 Functional Complexity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292

11.4.4 Material Complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295

11.5 Exploring Design Freedoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296

11.5.1 Part Consolidation and Redesign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296

11.5.2 Hierarchical Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

11.5.3 Industrial Design Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299

11.6 Design Tools for AM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300

11.6.1 Challenges for CAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301

11.6.2 Solid-Modeling CAD Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302

11.6.3 Promising Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304

11.6.4 Search and Synthesis Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308

11.6.5 Cantilever Beam Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312

Contents xix

11.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314

11.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314

12 Guidelines for Process Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317

12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317

12.2 Selection Methods for a Part. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318

12.2.1 Decision Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318

12.2.2 Approaches to Determining Feasibility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319

12.2.3 Approaches to Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321

12.2.4 Selection Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323

12.3 Challenges of Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327

12.4 Example System for Preliminary Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329

12.5 Production Planning and Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335

12.5.1 Production Planning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336

12.5.2 Pre-processing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336

12.5.3 Part Build. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337

12.5.4 Post-processing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337

12.5.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338

12.6 Open Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338

12.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339

13 Software Issues for Additive Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341

13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341

13.2 Preparation of CAD Models – the STL File. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341

13.2.1 STL File Format, Binary/ASCII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342

13.2.2 Creating STL Files from a CAD System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343

13.2.3 Calculation of Each Slice Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345

13.2.4 Technology Specific Elements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349

13.3 Problems with STL Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351

13.4 STL File Manipulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354

13.4.1 Viewers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355

13.4.2 STL Manipulation on the AM Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356

13.5 Beyond the STL File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357

13.5.1 Direct Slicing of the CAD Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357

13.5.2 Color Models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357

13.5.3 Multiple Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358

13.5.4 Use of STL for Machining. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358

13.6 Additional Software to Assist AM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359

13.6.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361

xx Contents

14 Direct Digital Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363

14.1 Align Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363

14.2 Siemens and Phonak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365

14.3 Custom Soccer Shoes and Other DDM Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367

14.4 DDM Drivers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370

14.5 Manufacturing vs. Prototyping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372

14.6 Cost Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374

14.6.1 Cost Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374

14.6.2 Build Time Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376

14.6.3 Stereolithography Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379

14.7 Life-Cycle Costing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380

14.8 Future of Direct Digital Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382

14.9 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384

15 Medical Applications for Additive Manufacture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385

15.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385

15.2 The Use of AM to Support Medical Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386

15.2.1 Surgical and Diagnostic Aids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387

15.2.2 Prosthetics Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389

15.2.3 Manufacturing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390

15.2.4 Tissue Engineering and Organ Printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390

15.3 Software Support for Medical Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392

15.4 Limitations of AM for Medical Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393

15.4.1 Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394

15.4.2 Cost. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394

15.4.3 Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395

15.5 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395

15.5.1 Ease of Use. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395

15.6 Further Development of Medical AM Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396

15.6.1 Approvals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396

15.6.2 Insurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397

15.6.3 Engineering Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397

15.6.4 Location of the Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398

15.6.5 Service Bureaus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398

15.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399

16 Post-Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401

16.1 Support Material Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401

16.1.1 Natural Support Post-Processing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402

16.1.2 Synthetic Support Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403

16.2 Surface Texture Improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405

16.3 Accuracy Improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406

Contents xxi

16.3.1 Error Sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406

16.3.2 Model Pre-processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407

16.3.3 Machining Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408

16.4 Aesthetic Improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412

16.5 Preparation for use as a Pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413

16.5.1 Investment Casting Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414

16.5.2 Sand Casting Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414

16.5.3 Other Pattern Replication Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415

16.6 Property Enhancements using Non-thermal Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416

16.7 Property Enhancements using Thermal Techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417

16.8 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420

16.9 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421

17 The Use of Multiple Materials in Additive Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . 423

17.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423

17.2 Multiple Material Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423

17.3 Discrete Multiple Material Processes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424

17.4 Porous Multiple Material Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427

17.5 Blended Multiple Material Processes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429

17.6 Embedded Component AM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431

17.7 Commercial Applications Using Multiple Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432

17.8 Future Directions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433

17.8.1 Design Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434

17.8.2 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434

17.8.3 Multi-axis Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434

17.8.4 Materials Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435

17.8.5 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435

17.9 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435

17.10 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436

18 Business Opportunities and Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437

18.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437

18.2 New Types of Products and Employment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439

18.2.1 New Types of Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439

18.2.2 New Types of Employment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440

18.3 Digiproneurship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442

18.4 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445

18.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447

xxii Contents

Chapter 1

Introduction and Basic Principles

1.1 What is Additive Manufacturing?

The term Rapid Prototyping (or RP) is used in a variety of industries to describe a

process for rapidly creating a system or part representation before final release or

commercialization. In other words, the emphasis is on creating something quickly

and that the output is a prototype or basis model from which further models and

eventually the final product will be derived. Management consultants and software

engineers both use the term Rapid Prototyping to describe a process of developing

business and software solutions in a piecewise fashion that allows clients to test

ideas and provide feedback during the development process. In a product develop-

ment context, the term rapid prototyping was used widely to describe technologies

which created physical prototypes directly from digital data. This text is about these

technologies, first developed for prototyping, but now used for manymore purposes.

Users of RP technology have come to realize that this term is inadequate and

does not effectively describe more recent applications of the technology. Improve-

ments in the quality of the output from these machines have meant that there is a

much closer link to the final product. Many parts are in fact now directly manu-

factured in these machines; so it is not possible for us to label them as “prototypes.”

The term Rapid Prototyping also overlooks the basic principle of these technologies

in that they all fabricate parts using an additive approach. A recently formed

Technical Committee within ASTM International agreed that new terminology

should be adopted. While this is still under debate, recently adopted ASTM

consensus standards now use the term Additive Manufacturing.

Referred to in short as AM, the basic principle of this technology is that a model,

initially generated using a three-dimensional Computer Aided Design (3D CAD)

system, can be fabricated directly without the need for process planning. Although

this is not in reality as simple as it first sounds, AM technology certainly signifi-

cantly simplifies the process of producing complex 3D objects directly from CAD

data. Other manufacturing processes require a careful and detailed analysis of the

part geometry to determine things like the order in which different features can be

I. Gibson, D.W. Rosen, and B. Stucker, Additive Manufacturing Technologies,DOI 10.1007/978-1-4419-1120-9_1, # Springer ScienceþBusiness Media, LLC 2010

1

fabricated, what tools and processes must be used, and what additional fixtures may

be required to complete the part. In contrast, AM needs only some basic dimen-

sional details and a small amount of understanding as to how the AM machine

works and the materials that are used.

The key to how AM works is that parts are made by adding material in layers;

each layer is a thin cross-section of the part derived from the original CAD data.

Obviously in the physical world, each layer must have a finite thickness to it and so

the resulting part will be an approximation of the original data, as illustrated by

Fig. 1.1. The thinner each layer is, the closer the final part will be to the original. All

commercialized AM machines to date use a layer-based approach; and the major

ways that they differ are in the materials that can be used, how the layers are

created, and how the layers are bonded to each other. Such differences will

determine factors like the accuracy of the final part plus its material properties

and mechanical properties. They will also determine factors like how quickly the

part can be made, howmuch postprocessing is required, the size of the AMmachine

used, and the overall cost of the machine and process.

This chapter will introduce the basic concepts of Additive Manufacturing and

describe a generic AM process from design to application. It will go on to discuss

the implications of AM on design and manufacturing and attempt to help in

understanding how it has changed the entire product development process. Since

AM is an increasingly important tool for product development, the chapter ends

with a discussion of some related tools in the product development process.

Fig. 1.1 CAD image of a teacup with further images showing the effects of building using

different layer thicknesses

2 1 Introduction and Basic Principles

1.2 What Are AM Parts Used For?

Throughout this book youwill find awide variety of applications for AM.Youwill also

realize that the number of applications is increasing as the processes develop and

improve. Initially, AMwas used specifically to create visualizationmodels for products

as they were being developed. It is widely known that models can be much more

helpful than drawings or renderings in fully understanding the intent of the designer

when presenting the conceptual design. While drawings are quicker and easier to

create, models are nearly always required in the end to fully validate the design.

Following this initial purpose of simple model making, AM technology devel-

oped as materials, accuracy, and the overall quality of the output improved. Models

were quickly employed to supply information about what is known as the “3 Fs” of

Form, Fit, and Function. The initial models were used to help fully appreciate the

shape and general purpose of a design (Form). Improved accuracy in the process

meant that components were capable of being built to the tolerances required for

assembly purposes (Fit). Improved material properties meant that parts could be

properly handled so that they could be assessed according to how they would

eventually work (Function).

To say that AM technology is only useful for making models, though, would be

inaccurate and undervaluing the technology. AM, when used in conjunction with

other technologies to form process chains, can be used to significantly shorten

product development times and costs. More recently, some of these technologies

have been developed to the extent that the output is suitable for end use. This

explains why the terminology has essentially evolved from Rapid Prototyping to

Additive Manufacturing. Furthermore, use of high-power laser technology has

meant that parts can now also be directly made in a variety of metals, thus extending

the application range even further.

1.3 The Generic AM Process

AM involves a number of steps that move from the virtual CAD description to the

physical resultant part. Different products will involve AM in different ways and to

different degrees. Small, relatively simple products may only make use of AM for

visualization models, while larger, more complex products with greater engineering

content may involve AM during numerous stages and iterations throughout the

development process. Furthermore, early stages of the product development pro-

cess may only require rough parts, with AM being used because of the speed at

which they can be fabricated. At later stages of the process, parts may require

careful cleaning and postprocessing (including sanding, surface preparation and

painting) before they are used, with AM being useful here because of the complexity

of form that can be created without having to consider tooling. Later on, we will

investigate thoroughly the different stages of the AM process, but to summarize,

1.3 The Generic AM Process 3

most AM processes involve, to some degree at least, the following eight steps (as

illustrated in Fig. 1.2).

1.3.1 Step 1: CAD

All AM parts must start from a software model that fully describes the external

geometry. This can involve the use of almost any professional CAD solid modeling

software, but the output must be a 3D solid or surface representation. Reverse

engineering equipment (e.g., laser scanning) can also be used to create this

representation.

1.3.2 Step 2: Conversion to STL

Nearly every AM machine accepts the STL file format, which has become a de

facto standard, and nearly every CAD system can output such a file format. This file

describes the external closed surfaces of the original CAD model and forms the

basis for calculation of the slices.

1 CAD

1

2

34

5

6

7

8

2 STL convert3 File transfer to machine4 Machine setup5 Build6 Remove7 Post-process8 Application

Fig. 1.2 Generic process of CAD to part, showing all 8 stages

4 1 Introduction and Basic Principles

1.3.3 Step 3: Transfer to AMMachine and STL File Manipulation

The STL file describing the part must be transferred to the AMmachine. Here, there

may be some general manipulation of the file so that it is the correct size, position,

and orientation for building.

1.3.4 Step 4: Machine Setup

The AM machine must be properly set up prior to the build process. Such settings

would relate to the build parameters like the material constraints, energy source,

layer thickness, timings, etc.

1.3.5 Step 5: Build

Building the part is mainly an automated process and the machine can largely carry

on without supervision. Only superficial monitoring of the machine needs to take

place at this time to ensure no errors have taken place like running out of material,

power or software glitches, etc.

1.3.6 Step 6: Removal

Once the AM machine has completed the build, the parts must be removed. This

may require interaction with the machine, which may have safety interlocks to

ensure for example that the operating temperatures are sufficiently low or that there

are no actively moving parts.

1.3.7 Step 7: Postprocessing

Once removed from the machine, parts may require an amount of additional

cleaning up before they are ready for use. Parts may be weak at this stage or they

may have supporting features that must be removed. This therefore often requires

time and careful, experienced manual manipulation.

1.3.8 Step 8: Application

Parts may now be ready to be used. However, they may also require additional

treatment before they are acceptable for use. For example, they may require

priming and painting to give an acceptable surface texture and finish. Treatments

may be laborious and lengthy if the finishing requirements are very demanding.

1.3 The Generic AM Process 5

They may also be required to be assembled together with other mechanical or

electronic components to form a final model or product.

While the numerous stages in the AM process have now been discussed, it is

important to realize that many AM machines require careful maintenance. Many

AM machines use fragile laser or printer technology that must be carefully moni-

tored and that should preferably not be used in a dirty or noisy environment. While

machines are designed to operate unattended, it is important to include regular

checks in the maintenance schedule, and that different technologies require differ-

ent levels of maintenance. It is also important to note that AM processes fall outside

of most materials and process standards; explaining the recent interest in the ASTM

F42 Technical Committee on Additive Manufacturing Technologies, which is

working to address and overcome this problem. However, many machine vendors

recommend and provide test patterns that can be used periodically to confirm that

the machines are operating within acceptable limits.

In addition to the machinery, materials may also require careful handling. The

raw materials used in some AM processes have limited shelf-life and must also be

kept in conditions that prevent them from unwanted chemical reactions. Exposure

to moisture, excess light, and other contaminants should be avoided. Most pro-

cesses use materials that can be reused for more than one build. However, it may be

that reuse could degrade the properties if performed many times over, and therefore

a procedure for maintaining consistent material quality through recycling should

also be observed.

1.4 Why Use the Term Additive Manufacturing?

By now, you should realize that the technology we are referring to is primarily the

use of additive processes, combining materials layer-by-layer. The term Additive

Manufacturing, or AM, seems to describe this quite well, but there are many other

terms which are in use. This section discusses other terms that have been used to

describe this technology as a way of explaining the overall purpose and benefits of

the technology for product development.

1.4.1 Automated Fabrication (Autofab)

This term was popularized by Marshall Burns in his book of the same name, which

was one of the first texts to cover this technology in the early 1990s [1]. The

emphasis here is on the use of automation to manufacture products, thus implying

the simplification or removal of manual tasks from the process. Computers and

microcontrollers are used to control the actuators and to monitor the system

variables. This term can also be used to describe other forms of Computer Numeri-

cal Controlled (CNC) machining centers since there is no direct reference as to how

parts are built or the number of stages it would take to build them, although Burns

does primarily focus on the technologies also covered by this book.

6 1 Introduction and Basic Principles

1.4.2 Freeform Fabrication or Solid Freeform Fabrication

The emphasis here is in the capability of the processes to fabricate complex

geometric shapes. Sometimes the advantage of these technologies is described in

terms of providing “complexity for free,” implying that it doesn’t particularly

matter what the shape of the input object actually is. A simple cube or cylinder

would take almost as much time and effort to fabricate within the machine as a

complex anatomical structure with the same enclosing volume. The reference to

“Freeform” relates to the independence of form from the manufacturing process.

This is very different from most conventional manufacturing processes that become

much more involved as the geometric complexity increases.

1.4.3 Additive Manufacturing or Layer-based Manufacturing

These descriptions relate to the way the processes fabricate parts by adding material

in layers. This is in contrast to machining technology that removes, or subtracts

material from a block of raw material. It should be noted that some of the processes

are not purely additive, in that they may add material at one point but also use

subtractive processes at some stage as well. Currently, every commercial process

works in a layer-wise fashion. However, there is nothing to suggest that this is an

essential approach to use and that future systemsmay add material in other ways and

yet still come under a broad classification that is appropriate to this text. A slight

variation on this, Additive Fabrication, is a term that was popularized by Terry

Wohlers, a well-known industry consultant in this field and who compiles a widely

regarded annual industry report on the state of this industry [2]. However, many

professionals prefer the term “manufacturing” to “fabrication” since “fabrication”

has some negative connotations that infer the part may still be a “prototype” rather

than a finished article. Additionally, in some regions of the world the term fabrica-

tion is associated with sheet metal bending and related processes, and thus profes-

sionals from these regions often object to the use of the word fabrication for this

industry. Additive Manufacturing is, therefore, starting to become widely used, and

has also been adopted by Wohlers in his most recent publications and presentation.

1.4.4 Stereolithography or 3D Printing

These two terms were initially used to describe specific machines. Stereolithogra-

phy (SL) was termed by the US company 3D Systems [3, 4] and 3D Printing (3DP)

was widely used by researchers at MIT [5] who invented an ink-jet printing-based

technology. Both terms allude to the use of 2D processes (lithography and printing)

and extending them into the third dimension. Since most people are very fami-

liar with printing technology, the idea of printing a physical three-dimensional

object should make sense. Many consider that eventually the term 3D Printing will

become the most commonly used wording to describe AM technologies.

1.4 Why Use the Term Additive Manufacturing? 7

1.4.5 Rapid Prototyping

Rapid Prototyping was termed because of the process this technology was designed

to enhance or replace. Manufacturers and product developers used to find proto-

typing a complex, tedious, and expensive process that often impeded the develop-

mental and creative phases during the introduction of a new product. RP was found

to significantly speed up this process and thus the term was adopted. However, users

and developers of this technology now realize that AM technology can be used for

much more than just prototyping.

Significant improvements in accuracy and material properties have seen this

technology catapulted into testing, tooling, manufacturing, and other realms that are

outside the “prototyping” definition. However, it can also be seen that most of the

other terms described above are also flawed in some way. One possibility is that

many will continue to use the term RP without specifically restricting it to the

manufacture of prototypes, much in the way that IBM makes things other than

business machines and that 3M manufactures products outside of the mining

industry. It will be interesting to watch how terminology develops in the future.

Where possible, we have used the term Additive Manufacturing throughout this

book as the generic word for the suite of technologies covered by this book. It

should be noted that, in the literature, most of the terms introduced above are

interchangeable; but different terminology may emphasize the approach used in a

particular instance. Thus, both in this book and while reading other literature, the

reader must consider the context to best understand what each of these terms means.

1.5 The Benefits of AM

Many people have described this technology as revolutionizing product develop-

ment and manufacturing. Some have even gone on to say that manufacturing, as we

know it today, may not exist if we follow AM to its ultimate conclusion. We might,

therefore, like to ask “why is this the case?” What is it about AM that enthuses and

inspires some to make these kinds of statements?

First, let’s consider the “rapid” character of this technology. The speed advan-

tage is not just in terms of the time it takes to build parts. The speeding up of the

whole product development process relies much on the fact that we are using

computers throughout. Since 3D CAD is being used as the starting point and the

transfer to AM is relatively seamless, there is much less concern over data conver-

sion or interpretation of the design intent. Just as 3D CAD is becoming What You

See Is What You Get (WYSIWYG), so it is the same with AM and we might just as

easily say that What you See Is What You Build (WYSIWYB).

The seamlessness can also be seen in terms of the reduction in process steps.

Regardless of the complexity of parts to be built, building within an AM machine is

generally performed in a single step. Most other manufacturing processes would

8 1 Introduction and Basic Principles

requiremultiple and iterative stages to be carried out. As you includemore features in

a design, the number of these stages may increase dramatically. Even a relatively

simple change in the design may result in a significant increase in the time required to

build using conventional methods. AM can, therefore, be seen as a way to more

effectively predict the amount of time to fabricate models, regardless of what changes

may be implemented during this formative stage of the product development.

Similarly, the number of processes and resources required can be significantly

reduced when using AM. If a skilled craftsman was requested to build a prototype

according to a set of CAD drawings, he may find that he must manufacture the part

in a number of stages. This may be because he must employ a variety of construc-

tion methods, ranging from hand carving, through molding and forming techniques,

to CNC machining. Hand carving and similar operations are tedious, difficult, and

prone to error. Molding technology can be messy and obviously requires the

building of one or more molds. CNC machining requires careful planning and a

sequential approach that may also require construction of fixtures before the part

itself can be made. All this presupposes that these technologies are within the

repertoire of the craftsman and readily available.

AM can be used to remove or at least simplify many of these multi-stage

processes. With the addition of some supporting technologies like silicon-rubber

molding, drills, polishers, grinders, etc. it can be possible to manufacture a vast

range of different parts with different characteristics. Workshops which adopt AM

technology can be much cleaner, more streamlined and more versatile than before.

1.6 Distinction Between AM and CNC Machining

As mentioned in the discussion on Automated Fabrication, AM shares some of its

DNA with Computer Numerical Controlled machining technology. CNC is also

computer-based technology that is used to manufacture products. CNC differs

mainly in that it is primarily a subtractive rather than additive process, requiring a

block of material that must be at least as big as the part that is to be made. This

section discusses a range of topics where comparisons between CNCmachining and

AM can be made. The purpose is not really to influence choice of one technology

over another rather than to establish how they may be implemented for different

stages in the product development process, or for different types of product.

1.6.1 Material

AM technology was originally developed around polymeric materials, waxes and

paper laminates. Subsequently, there has been introduction of composites, metals,

and ceramics. CNC machining can be used for soft materials, like medium-density

fiberboard (MDF), machineable foams, machineable waxes, and even some

1.6 Distinction Between AM and CNC Machining 9

polymers. However, use of CNC to shape softer materials is focused on preparing

these parts for use in a multistage process like casting. When using CNC machining

to make final products, it works particularly well for hard, relatively brittle materi-

als like steels and other metal alloys to produce high accuracy parts with well-

defined properties. Some AM parts, in contrast, may have voids or anisotropy that

are a function of part orientation, process parameters or how the design was input to

the machine, whereas CNC parts will normally be more homogeneous and predict-

able in quality.

1.6.2 Speed

High speed CNC machining can generally remove material much faster than AM

machines can add a similar volume of material. However, this is only part of the

picture, as AM technology can be used to produce a part in a single stage. CNC

machines require considerable setup and process planning, particularly as parts

become more complex in their geometry. Speed must therefore be considered in

terms of the whole process rather than just the physical interaction of the part

material. CNC is likely to be a multistage manufacturing process, requiring repo-

sitioning or relocation of parts within one machine or use of more than one

machine. To make a part in an AM machine, it may only take a few hours; and in

fact multiple parts are often batched together inside a single AM build. Finishing

may take a few days if the requirement is for high quality. Using CNC machining,

this same process may take weeks.

1.6.3 Complexity

As mentioned above, the higher the geometric complexity, the greater the advan-

tage AM has over CNC. If CNC is being used to create a part directly in a single

piece, then there are some geometric features that cannot be fabricated. Since a

machining tool must be carried in a spindle, there may be certain accessibility

constraints or clashes preventing the tool from being located on the machining

surface of a part. AM processes are not constrained in the same way and undercuts

and internal features can be easily built without specific process planning. Certain

parts cannot be fabricated by CNC unless they are broken up into components and

reassembled at a later stage. Consider, for example, the possibility of machining

a ship inside a bottle. How would you machine the ship while it is still inside the

bottle? Most likely you would machine both elements separately and work out a

way to combine them together as an assembly process. With AM you can build the

ship and the bottle all at once. An expert in machining must therefore analyze each

part prior to it being built to ensure that it indeed can be built and to determine what

methods need to be used. While it is still possible that some parts cannot be built

with AM, the likelihood is much lower and there are generally ways in which this

may be overcome without too much difficulty.

10 1 Introduction and Basic Principles

1.6.4 Accuracy

AM machines generally operate with a resolution of a few tens of microns. It is

common for AM machines to also have variable resolution along different orthogo-

nal axes. Typically, the vertical build axis corresponds to layer thickness and this

would be of a lower resolution compared with the two axes in the build plane.

Accuracy in the build plane is determined by the positioning of the build mechanism,

which will normally involve gearboxes and motors of some kind. This mechanism

may also determine theminimum feature size as well. For example, SL uses a laser as

part of the build mechanism that will normally be positioned using galvanometric

mirror drives. The resolution of the galvanometers would determine the overall

dimensions of parts built, while the diameter of the laser beam would determine

the minimum wall thickness. The accuracy of CNC machines on the other hand is

mainly determined by a similar positioning resolution along all three orthogonal axes

and by the diameter of the rotary cutting tools. There are factors that are defined by

the tool geometry, like the radius of internal corners, but wall thickness can be thinner

than the tool diameter since it is a subtractive process. In both cases very fine detail

will also be a function of the properties of the build material.

1.6.5 Geometry

AM machines essentially break up a complex, 3D problem into a series of simple

2D cross-sections with a nominal thickness. In this way, the connection of surfaces

in 3D is removed and continuity is determined by how close the proximity of one

cross-section is with an adjacent one. Since this cannot be easily done in CNC,

machining of surfaces must normally be generated in 3D space. With simple

geometries, like cylinders, cuboids, cones, etc., this is a relatively easy process

defined by joining points along a path; these points being quite far apart and the tool

orientation being fixed. In cases of freeform surfaces, these points can become very

close together with many changes in orientation. Such geometry can become

extremely difficult to produce with CNC, even with 5-axis control or greater.

Undercuts, enclosures, sharp internal corners and other features can all fail if

these features are beyond a certain limit. Consider, for example, the features

represented in the part in Fig. 1.3. Many of them would be very difficult to machine

without manipulation of the part at various stages.

1.6.6 Programming

Determining the program sequence for a CNC machine can be very involved,

including tool selection, machine speed settings, approach position, and angle,

etc. Many AM machines also have options that must be selected, but the range,

1.6 Distinction Between AM and CNC Machining 11