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TRANSCRIPT
ADDRESSING STUDENT PROBLEM BEHAVIOR
AN IEP TEAM’S INTRODUCTION TO FUNCTIONAL BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT AND
BEHAVIOR INTERVENTION PLANS
January 16, 1998
Prepared By
The Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice
Mary Magee Quinn, Ph.D., Deputy Director, Center for Effective Collaboration and PracticeRobert A. Gable, Ph.D., Research Fellow, Old Dominion University
Robert B. Rutherford, Jr., Ph.D., Research Fellow, Arizona State UniversityC. Michael Nelson, Ed.D., Research Fellow, University Of Kentucky
Kenneth W. Howell, Ph.D., Research Fellow, Western Washington University
This information is copyright free. Readers are encouraged to copy and share it, but please credit the Center forEffective Collaboration and Practice.
This document was produced under grant number H237T60005. The views expressed herein do not necessarilyreflect the views of the U.S. Department of Education or any other Federal agency and should not be regarded as such. TheCenter for Effective Collaboration and Practice: Improving Services for Children and Youth with Emotional and BehavioralProblems is funded under a cooperative agreement with the Office of Special Education Programs, Office of Special Educationand Rehabilitative Services, U.S. Department of Education, with additional support from the Child, Adolescent, and FamilyBranch, Center for Mental Health Services, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Administration, of the U.S. Department ofHealth and Human Services.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to thank the following people for their valuable assistance in the conceptionand production of this document:
Ed Amundson, M.Ed., National Education AssociationBeth Bader, M.Ed., American Federation of TeachersGeorge Bear, Ph.D., University of DelawareKevin Dwyer, M.A., National Association of School PsychologistsFrank Gresham, Ph.D., University of California, RiversideMarsha Griswold, M.S., Baltimore City Public SchoolsBeverley Johns, M.S., Council for Children with Behavioral DisordersDixie Jordan, PACER CenterDavid Osher, Ph.D., Center for Effective Collaboration and PracticeTrina Osher, M.A., Federation of Families for Children’s Mental HealthTerry Scott, Ph.D., University of KentuckyGeorge Sugai, Ph.D., University of Oregon
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgments.............................................................................................................................. i
Introduction.......................................................................................................................................1
IDEA Rights and Requirements........................................................................................................2
IEP Team Roles and Responsibilities................................................................................................2
Why a Functional Assessment of Behavior is Necessary...................................................................2
Conducting a Functional Behavioral Assessment..............................................................................4
Identifying the Problem Behavior..................................................................................................4
Alternative Assessment Strategies.....................................................................................................4Techniques for Conducting the Functional Behavioral Assessment.................................................6
Indirect Assessment...............................................................................................................6Direct Assessment .................................................................................................................7Data Analysis........................................................................................................................7
Hypothesis Statement ............................................................................................................7
Individuals Assessing Behavior.........................................................................................................8
Behavior Intervention Plans..............................................................................................................8
Addressing Skill Deficits...................................................................................................................9
Addressing Performance Deficits.....................................................................................................11
Addressing Both Skill and Performance Deficits.............................................................................11
Modifying the Learning Environment..............................................................................................12
Providing Supports......................................................................................................................12
Evaluating the Behavior Intervention Plan......................................................................................13
Summary..........................................................................................................................................13
Resources.........................................................................................................................................14
Appendix A......................................................................................................................................A-1
Appendix B......................................................................................................................................B-1
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ADDRESSING STUDENT PROBLEM BEHAVIOR
AN IEP TEAM’S INTRODUCTION TO FUNCTIONAL BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT AND
BEHAVIOR INTERVENTION PLANS
The object of the IDEA is not to arbitrarily mandate change, but to provide an environmentconducive to the education of all students, including those with disabilities.
ducators have long understood thatbehavior difficulties can keep students
from functioning productively in class. Manyschool personnel have been considering theeffects of behavior on learning for some time.The 1997 Amendments to the IDEA take thatconsideration one step further: the relationshipbetween behavior and learning must not onlybe considered but acted upon. TheAmendments have addressed this issue byrequiring teams charged with developingindividualized education programs (IEPs) toconduct a functional behavioral assessment andto implement behavior intervention plans thatutilize positive behavioral interventions andsupports to address behaviors which interferewith the learning of students with disabilitiesand with the learning of others (or that requiredisciplinary action).
The requirements specified in the 1997Amendments to the IDEA that pertain tofunctional behavioral assessments and positivebehavioral intervention plans and supports asthey relate to the responsibilities of the IEPteam and to the IEP itself are the subject of thispaper. This is the first in a series of workingpapers on developing and implementingfunctional behavioral assessments and behaviorintervention plans. It is intended to be used byschool personnel who participate in a student’sIEP meetings. Future papers will be designedto address the special concerns of parents, asimportant members of IEP teams; and toconvey more detailed information on specifictopics addressing functional behavioral
assessment and positive behavioral interventionplans and supports.
In order to give readers a cursory backgroundin the topics addressed herein, the concept of afunctional behavioral assessment to determinethe underlying “functions” of a student’sproblem behaviors is described, as are theprocess and guidelines for conducting afunctional behavioral assessment. Next weoffer a review of behavior intervention plans,including a description of how to develop,implement, and evaluate various interventions.
For readers who are unfamiliar with theseprocedures, there is a sampling of resourcesavailable for further study. We use bothgeneral and technical terminology to assist thereader in understanding techniques and toprovide the vocabulary necessary to locatefurther information on the subject at hand.
This initial discussion is not intended to providea complete course of training, but to offer anoverview of some of the techniques involved. Further, we do not advocate one philosophicalbase over another. Rather, we promote acombination of techniques to addressbehavioral, cognitive, and affective functions ofa student’s behavior and advocate thedevelopment of positive behavioralinterventions and supports that tap each ofthese areas as well. The authors believe thatthe individuals charged with the responsibilityof developing and conducting functionalbehavioral assessments and behavior
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intervention plans should be afforded propertraining in these techniques and provided thesupports necessary to effectively carry out theirduties.
IDEA RIGHTS AND REQUIREMENTS
he 1997 Amendments to IDEA areexplicit in what they require of an IEP
team addressing behavioral problems ofchildren with disabilities:
♦ The team should explore the need forstrategies and support systems to addressany behavior that may impede the learningof the child with the disability or thelearning of his or her peers;
♦ In response to disciplinary actions byschool personnel, the IEP team should,within 10 days, meet to formulate afunctional behavioral assessment plan tocollect data for developing a behaviorintervention plan. If a behaviorintervention plan already exists, the teammust review and revise it (as necessary), toensure that it addresses the behavior uponwhich disciplinary action is predicated;and
♦ States shall address the needs of in-serviceand pre-service personnel (includingprofessionals and paraprofessionals whoprovide special education, generaleducation, related services, or earlyintervention services) as they relate todeveloping and implementing positiveintervention strategies.
IEP TEAM ROLES AND
RESPONSIBILITIES
s schools explore educational options,many educators are being cast in
unfamiliar roles and are acquiring new
responsibilities. In the past, special educatorsprovided classroom instruction to students withdisabilities. More recently, theirresponsibilities, like those of their colleagues ingeneral education, have enlarged to includeprofessional collaboration to support theparticipation of students with disabilities in thegeneral education curriculum.
Due to this change in focus, there is anincreased emphasis upon not only teachingstudents with disabilities in the generaleducation curriculum, but assessing theirprogress by means of technically soundinstruments and procedures as mandated by theAmendments to IDEA. In addition, demand tocollaborate with all relevant educationpersonnel to resolve behavior problems thatmay interfere with academic progress hasincreased. As members of IEP teams, generaleducators play an ever increasing role incollaboratively developing comprehensivemanagement and instructional plans forstudents with disabilities.
WHY A FUNCTIONAL ASSESSMENT
OF BEHAVIOR IS NECESSARY
lthough professionals in the field holda variety of philosophical beliefs, they
generally agree that there is no single cause forproblem behaviors. The following examplesillustrate some of the underlying causes for“acting-out” behavior:
♦ Juan, a 16 year old who reads at a secondgrade level, feels embarrassed to be seenwith an elementary text and reacts bythrowing his reading book across the roomand using inappropriate language to informthe teacher that he does not intend tocomplete his homework.
♦ Sumi, an eight year old who reads StephenKing novels for recreation, finds herreading assignments boring and, therefore,
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shoves her book and workbook to the floorwhen the teacher comments on her lack ofprogress.
♦ Maurice, a 10 year old who findsmultiplication of fractions difficult,becomes frustrated and throws tantrumswhen asked to complete worksheetsrequiring him to multiply fractions; and
♦ Kerry, a 12 year old who has problemspaying attention, is so overstimulated bywhat she sees out of the window and hearsin the nearby reading group, she slams hertext shut and loudly declares that shecannot work.
A conclusion gleaned from these examples maybe that, although the topography (what thebehavior looks like or sounds like) of thebehaviors may be similar, in each case, the“causes,” or functions, of the behaviors arevery different. Thus, focusing only on thetopography will usually yield little informationabout effective interventions. Identifying theunderlying cause(s) of a student’s behavior,however, or, more specifically, what thestudent “gets” or “avoids” through thebehavior, can provide the IEP team with thediagnostic information necessary to developproactive instructional strategies (such aspositive behavioral interventions and supports)that are crafted to address behaviors thatinterfere with academic instruction.
To illustrate this point, again consider theacting-out behaviors previously described. Reactive procedures, such as suspending eachstudent as a punishment for acting-out, willonly address the symptoms of the problem, andwill not eliminate the embarrassment Juan feels,Sumi’s boredom, the frustration that Maurice isexperiencing, or Kerry’s overstimulation. Therefore, each of these behaviors are likely tooccur again, regardless of punishment, unlessthe underlying causes are addressed.
Functional behavioral assessment is anapproach that incorporates a variety oftechniques and strategies to diagnose thecauses and to identify likely interventionsintended to address problem behaviors. Inother words, functional behavioral assessmentlooks beyond the overt topography of thebehavior, and focuses, instead, upon identifyingbiological, social, affective, and environmentalfactors that initiate, sustain, or end the behaviorin question. This approach is importantbecause it leads the observer beyond the“symptom” (the behavior) to the student’sunderlying motivation to escape, “avoid,” or“get” something (which is, to the functionalanalyst, the root of all behavior). Research andexperience has demonstrated that behaviorintervention plans stemming from theknowledge of why a student misbehaves (i.e.,based on a functional behavioral assessment)are extremely useful in addressing a wide rangeof problems.
The functions of behavior are not usuallyconsidered inappropriate. Rather, it is thebehavior itself that is judged appropriate orinappropriate. For example, getting highgrades and acting-out may serve the samefunction (i.e., getting attention from adults),yet, the behaviors that lead to good grades arejudged to be more appropriate than those thatmake up acting-out behavior. For example, ifthe IEP team determines through a functionalbehavioral assessment that a student is seekingattention by acting-out, they can develop a planto teach the student more appropriate ways togain attention, thereby filling the student’s needfor attention with an alternative behavior thatserves the same function as the inappropriatebehavior.
By incorporating functional behavioralassessment into the IEP process, teammembers can develop a plan that teaches and
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supports replacement behaviors, which servethe same function as the problem behavior,itself (e.g., teaching Maurice to calmly tell theteacher when he feels frustrated, and to ask forassistance when he finds a task too difficult toaccomplish). At the same time, strategies maybe developed to decrease or even eliminateopportunities for the student to engage inbehavior that hinders positive academicoutcomes (e.g., making sure that Maurice’sassignments are at his instructional level).
CONDUCTING A FUNCTIONAL
BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT
dentifying the underlying causes ofbehavior will take many forms; and, while
the Amendments to IDEA advise a functionalbehavioral assessment approach to determinespecific contributors to behavior, they do notrequire or suggest specific techniques orstrategies to use when assessing that behavior. While there are a variety of techniques availableto conduct a functional behavioral assessment,the first step in the process is to define thebehavior in concrete terms. In the followingsection we will discuss techniques to definebehavior.
Identifying the Problem Behavior
efore a functional behavioral assessmentcan be implemented, it is necessary to
pinpoint the behavior causing learning ordiscipline problems, and to define that behaviorin concrete terms that are easy to communicateand simple to measure and record. Ifdescriptions of behaviors are vague (e.g., poorattitude), it is difficult to determine appropriateinterventions. Examples of concretedescriptions of problem behaviors are:
Problem Behavior Concrete Definition
Trish is aggressive. Trish hits other students duringrecess when she does not get herway.
Carlos is disruptive. Carlos makes irrelevant andinappropriate comments duringclass discussion.
Jan is hyperactive. Jan leaves her assigned area withoutpermission.
Jan completes only small portions ofher independent work.
Jan blurts out answers withoutraising her hand.
It may be necessary to carefully and objectivelyobserve the student’s behavior in differentsettings and during different types of activities,and to conduct interviews with other schoolstaff and caregivers, in order to pinpoint thespecific characteristics of the behavior.
Once the problem behavior has been definedconcretely, the team can begin to devise a planfor conducting a functional behavioralassessment to determine functions of thebehavior. The following discussion can beused to guide teams in choosing the mosteffective techniques to determine the likelycauses of behavior.
ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT
STRATEGIES
he use of a variety of assessmenttechniques will lead teams to better
understand student behavior. Each techniquecan, in effect, bring the team closer todeveloping a workable intervention plan.
A well developed and executed functionalbehavioral assessment will identify thecontextual factors that contribute to behavior. Determining the specific contextual factors fora behavior is accomplished by collectinginformation on the various conditions under
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which a student is most and least likely to be asuccessful learner. That information, collectedboth indirectly and directly, allows schoolpersonnel to predict the circumstances underwhich the problem behavior is likely and notlikely to occur.
Multiple sources and methods are used for thiskind of assessment, as a single source ofinformation generally does not producesufficiently accurate information, especially ifthe problem behavior serves several functionsthat vary according to circumstance (e.g.,making inappropriate comments during lecturesmay serve to get peer attention in someinstances, while in other situations it may serveto avoid the possibility of being called on by theteacher).
It is important to understand, though, thatcontextual factors are more than the sum ofobservable behaviors, and include certainaffective and cognitive behaviors, as well. Inother words, the trigger, or antecedent for thebehavior, may not be something that anyoneelse can directly observe, and, therefore, mustbe identified using indirect measures. Forinstance, if the student acts out when given aworksheet, it may not be the worksheet thatcaused the acting-out, but the fact that thestudent does not know what is required andthus anticipates failure or ridicule. Informationof this type may be gleaned through adiscussion with the student.
Since problem behavior stems from a variety ofcauses, it is best to examine the behavior fromas many different angles as possible. Teams,for instance, should consider what the “pay-off” for engaging in either inappropriate orappropriate behavior is, or what the student“escapes,” “avoids,” or “gets” by engaging inthe behavior. This process will enable theteams to identify workable techniques fordeveloping and conducting functional
behavioral assessments and developingbehavior interventions. When carrying outthese duties, teams might consider thefollowing questions.
Is the problem behavior linked to a skilldeficit?
Is there evidence to suggest that the studentdoes not know how to perform the skill and,therefore cannot? Students who lack theskills to perform expected tasks may exhibitbehaviors that help them avoid or escapethose tasks. If the team suspects that thestudent “can’t” perform the skills, or has askill deficit, they could devise a functionalbehavioral assessment plan to determine theanswers to further questions, such as thefollowing:
♦ Does the student understand the behavioralexpectations for the situation?
♦ Does the student realize that he or she isengaging in unacceptable behavior, or hasthat behavior simply become a “habit”?
♦ Is it within the student’s power to controlthe behavior, or does he or she needsupport?
♦ Does the student have the skills necessaryto perform expected, new behaviors?
Does the student have the skill, but, forsome reason, not the desire to modify his orher behavior?
Sometimes it may be that the student canperform a skill, but, for some reason, doesnot use it consistently (e.g., in particularsettings). This situation is often referred toas a “performance deficit.” Students whocan, but do not perform certain tasks may beexperiencing consequences that affect theirperformance (e.g., their non-performance isrewarded by peer or teacher attention, or
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performance of the task is not sufficientlyrewarding). If the team suspects that theproblem is a result of a performance deficit,it may be helpful to devise an assessmentplan that addresses questions such as thefollowing:
♦ Is it possible that the student is uncertainabout the appropriateness of the behavior(e.g., it is appropriate to clap loudly andyell during sporting events, yet thesebehaviors are often inappropriate whenplaying academic games in the classroom)?
♦ Does the student find any value in engagingin appropriate behavior?
♦ Is the behavior problem associated withcertain social or environmental conditions?
• Is the student attempting to avoid a“low-interest” or demanding task?
• What current rules, routines, orexpectations does the student considerirrelevant?
Addressing such questions will assist the IEPteam in determining the necessary componentsof the assessment plan, and ultimately will leadto more effective behavior intervention plans. Some techniques that could be consideredwhen developing a functional behavioralassessment plan are discussed in the followingsection.
Techniques for Conducting theFunctional Behavioral Assessment
ndirect assessment. Indirect or informantassessment relies heavily upon the use of
structured interviews with students, teachers,and other adults who have direct responsibilityfor the students concerned. Individuals shouldstructure the interview so that it yieldsinformation regarding the questions discussedin the previous section, such as:
♦ In what settings do you observe thebehavior?
♦ Are there any settings where the behaviordoes not occur?
♦ Who is present when the behavior occurs?
♦ What activities or interactions take placejust prior to the behavior?
♦ What usually happens immediately after thebehavior?
♦ Can you think of a more acceptablebehavior that might replace this behavior?
Interviews with the student may be useful inidentifying how he or she perceived thesituation and what caused her or him to reactor act in the way they did. Examples ofquestions that one may ask include:
♦ What were you thinking just before youthrew the textbook?
♦ How did the assignment make you feel?
♦ Can you tell me how Mr. Smith expectsyou to contribute to class lectures?
♦ When you have a “temper tantrum” inclass, what usually happens afterward?
Commercially available student questionnaires,motivational scales, and checklists can also beused to structure indirect assessments ofbehavior. The district’s school psychologistcan be a valuable source of informationregarding the feasibility of using theseinstruments.
Direct assessment. Direct assessment involvesobserving and recording situational factorssurrounding a problem behavior (e.g.,antecedent and consequent events). A memberof the IEP team may observe the behavior inthe setting that it is likely to occur, and recorddata using an Antecedent-Behavior-
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Consequence (ABC) approach. (Appendix Ashows two examples of an ABC recordingsheet.)
The observer also may choose to use a matrixor scatter plot to chart the relationship betweenspecific instructional variables and studentresponses. (See Appendix B for examples). These techniques also will be useful inidentifying possible environmental factors (e.g.,seating arrangements), activities (e.g.,independent work), or temporal factors (e.g.,mornings) that may influence the behavior. These tools can be developed specifically toaddress the type of variable in question, andcan be customized to analyze specific behaviorsand situations (e.g., increments of 5 minutes,30 minutes, 1 hour, or even a few days). Regardless of the tool, observations that occurconsistently across time and situations, and thatreflect both quantitative and qualitativemeasures of the behavior in question, arerecommended.
Data analysis. Once the team is satisfied thatenough data have been collected, the next stepis to compare and analyze the information. This analysis will help the team to determinewhether or not there are any patternsassociated with the behavior (e.g., wheneverTrish does not get her way, she reacts byhitting someone). If patterns cannot bedetermined, the team should review and revise(as necessary) the functional behavioralassessment plan to identify other methods forassessing behavior.
Hypothesis statement. Drawing uponinformation that emerges from the analysis,school personnel can establish a hypothesisregarding the function of the behaviors inquestion. This hypothesis predicts the generalconditions under which the behavior is mostand least likely to occur (antecedents), as wellas the probable consequences that serve to
maintain it. For instance, should a teacherreport that Lucia calls out during instruction, afunctional behavioral assessment might revealthe function of the behavior is to gain attention(e.g., verbal approval of classmates), avoidinstruction (e.g., difficult assignment), seekexcitement (i.e., external stimulation), or bothto gain attention and avoid a low-interestsubject.
Only when the relevance of the behavior isknown is it possible to speculate the truefunction of the behavior and establish anindividual behavior intervention plan. In otherwords, before any plan is set in motion, theteam needs to formulate a plausible explanation(hypothesis) for the student’s behavior. It isthen desirable to manipulate various conditionsto verify the assumptions made by the teamregarding the function of the behavior. Forinstance, the team working with Lucia in theexample above may hypothesize that duringclass discussions, Lucia calls out to get peerattention. Thus, the teacher might makeaccommodations in the environment to ensurethat Lucia gets the peer attention she seeks as aconsequence of appropriate, rather thaninappropriate behaviors. If this manipulationchanges Lucia’s behavior, the team can assumetheir hypothesis was correct; if Lucia’sbehavior remains unchanged following theenvironmental manipulation, a new hypothesisneeds to be formulated using data collectedduring the functional behavioral assessment.
Many products are available commercially tohelp IEP teams to assess behaviors in order todetermine their function. Sources for moreinformation about techniques, strategies, andtools for assessing behavior are presented in thelast section of this discussion.
INDIVIDUALS ASSESSING BEHAVIOR
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ersons responsible for conducting thefunctional behavioral assessment will vary
from district to district and possibly from teamto team. Some behavioral assessmentprocedures, such as standardized tests, mayrequire an individual with specific training (e.g.,behavior specialist or school psychologist). With specialized training, experience, andsupport, however, many components of theassessment can be conducted by othermembers of the IEP team, such as special orgeneral education teachers, counselors, andadministrators. Again, it is important to notethat in academic testing, the intervention shouldnot be based upon one assessment measure,alone, or upon data collected by only oneobserver.
BEHAVIOR INTERVENTION PLANS
fter collecting data on a student’sbehavior, and after developing a
hypothesis of the likely function of thatbehavior, a team must develop (or revise) thestudent’s behavior intervention plan, whichshould include positive strategies, program orcurricular modifications, and supplementaryaids and supports required to address thedisruptive behaviors in question. It is helpful touse the data collected during the functionalbehavioral assessment to develop the plan andto determine the discrepancy between thechild’s actual and expected behavior.
The input of the general education teacher, asappropriate (i.e., if the student is, or may beplaced in the mainstream), is especially crucialat this point. He or she will be able to relay to
the team not only his or her behavioralexpectations, but also valuableinformation about how the existing
classroom environment and/or generaleducation curriculum can be modified tosupport the student.
Intervention plans emphasizing skills studentsneed in order to behave in a more appropriatemanner, or plans providing motivation toconform to required standards, will be moreeffective than plans that simply serve to controlbehavior. Interventions based upon controloften fail to generalize (i.e., continue to be usedfor long periods of time, in many settings, andin a variety of situations) — and many timesthey serve only to suppress behavior —resulting in a child manifesting unaddressedneeds in alternative, inappropriate ways. Positive plans for behavioral intervention, onthe other hand, will address both the source ofthe problem and the problem itself.
IEP teams may want to consider the followingtechniques when designing behaviorintervention plans and supports:
♦ Manipulate the antecedents and/orconsequences of the behavior;
♦ Teach more acceptable replacementbehaviors that serve the same function asthe inappropriate behavior;
♦ Implement changes in curriculum andinstructional strategies; and
♦ Modify the physical environment.
The following section describes some ideas IEPteams may consider when developing behaviorintervention plans.
ADDRESSING SKILL DEFICITS
An assessment might indicate the student has askill deficit, and does not know how toperform desired skills. The functionalbehavioral assessment may show that, althoughineffective, the child may engage in theinappropriate behavior to escape or avoid a
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situation: (1) for which he or she lacks theappropriate skills; or (2) because she or helacks appropriate, alternative skills and trulybelieves this behavior is effective in gettingwhat he or she wants or needs. For example, achild may engage in physically violent behaviorbecause he or she believes violence is necessaryto efficiently end the confrontational situation,and may believe that these behaviors willeffectively accomplish his or her goals. However, when taught to use appropriateproblem-solving techniques, the student will bemore likely to approach potentially volatilesituations in a nonviolent manner. If this is thecase, the intervention may address that deficitby including, within the larger plan, adescription of how to teach the problem-solving skills needed to support the child.
If the student does not know what thebehavioral expectations are, the plan can beformulated to teach expectations, and wouldinclude the supports, aids, strategies, andmodifications necessary to accomplish thisinstruction, with expectations explained inconcrete terms. For example, if the expectationis “to listen to lectures,” the intervention planmight include the following:
Goal: During classroom lectures, Jim willmake only relevant comments and ask onlyrelevant questions in 80 percent of theopportunities.Objectives: Given a 50 minute, large group(i.e., more than 20 students) classroom lecture,Jim will ask one appropriate question andmake two relevant comments on each of 3consecutive school days.
Activities to accomplish the goal andobjectives:
♦ The teacher will model examples and non-examples of situations when listening isimportant and assist Jim in identifying thecomponents of active listening (e.g., hands
and feet still, eyes facing the speaker, quietlips, think about what is being said anddetermine if you need more information,think about how the information makes youfeel, and if necessary, make a comment orask a question);
♦ Jim will list the situations in which activelistening skills are important and willdescribe the necessary behaviors in each ofthose situations;
♦ Jim will participate in “role-plays” ofsituations in which active listening skills arenecessary;
♦ Jim will practice active listening in each ofthe situations listed above — and willreport the results to his teacher, counselor,or parent;
♦ Jim will monitor the opportunity anddegree to which he actively listens duringlectures and will reinforce himself (e.g., “Idid a great job!”); and
♦ Jim will identify and use active listeningskills in situations other than class lectures.
If the student does not realize that he or she isengaging in the behavior, (i.e., the student isreacting out of habit), the team may devise aplan to cue the child when she or he is soengaged. Such a cue could be private andunderstood only by the teacher and the student. If Mariah, for instance, impulsively talks outduring Ms. Bader’s class discussions, Ms.Bader and Mariah may agree that Ms. Baderwill look directly at Mariah and slightly moveher right hand in an upward motion to remindMariah to raise her hand. If Mariah does raiseher hand, Ms. Bader agrees to call on her.
Sometimes, for biological or other reasons, astudent is unable to control his or her behaviorwithout supports. Although it is never theplace of the IEP team to make medical
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diagnoses, it is appropriate for the team tomake referrals to obtain medical evaluations.
Should the student not know how to performthe expected behaviors, the intervention plancould include modifications and supports toteach the child the needed skills. Suchinstruction may require teaching academic skillsas well as behavioral and cognitive skills, andmay require a team member to do a taskanalysis (i.e., break down a skill into itscomponent parts) of the individual behaviorsthat make up the skill. For example, if the skillis to “think through and solve social problems,”the individual skills may include:
♦ Define the problem (What is the goal? What is the obstacle?);
♦ List the possible solutions to the problem;
♦ Determine the likely consequences of eachsolution;
♦ Evaluate each solution to determine whichsolution has the best likelihood of solvingthe problem in the long term;
♦ Pick the best solution;
♦ Plan how to carry out the solution;
♦ Carry out the solution; and
♦ Evaluate the effectiveness of the solution(and decide where to go from there).
The behavior intervention plan, in the previouscase, would include methods to teach thenecessary skills to the child, and would providethe supports necessary to accomplish suchplans. Methods may include the followingcomponents:
♦ Identify the steps necessary to solve socialproblems;
♦ Recognize the steps to solve socialproblems when they are modeled by ateacher or a peer;
♦ Participate in role-play situations requiringthe use of the social problem solving skills;and
♦ Practice social problem solving in real-lifesituations.
A technique known as curricular integration isuseful in teaching skills to students, as thetechnique integrates positive strategies formodifying problem behavior into the existingclassroom curriculum, and is based upon thepremise that a skill is more likely to be learnedwhen taught in the context in which it is used. Teachers who incorporate behavioralinterventions into daily instruction generallystate that this technique has proven to beparticularly effective for teaching replacementbehaviors.
ADDRESSING PERFORMANCE DEFICITS
f the functional behavioral assessmentreveals that the student knows the skills
necessary to perform the behavior, but does notconsistently perform the skills, the interventionplan may include techniques, strategies, andsupports designed to increase motivation toperform the skills.
If the assessment reveals that the student isengaging in the problem behavior because it ismore desirable (or reinforcing) than thealternative, appropriate behavior, theintervention plan could include techniques formaking the appropriate behavior moredesirable. For instance, if the student makesrude comments in class in order to make herpeers laugh, the plan might include strategiesfor rewarding appropriate comments as well asteaching the student appropriate ways to gainpeer attention. Behavioral contracts or tokeneconomies and other interventions that includepeer and family support may be necessary inorder to change the behavior.
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Sometimes a child does not perform thebehavior simply because he or she sees novalue in it. While the relevance of much ofwhat we expect students to learn in school isapparent to most children, sometimes(especially with older children) it is not. Forexample, if Sheran wants to be a hairdresserwhen she graduates, she may not see any valuein learning about the Battle of Waterloo. Therefore, the intervention plan may includestrategies to increase her motivation, such asdemonstrating to Sheran that she must passHistory in order to graduate and be acceptedinto the beauty school program at the localcommunity college.
Another technique for working with studentswho lack intrinsic motivators is to provideextrinsic motivators. If the student cannot seeany intrinsic value in performing the expectedbehaviors, it may be necessary to, at leastinitially, reinforce the behaviors with some typeof extrinsic reward, such as food, activities,toys, tokens, or free time. Of course, extrinsicrewards should gradually be replaced withmore “naturally occurring” rewards, such asgood grades, approval from others, or thesheer pleasure that comes from success. Thisprocess of fading out, or gradually replacingextrinsic rewards with more natural or intrinsicrewards, may be facilitated by pairing theextrinsic reward with an intrinsic reward. Forexample, when rewarding David with popcornfor completing his homework, theparaprofessional could say, David, you havecompleted all of your homework this week, andyour class participation has increased becauseyou are better prepared. You must be veryproud of yourself for the hard work you havedone. In this way, David should eventuallybecome intrinsically rewarded by a sense ofpride in completing all of his assignments
ADDRESSING BOTH SKILL AND
PERFORMANCE DEFICITS
ome student problems are so severethey require a combination of
techniques and supports. For example, if thestudent finds it difficult to control his or heranger, she or he may need to be taught thefollowing skills to:
♦ recognize the physical signs that heor she is becoming angry,
♦ use relaxation skills,
♦ apply problem-solving skills,
♦ practice communication skills,
and have the added support of:
♦ the school counselor,
♦ the school psychologist, and
♦ curricular or environmentalmodifications.
In addition, the student may need to beprovided with external rewards forappropriately dealing with anger.
Many professionals and professionalorganizations agree that it is usually ineffectiveand often unethical to use aversive techniquesto control behaviors, except in very extremecases, such as situations in which:
♦ the child’s behavior severely endangers heror his safety or the safety of others,
♦ every possible positive intervention hasbeen tried for an appropriate length of timeand found ineffective, and
♦ the behavior of the student severely limitshis or her learning or socialization, or thatof others.
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It is important for IEP teams to consider allpositive interventions before they considerpunishment as an option. Punishment oftenmakes behavior worse. Further, punishmentseeks to control the symptom of the problemand does not address the function of thebehavior.
MODIFYING THE LEARNING
ENVIRONMENT
n addition to factors of skill andmotivation, the functional behavioral
assessment may reveal conditions within thelearning environment, itself, that mayprecipitate problem behavior. Factors that canserve as precursors to misbehavior range fromthe physical arrangement of the classroom orstudent seating assignment to academic tasksthat are “too demanding” or “too boring.” Again, simple curricular or environmentalmodifications may be enough to eliminate suchproblems.
Providing Supports
Sometimes supports are necessary to helpstudents use appropriate behavior. Thestudent, for example, may benefit from workwith school personnel, such as counselors orschool psychologists. Other people who mayprovide sources of support include:
♦ Peers, who may provide academic orbehavioral support through tutoring orconflict-resolution activities, therebyfulfilling the student’s need for attention inappropriate ways;
♦ Families, who may provide supportthrough setting up a homework center inthe home and developing a homeworkschedule, which enables the child toappropriately participate in follow-up classdiscussions;
♦ Teachers and paraprofessionals, who mayprovide both academic supports andcurricular modifications to address anddecrease a student’s need to avoidacademically challenging situations; and
♦ Language pathologists, who are able toincrease a child’s expressive and receptivelanguage skills, thereby providing the childwith alternative ways to respond to anysituation.
In addition, a variety of adults and students inand around the school and community maycontribute support. An example of how oneLocal Education Agency helped a student usesome of his energy in an appropriate mannerinvolved allowing the student to work with theschool custodian, contingent upon hiscompleting his academic work each day.
Whatever the approach, the more proactiveand inclusive the behavior intervention plan –and the more closely it reflects the results of thefunctional behavioral assessment – the morelikely that it will succeed. In brief, one’soptions for positive behavioral interventionsmay include:
♦ Replacing problem behaviors withappropriate behaviors that serve the same(or similar) function as inappropriate ones;
♦ Increasing rates of existing appropriatebehaviors;
♦ Making changes to the environment thateliminate the possibility of engaging ininappropriate behavior; and
♦ Providing the supports necessary for thechild to use the appropriate behaviors.
Care should be given to select a behavior thatlikely will be elicited by and reinforced in thenatural environment, for example, usingappropriate problem-solving skills on theplayground will help the student stay out of the
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13
principal’s office.
EVALUATING THE BEHAVIOR
INTERVENTION PLAN
t is good practice for IEP teams to includetwo evaluation procedures in an
intervention plan: one procedure designed tomonitor the faithfulness with which themanagement plan is implemented, the otherdesigned to measure changes in behavior. Inaddition, IEP teams must determine a timelinefor implementation and reassessment, andspecify the degree of behavior changeconsistent with the goal of the overallintervention. Completion of assessmentsshould be in accordance with timelinesprescribed under the 1997 Amendments to theIDEA. It is important to remember that if astudent already has a behavior interventionplan, the IEP team may elect to simply reviewthe plan and modify it, or they may determinethat more information is necessary and conducta functional behavioral assessment.
The Amendments to the IDEA state that abehavior intervention plan based on afunctional behavioral assessment should beconsidered when developing the IEP, if astudent’s behavior interferes with learning orthe learning of classmates. To be meaningful,plans need to be reviewed at least annually andrevised as appropriate. However, the plan maybe reviewed and reevaluated whenever anymember of the child’s IEP team feels that areview is necessary. Circumstances that maywarrant such a review include:
♦ The child has reached his or her behavioralgoals and objectives, and new goals andobjectives need to be established;
♦ The “situation” has changed and thebehavioral interventions no longer addressthe current needs of the student;
♦ The IEP team makes a change inplacement; and
♦ It is clear that the original behaviorintervention plan is not bringing aboutpositive changes in the student’s behavior.
The point is to predicate all evaluation onstudent success.
SUMMARY
The practice of conducting functional behavioralassessments of behavior that interferes withpositive student outcomes allows IEP teams todevelop more effective and efficient behaviorintervention plans. Emphasis should be onenlarging student capacity to profit frominstruction, which can be accomplished bydesigning pupil-specific interventions that notonly discourage inappropriate behaviors, butteach alternativebehaviors, and provide the student with theopportunity and motivation to engage in thatbehavior. If done correctly, the net result ofbehavioral assessments is that school personnelare better able to provide an educationalenvironment that addresses the learning needs ofall students.
RESOURCES
Because there are many resources available to help IEP teams develop and implement effectivebehavior intervention plans, the following are simply a sampling of possible sources of information:
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Alberto, P.A., & Troutman, A.C. (1995). Applied behavior analysis for teachers (4th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Merrill/Prentice-Hall.
Bullock, L.M., & Gable, R.A. (Eds.) (1997). Making collaboration work for children, youth,families, schools, and communities. Reston, VA: Council for Children with Behavioral Disorders &Chesapeake Institute.
Carr, E. G., Robinson, S., & Polumbo, L. W. (1990). The wrong issue: Aversive versusnonaversive treatment. The right issue: Functional versus nonfunctional treatment. In A. Repp & N.Singh (Eds.), Aversive and nonaversive treatment: The great debate in developmental disabilities (pp.361-380). DeKalb, IL: Sycamore Press.
Carr, E. G., & Durand, V. M. (1985). Reducing behavior problems through functionalcommunication training. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 18, 111-126.
Cooper, L. J., Wacker, D. P., Thursby, D., Plagmann, L. A., Harding, J., Millard, T., & Derby,M. (1992). Analysis of the effects of task preferences, task demands, and adult attention on childbehavior in outpatient and classroom settings. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 25, 823-840.
Donnellan, A. M., Mirenda, P. L., Mesaros, R. A., & Fassbender, L. L. (1984). Analyzing thecommunicative functions of aberrant behavior. Journal of The Association of Persons with SevereHandicaps, 9, 201-212.
Dunlap, G., Kern, L., dePerczel, M., Clarke, S., Wilson, D., Childs, K.E., White, R., & Falk,G. D. (1993). Functional analysis of classroom variables for students with emotional and behavioraldisorders. Behavioral Disorders, 18, 275-291.
Durand, V. M. (1990). Severe behavior problems: A functional communication trainingapproach. New York: Guilford.
Durand, V. M. (1993). Functional assessment and functional analysis. In M. D. Smith (Ed.). Behavior modification for exceptional children and youth. Boston: Andover Medical Publishers.
Durand, V. M., & Crimmins, D. B. (1988). Identifying the variables maintaining self-injuriousbehavior. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 18, 99-117.
Fuchs, D., Fuchs, L., & Bahr, M. (1990). Mainstream assistant teams: A scientific basis forthe art of consultation. Exceptional Children, 57, 128-139.
Gable, R. A. (1996). A critical analysis of functional assessment: Issues for researchers andpractitioners. Behavioral Disorders, 22, 36-40.
Gable, R. A., Sugai, G. M., Lewis, T. J., Nelson, J. R., Cheney, D., Safran, S. P., & Safran, J.S. (1997). Individual and systemic approaches to collaboration and consultation. Reston, VA: Council for Children with Behavioral Disorders.
Gresham, F.M. (1991). Whatever happened to functional analysis in behavioral consultation? Journal
15
of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 2, 387-392.
Haynes, S. N., & O”Brien, W. H. (1990) Functional analysis in behavior therapy. Clinical PsychologyReview, 10, 649-668.
Hendrickson, J. M., Gable, R. A., Novak, C., & Peck, S. (1996). Functional assessment for teachingacademics. Education and Treatment of Children, 19, 257-271.
Horner, R. H., & Day, H. M. (1991). The effects of response efficiency on functionally equivalentcompeting behaviors. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 24, 719-732.
Horner, R. H., Sprague, J. R., O”Brien, M., & Heathfield, L. T. (1990). The role of responseefficiency in the reduction of problem behaviors through functional equivalence training. Journal of theAssociation for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 15, 91-97.
Iwata, B. A., Vollmer, T. R., & Zarcone, J. R. (1990). The experimental (functional) analysis ofbehavior disorders: Methodology, applications, and limitations. In A. C. Repp & N. Singh (Eds.), Aversiveand nonaversive treatment: The great debate in developmental disabilities (pp. 301-330). DeKalb, IL: Sycamore Press.
Kaplan, J.S. (with Carter, J.) (1995). Beyond behavior modification: A cognitive-behavioral approachto behavior management in the school (3rd edition). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.
Karsh, K. G., Repp, A. C., Dahlquist, C. M., & Munk, D. (1995). In vivo functionalassessment and multi-element interventions for problem behaviors of students with disabilities inclassroom settings. Journal of Behavioral Education, 5, 189-210.
Kerr, M.M., & Nelson, C.M. (1998). Strategies for managing behavior problems in theclassroom (3rd edition). New York: MacMillan.
Lawry, J. R., Storey, K., & Danko, C. D. (1993). Analyzing behavior problems in theclassroom: A case study of functional analysis. Intervention in the School and Clinic, 29, 96-100.
Lewis, T. J. (1997). Teaching students with behavioral difficulties. Reston, VA: Council forExceptional Children.
Lewis, T. J., Scott, T. M., & Sugai, G. M. (1994). The problem behavior questionnaire: Ateacher-based instrument to develop functional hypotheses of problem behavior in general educationclassrooms. Diagnostique, 19, 103-115.
Lewis, T. J., & Sugai, G. M. (1994). Functional assessment of problem behavior: A pilotinvestigation of the comparative and interactive effects of teacher and peer social attention on studentsin general education settings. School Psychology Quarterly, 11, 1-19.
Long, N., & Morse, W.C. (1996). Conflict in the classroom. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.
Lovaas, O. I., Freitag, G., Gold, V. J., & Kassorla, I. C. (1965). Experimental studies in
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childhood schizophrenia: Analysis of self-destructive behavior. Journal of Experimental ChildPsychology, 2, 67-84.
Mathur, S. R., Quinn, M .M., & Rutherford, R.B. (1996). Teacher-mediated behaviormanagement strategies for children with emotional/behavioral disorders. Reston, VA: Council forChildren with Behavioral Disorders.
Pierce, W. D., & Epling, W. F. (1980). What happened to the analysis in applied behavioranalysis? The Behavior Analyst, 3, 1-10.
Reed, H., Thomas, E., Sprague, J. R., & Horner, R. H. (1997). Student guided functionalassessment interview: An analysis of student and teacher agreement. Journal of Behavioral Education,7, 33-49.
Rutherford, R.B., Quinn, M.M., & Mathur, S.R. (1996). Effective strategies for teachingappropriate behaviors to children with emotional/behavioral disorders. Reston, VA: Council forChildren with Behavioral Disorders.
Sasso, G. M., Reimers, T. M., Cooper, L. J., Wacker, D., & Berg, W. (1992). Use ofdescriptive and experimental analyses to identify the functional properties of aberrant behavior inschool settings. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 25, 809-821.
Schmid, R. E., & Evans, W. H. (1997). Curriculum and instruction practices for students withemotional/behavioral disorders. Reston, VA: Council for Children with Behavioral Disorders.
Sugai, G. M., Bullis, M., & Cumblad, C. (1997). Skill development and support of educationalpersonnel. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 5, 55-64.
Sugai, G. M., & Lewis, T. J. (1996). Preferred and promising practices for social skillinstruction. Focus on Exceptional Children, 29, 1-16.
Sugai, G. M., & Tindal, G. A. (1993). Effective school consultation: An interactive approach. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Touchette, P. E., MacDonald, R. F., & Langer, S. N. (1985). A scatter plot for identifyingstimulus control of problem behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 18, 343-351.
Walker, H. M., Colvin, G., & Ramsey, E. (1995). Antisocial behavior in school: Strategies andbest practices. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Wood, F. M. (1994). May I ask you why you are hitting yourself? Using oral self-reports inthe functional assessment of adolescents’ behavior disorders. Preventing School Failure, 38, 16-20.
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Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice
American Institutes for Research1000 Thomas Jefferson Street, NWSuite 400Washington, DC 20007Toll free: (888) 457-1551Local: (202) 944-5400E-mail: [email protected] site: http://www.air-dc.org/cecp/cecp.html
Council for Exceptional Children
1920 Association DriveReston, VA 22091-1589Toll-free: (800) CEC-READLocal: (703) 620-3660E-mail: [email protected] site: http://www.cec.sped.org/
National Information Center for Children and Youth with Disabilities
Academy for Educational DevelopmentP.O. Box 1492Washington, DC 20013-1492Toll-free: (800) 695-0285Local: (202) 884-8200E-mail: [email protected] site: http://nichcy.org/
Office of Special Education Programs
U.S. Department of EducationMary E. Switzer Building330 C Street, SWWashington, DC 20202Toll-Free: (800)872-5327Local: (202) 401-2000Web site: http://www.ed.gov/offices/OSERS/OSEP/index.html
18
OSEP’s Technical Assistance and Dissemination Network
Federal Resource Center for Special Education (FRC)Academy for Educational Development1875 Connecticut Avenue, NW, Suite 900Washington, DC 20009Phone: (202) 884-8215E-mail: [email protected] site: http://www.dssc.org/frc/
A- Appendix A1
ABC OBSERVATION FORM
Student Name: Observation Date:
Observer: Time:
Activity: Class Period:
Behavior:
ANTECEDENT BEHAVIOR CONSEQUENCE
A- Appendix A2
ABC OBSERVATION FORM
Student: Observer:
Date: Time: Activity:
Context of Incident:
Antecedent:
Behavior:
Consequence:
Comments/Other Observations:
B- Appendix B1
SCATTER PLOT ASSESSMENT
Student Name: Starting Date:
socially engaged low rates of social engagement not socially engaged
Observer:
Tim
e o
f d
ayF
ive
min
ute
inte
rval
s
5/1 5/2 5/3 5/4 5/5 5/8 5/9 5/10 5/11 5/12
9:00
9:05
9:10
9:15
9:20
9:25
9:30
9:35
9:40
9:45
9:50
9:55
10:00
B- Appendix B2
FUNCTIONAL BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT MATRIX
Observed Behaviors Tra
nsiti
on
Larg
e G
roup
Lec
ture
Sm
all G
roup
Inde
pend
ent W
ork
Pap
er-p
enci
l
Wor
kshe
et/ W
orkb
ook
Rea
d al
oud
Rea
d si
lent
ly
Inst
ruct
iona
l gam
e
Med
ia
Oth
er
Off-task
Out-of-seat
Talk-out
Non-compliant
Other
Code: = no behavior
= low rates of behavior
= persistent behavior
CENTER FOR EFFECTIVE COLLABORATION AND PRACTICE:Improving Services for Children and Youth with Emotional and Behavioral Problems
It is the mission of the Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice (CECP) to supportand promote a reoriented national preparedness to foster the development and adjustment ofchildren with or at risk of developing serious emotional disturbance. To achieve that goal, theCenter is dedicated to a policy of collaboration at Federal, state, and local levels that contributesto and facilitates the production, exchange, and use of knowledge about effective practices. Wehave strategically organized the Center to identify promising programs and practices, promote theexchange of useful and useable information, and facilitate collaboration among stakeholders andacross service system disciplines.
Note: This document was reviewed for consistency with the Individuals with DisabilitiesEducation Act (P.L. 105-17) by the U.S. Office of Special Education Programs.
This document was produced under contract number HS92017001 and grant numberH237T60005. The views expressed herein do not necessarily reflect the views of the U.S. Departmentof Education or any other Federal agency and should not be regarded as such. The Center for EffectiveCollaboration and Practice: Improving Services for Children and Youth with Emotional andBehavioral Problems is funded under a cooperative agreement with the Office of Special EducationPrograms, Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services, U.S. Department of Education,with additional support from the Child, Adolescent, and Family Branch, Center for Mental HealthServices, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Administration, of the U.S. Department of Health andHuman Services.
ADDRESSING STUDENT PROBLEM BEHAVIOR—PART II:
CONDUCTING A FUNCTIONAL BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT
(3RD EDITION)
May 12, 1998
Prepared By
Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice
Robert A. Gable, Ph.D., Research Fellow; Professor, Old Dominion UniversityMary Magee Quinn, Ph.D., Deputy Director, Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice
Robert B. Rutherford Jr., Ph.D., Research Fellow; Professor, Arizona State UniversityKenneth W. Howell, Ph.D., Research Fellow; Professor, Western Washington University
Catherine C. Hoffman, A.B., Research Associate, Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice
This information is copyright free. Readers are encouraged to copy and share it, but please credit theCenter for Effective Collaboration and Practice.
Please address all correspondence to: Mary Magee Quinn, Center for Effective Collaboration andPractice. American Institutes for Research, 1000 Thomas Jefferson Street, NW, Suite 400, Washington,D.C. 20007
i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thank the following individuals for their valuable assistance in the reviewand production of this document:
Beth Bader, M.Ed., American Federation of TeachersGeorge Batsche, Ph.D., University of South FloridaDenise M. Conrad, M.Ed., Behavior Specialist, Toledo Public SchoolsEleanor Guetzloe, Ph.D., University of South FloridaMary Holway, Parent, Woodbridge, VABeverley Johns, M.S., Past-President, Council for Children with Behavior DisordersDavid Osher, Ph.D., Center for Effective Collaboration and PracticeTrina Osher, M.A., Federation of Families for Children’s Mental HealthTom Valore, Ph.D., West Shore Day Treatment Center, Positive Education ProgramLawrence T. Waite, M.Ed., New York State United Teachers
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements..........................................................................................................................i
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................1
Rationale for Using Functional Behavioral Assessments To Develop Positive Behavior Interventions ...........................................................................2
Functional Assessment is a Team Effort ......................................................................................3
A Method for Conducting a Functional Behavioral Assessment ...............................................41. Describe and Verify the Seriousness of the Problem...............................................................42. Refine the Definition of the Problem Behavior ........................................................................73. Collect Information on Possible Functions of the Problem Behavior .......................................8
Ways to Categorize Student Behavior..................................................................................8
Direct and Indirect Measures of Student Behavior.....................................................................9Direct Assessment................................................................................................................9Indirect Assessment ...........................................................................................................13Accuracy of Behavior Measurement ..................................................................................14
4. Analyze Information Using Triangulation and/or Problem Pathway Chart ............................145. Generate Hypothesis Statement Regarding Likely Function of Problem Behavior ................156. Test Hypothesis Statement Regarding the Function of Problem Behavior.............................15
Summary of Steps to Conduct a Functional Behavioral Assessment ......................................17
The Behavior Intervention Plan ..................................................................................................17
Conclusion .....................................................................................................................................17
Additional Information on Functional Behavioral Assessment ...............................................18
Appendix A: Scatterplots ........................................................................................................ A-1
Appendix B: ABC Charts.........................................................................................................B-1
Appendix C: Functional Assessment Interview Forms..........................................................C-1
Appendix D: Sample Teacher and Student Interviews......................................................... D-1
Appendix E: Problem Behavior Questionnaire ......................................................................E-1
Appendix F: Data Triangulation Chart ..................................................................................F-1
Appendix G: Behavior Pathway Charts................................................................................. G-1
1
ADDRESSING STUDENT PROBLEM BEHAVIOR—PART II:CONDUCTING A FUNCTIONAL BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT
oday, educators at all grade levels face agrowing number of student behaviors that
challenge effective classroom instruction. Fortunately, most students respond to standardstrategies for addressing potential behaviorproblems (e.g., classroom rules, verbal praiseand reprimands, and loss of privileges). However, for some students—with and withoutdisabilities—these classroom managementtechniques do not produce the desiredoutcomes and may even worsen an alreadydifficult situation. In recognition of thegrowing need to proactively address theproblem, the 1997 Amendments to theIndividuals with Disabilities Education Act(IDEA) (P.L. 105-17) include provisions thathelp schools address both the classroomlearning and behavior problems of studentswith disabilities.
The requirement that schools address studentbehavior problems in their efforts to ensure thatschools are safe and conducive to learning forall students signals a fundamental shift inemphasis in Federal legislation. Beginningwith P.L. 94-142 (Education for AllHandicapped Children Act of 1975), schoolswere required to ensure students withdisabilities a “free, appropriate publiceducation” in the “least restrictiveenvironment.” Now, schools also must ensurethat students are able to be involved andprogress in the general education curriculum,measure the educational progress of studentswith disabilities, and take preventive andproactive steps to address the relationshipbetween student behavior and classroomlearning. The 1997 Amendments are explicitabout what is required of IndividualizedEducation Program (IEP) teams whenaddressing behaviors of children withdisabilities that interfere with their learning orthe learning of others.
♦ The IEP team must consider, whenappropriate, strategies—including positivebehavioral interventions, strategies, andsupports—to address that behavior throughthe IEP process (see 614(d)(3)(B)(i)).
♦ In response to disciplinary actions byschool personnel described in Sec.615(k)(1)(B), the IEP team must, eitherbefore or no later than 10 days after theaction, develop a functional behavioralassessment plan to collect information. This information should be used fordeveloping or reviewing and revising anexisting behavioral intervention plan toaddress such behaviors, if necessary.
♦ In addition, states are required to addressthe in-service needs and pre-servicepreparation of personnel (includingprofessionals and paraprofessionals whoprovide special education, generaleducation, related services, or earlyintervention services) to ensure that theyhave the knowledge and skills necessary tomeet the needs of their students withdisabilities. This includes enhancing theirabilities to use strategies such as behavioralinterventions and supports(653(c)(3)(D)(vi)).
This is the second of three guides that addressthe 1997 Amendments to IDEA as they relateto the issue of functional behavioral assessmentand positive behavioral interventions andsupports. The first monograph, AddressingStudent Problem Behavior: An IEP Team’sIntroduction to Functional BehavioralAssessment and Behavior Intervention Plans,provided a general overview of theserequirements and is available through theCenter for Effective Collaboration andPractice’s web site (www.air-dc.org/cecp/) orby calling toll free 1-888-457-1551. Thissecond monograph examines the rationale for
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and discusses the process of conducting afunctional behavioral assessment and describesthe ways schools and IEP teams can translatethis new public policy into classroom practiceby means of a step-by-step approach tofunctional behavioral assessment. This guideexplains how IEP teams can decide how tocollect various kinds of information and how toorganize and analyze this information. A thirdmonograph will discuss how to use theinformation gathered during the functionalbehavioral assessment process to develop andimplement positive behavioral interventionplans that address both the short- and long-termneeds of the student.
This monograph covers an integrated, six-stepprocess that has been used by some forconducting that assessment (four additionalsteps cover the development of a behaviorintervention plan, which will be discussed inthe third document in this series). Blank formsand sample completed forms that might beused during the functional behavioralassessment process are included. In addition,this guide highlights the role that bothprofessional collaboration and school-widesupport can play in addressing student problembehavior. Finally, there is a list of sources forreaders interested in obtaining moreinformation on functional behavioralassessment.
RATIONALE FOR USING FUNCTIONAL
BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENTSTO DEVELOP POSITIVE
BEHAVIOR INTERVENTIONS
hen a student’s behavior disruptsclassroom instruction, teachers often
address the problem by manipulating eventsthat follow the misbehavior (e.g., verbalreprimands, isolation, detention, suspension). Experience has shown that this approach failsto teach the student acceptable replacementbehaviors (i.e., behaviors that are expectedunder certain circumstances). Recently,
educators have begun to introduce variousprograms designed to teach students moreacceptable ways to behave. The area of socialskills development has been especially popular. However, decisions regarding which behaviorsto teach a student are largely subjective andoften unrelated to the cause of the problembehavior.
In some instances, what has been absent is amethod for determining “why” the studentmisbehaved in the first place. Today, there isgood reason to believe that the success ofclassroom behavior interventions hinges onidentifying the likely causes and purposes ofproblem behavior and finding ways to teachand promote appropriate replacement behaviorsthat serve the same “functions” as theinappropriate behaviors. We know thatinappropriate student behavior may have thesame form (e.g., Charles and James both swearat the teacher) but serve different functions(e.g., Charles is seeking peer approval whileJames is attempting to escape an aversiveteacher-pupil interaction). Functionalassessment helps IEP teams to understandwhat function the problem behavior serves forthe students and leads to interventions thatreduce or eliminate problem behavior byreplacing it with behavior that serves the samepurpose or function for the student, but is moresocially acceptable (e.g., teaching Charles moreacceptable ways to gain peer attention).
The logic behind functional behavioralassessment is that practically all behavioroccurs within a particular context and serves aspecific purpose. Students learn to behave (ormisbehave) in ways that satisfy a need orresults in a desired outcome. Students willchange their behavior only when it is clear thata different response will more effectively andefficiently result in the same outcome. Identifying the purpose of problem behaviors ormore specifically, what the student “gets” or“avoids” through those behaviors) can provideinformation that is essential to developinginstructional strategies and supports to reduce
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or eliminate behaviors that interfere withsuccessful classroom performance orparticipation.
Functional behavioral assessment is generallyconsidered to be a problem-solving process thatrelies on a variety of techniques and strategiesto identify the purposes of specific behaviorand to help IEP teams select interventions todirectly address the problem behavior. Functional behavioral assessment should beintegrated, as appropriate, throughout theprocess of developing, reviewing, and, ifnecessary, revising a student’s IEP. Afunctional behavioral assessment looks beyondthe behavior itself. The focus when conductinga functional behavioral assessment is onidentifying significant, pupil-specific social,affective, cognitive, and/or environmentalfactors associated with the occurrence (andnon-occurrence) of specific behaviors. Thisbroader perspective offers a betterunderstanding of the function or purposebehind student behavior. Intervention plansbased on an understanding of “why” a studentmisbehaves are extremely useful in addressinga wide range of problem behaviors.
The following sections discuss a multi-stepstrategy that some have used to carry out afunctional behavioral assessment. The tensteps listed below include the development andimplementation of behavior intervention plans,which may follow the functional behavioralassessment. Only the first six steps relating tothe actual functional behavioral assessment willbe discussed in this document. The other foursteps will be discussed in the third monograph: Addressing Student Problem Behavior – PartIII: Developing and Implementing BehavioralIntervention Plans.
A Method for Performing a FunctionalBehavioral Assessment
1. Describe and verify the seriousness of theproblem.
2. Refine the definition of the problem behavior.
3. Collect information on possible functions of theproblem behavior.
4. Analyze information using triangulation and/orproblem pathway analysis.
5. Generate a hypothesis statement regardingprobable function of problem behavior.
6. Test the hypothesis statement regarding thefunction of the problem behavior.
A Method for Developing, Implementingand Monitoring a Behavior Intervention
Plan (to be covered in the third monograph)
7. Develop and implement behavior interventionplan.
8. Monitor faithfulness of implementation ofplan.
9. Evaluate effectiveness of behavior interventionplan.
10. Modify behavior intervention plan, if needed.
FUNCTIONAL ASSESSMENT IS A TEAMEFFORT
efore beginning, we want to stress the rolethat teamwork plays in addressing student
behavior problems. In conducting a functionalbehavioral assessment and developing abehavior intervention plan, education personnelshould draw upon a range of communicationand interpersonal skills. Like knowledge ofassessment itself, IEP team members may needspecial training in the skills of successfulcollaboration, such as time management, groupproblem-solving (including “brainstorming”strategies), active listening, and conflictresolution processes, to mention a few. If team
B
4
members are to conduct the assessment, theymay also need training in the skills andknowledge required to conduct a functionalbehavioral assessment and use of behaviorintervention techniques. As with othercollaborative efforts, building-leveladministrative and collegial support is essentialto a successful outcome.
A METHOD FOR CONDUCTING A
FUNCTIONAL BEHAVIORALASSESSMENT
1. Describe and Verify the Seriousnessof the Problem
ost teachers recognize that manyclassroom discipline problems can be
resolved by consistently applying standardmanagement strategies. Strategies proven tobe effective include: teaching students how tocomply with well-defined classroom rules,providing students more structure in lessons,making strategic seating assignments, andposting a class schedule, to mention a few. These proactive procedures can sometimeseven alleviate the need for more intensiveinterventions. Today, many teachers learnabout other solutions to the problems they facethrough teacher assistance or interventionassistance teams. Regardless of the source ofthis information, school personnel generallyshould introduce one or more standardstrategies before seeking to initiate the morecomplex, and often time-consuming, process offunctional behavioral assessment. A formalassessment usually is reserved for serious,recurring problems that do not readily respondto typical discipline strategies, impede astudent’s learning, or have been ongoing.
In addressing student behavior that impedeslearning, IEP teams usually will work with thereferring classroom teacher to define, inconcrete terms, the exact behavior of concern(e.g., Trish is verbally and physicallyaggressive toward other students on the
playground.). Using this description of thebehavior, the IEP team or other schoolpersonnel can conduct initial observations ofboth the student of concern and 1-2 classmatesselected at random. By observing otherclassmates, the team will be able to determinethe seriousness of the problem and thediscrepancy between present behavior andwhat is considered to be an acceptable level ofbehavior. Finally, initial observations mayindicate that many students have similardiscipline problems and that the solution mayactually rest in changes in classroom practices.
In collecting preliminary information aboutstudent behavior, the team should also take intoconsideration teacher expectations for studentacademic performance as well as classroomconduct. It might be that teacher expectationsfor the student exceed or fall below thestudent’s ability to perform. The resultingbehavior problems may stem from a sense offrustration, fear of embarrassment, or boredom.
In assessing a student’s behavior, it may beimportant to consider whether a particularresponse may relate to cultural differences orexpectations. For example, in some cultures,making eye contact with adults is consideredrude; in others, peer competition isdiscouraged. Remember that no two students(or their families) are the same, regardless oftheir gender, cultural or ethnic background. Aspart of the IEP team, parents can providevaluable information regarding the behaviorstheir culture values. School personnel shouldbe aware that differences may exist, respectthese differences, and work to adopt thefamily’s perspective when considering studentbehavior. When making judgments aboutcultural differences or expectations,professionals who are qualified to make suchstatements may be another resource to the IEPteam. Such individuals may be in a goodposition to assess the impact of culturaldifferences on learning.
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One way for the IEP team to judge thesignificance of the behavior exhibited by thestudent of concern is to pose the followingquestions:
♦ Does the student’s behavior significantlydiffer from that of his/her classmates?
♦ Does the student’s behavior lessen thepossibility of successful learning for thestudent and others?
♦ Have past efforts to address the student’sbehavior using standard interventions beenunsuccessful?
♦ Does the student’s behavior represent abehavioral deficit or excess, rather than acultural difference?
♦ Is the student’s behavior serious, persistent,chronic, or a threat to the safety of thestudent or others?
♦ If the behavior persists, is somedisciplinary action likely to result?
If the answer is yes to any of these questions,then the team should proceed with a functionalbehavioral assessment. The followingvignettes illustrate the fact that problembehavior can vary widely and that variousfactors can influence student behavior. Thevignettes also show that not all problemsrequire complex solutions or a functionalbehavioral assessment.
Vignette I
Mrs. Gambino, the seventh grade social studiesteacher at Havelock Middle School, reportedthat according to her mid-term progress report,Tommy, a student with a learning disability,was in danger of failing. Together with Mrs.Lofties, the special education teacher, theydetermined that the problem probably stemmedfrom Tommy’s not doing his homework every
night, rather than from his not having theknowledge or skills to complete it. Mrs.Gambino explained that although she modifiesthe homework assignment to help Tommy,whose disability makes it difficult for him towrite, he still doesn’t complete theassignments. She explained that the homeworkassignments were given so that the studentshave an opportunity to practice using what theylearned during class, and it was important forthem to spend time doing them so they couldkeep up with what was being taught.
Mrs. Lofties asked how many other students inher class came without having their homework. Mrs. Gambino explained that she did not takeup the homework or grade it. Mrs. Gambinoexplained that students kept their homework intheir notebooks so they could use it to study. “Idon’t believe in giving kids grades forhomework,” she explained. “I don’t think youshould grade ‘practice’ work.” Mrs. Loftiessuggested that for the next five days Mrs.Gambino observe Tommy and the otherstudents in his class to see how many hadcompleted homework assignments. Mrs.Gambino said she would watch the students asthey were discussing their homeworkassignments and record (without the studentsknowing) who did not have their homework. They agreed to meet again after the five dayshad passed.
During their next meeting, Mrs. Gambino andMrs. Lofties looked at the homework data. Itseemed that on any given day about 25 percentof the students did not have their homework. They decided that the problem was morewidespread than just with Tommy and workedtogether to develop a plan to increase the class’homework production. They developed asystem where Mrs. Gambino could check tosee if each student had completed his or herhomework. If everyone in the class came withhis or her homework, then she would give theclass one point. When they accumulated 15points they would be allowed to bring snacks toclass the next day and eat while they worked.
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Mrs. Gambino thought it would be a good ideaand decided to try it in all of her classes. Mrs.Lofties and Mrs. Gambino decided to meetagain in two weeks to see how things weregoing.
In two weeks, Mrs. Gambino reported that ittook the students a couple of days to get intothe swing of the “game,” but now most classeswere earning points daily. She said thatTommy’s grades were improving, and at thistime a functional behavioral assessment wasnot deemed necessary.
Vignette II
“This is the third time in two weeks Trish hasbeen sent to the office for fighting on theplayground! Something has to be done!” Ms.Osuna’s tone showed her exasperation with herstudent’s behavior. Ms. Frey, the principal,agreed with Ms. Osuna but explained that heroptions were limited. “We’ve tried keeping herin during recess, but that does not seem to help. We also tried to reward her for playing nicelyon the playground, but that didn’t work either. I agree that this is getting out of hand. Noother student in this school has had so manyoffice referrals for problems on the playground. I am willing to listen to any suggestions youmight have.” Ms. Osuna suggested theyinclude Mr. Church, Trish’s LD resource roomteacher, in their discussion.
After speaking with Ms. Osuna and Ms. Frey,Mr. Church realized that Trish’s behavior wassignificantly different from those of the otherthird graders on the playground, had beengoing on for some time, was possibly a dangerto other students, and didn’t change when theusual interventions were tried. “I suggest wecall a meeting of her IEP team and discussconducting a functional behavioral assessmentto try to determine what might be causing Trishto behave this way. I’ll ask the secretary to callTrish’s parents and set up a meeting time thatwould be convenient for them.”
At the meeting, Trish’s mother, Mrs. Waldo,explained that Trish was the same way with herbrothers when she was at home. “They hiteach other a lot. I yell at them, but they don’tlisten to me.” Mr. Church explained to the IEPteam about functional behavioral assessmentand suggested they do an assessment to findout more about why Trish was being physicallyaggressive. Mrs. Waldo was relieved, “I wasso afraid you were going to tell me that she wasgoing to be suspended or sent away to adifferent school.” Mr. Church explained thatMrs. Waldo could help with the functionalbehavioral assessment, too. He explained thathe would like to talk to her more about Trish’sbehavior at home and he could give her somequestions that she could ask Trish to help themwith the functional behavioral assessment. After deciding what each person could do tocontribute to the assessment, everyone agreedto meet again in two weeks to discuss his orher findings. Meanwhile, playgroundsupervision would be increased to make surethat no one got hurt.
The vast majority of classroom challenges canbe successfully addressed through the kind ofcollaborative efforts illustrated in Vignette I. School personnel should try to distinguishbetween problems that can be eliminatedthrough informal assessment and universalinterventions (i.e., interventions designed foruse with the entire group) and those thatdemand functional behavioral assessment andindividualized positive behavioral interventionplans and supports.
2. Refine the Definition of the ProblemBehavior
efore determining the techniques to use tocollect information about student behavior,B
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school personnel must identify specificcharacteristics of the behavior that is interferingwith learning. This way, it is possible tonarrow the definition to make it easier toobserve and record the behavior. Ifdescriptions of behaviors are vague (e.g., poorattitude or aggressiveness), it is difficult tomeasure these behaviors and determineappropriate interventions. Even behavior asunacceptable as aggression may mean differentthings to different people. For example, somemay feel a threatening gesture representsaggression; others may not. A precisedefinition, one that includes examples (andnonexamples) of the behavior of concern,should eliminate measurement problemsstemming from an ambiguous description ofbehavior.
In collecting information to refine the definitionabout behavior, it may be necessary to observethe student in various settings (e.g., classroom,cafeteria, playground, and other socialsettings), during different types of activities(e.g., individual, large group, or cooperativelearning), and to discuss the student’s behaviorwith other school personnel or family members. This will help the IEP team to determine theexact nature of the behavior and to narrow itsscope of the examination of the problemsituation. These multiple observations increasethe likelihood that IEP teams will be able toaccurately assess relevant dimensions of thebehavior, thereby allowing them to writeaccurate behavior intervention plans. Information should be collected on:
♦ times when the behavior does/does notoccur (e.g., just prior to lunch, during aparticular subject or activity);
♦ location of the behavior (e.g., classroom,playground);
♦ conditions when the behavior does/does notoccur (e.g., when working in small groups,structured or unstructured time);
♦ individuals present when the problembehavior is most/least likely to occur (e.g.,when there is a substitute teacher or withcertain other students);
♦ events or conditions that typically occurbefore the behavior (e.g., assignment to aparticular reading group);
♦ events or conditions that typically occurafter the behavior (e.g., student is sent outof the room);
♦ common setting events (e.g., during badweather); and
♦ other behaviors that are associated with theproblem behavior (e.g., a series of negativepeer interactions).
Once the behavior of concern has beenidentified, it is important to complete thedefinition of the behavior. For example, initialobservations enable the IEP team to moreaccurately define Trish’s aggression as, “Trishhits, kicks, or uses threatening language (e.g.,“I’m going to kill you!”) with other studentsduring recess when she does not get her way.”Other examples of well-defined behaviorinclude defining verbal off-task behavior as:“Charles makes irrelevant and inappropriatecomments during reading class (e.g., “This isdumb.” or “Anyone could do that.”); andhyperactivity as: “Jan leaves her assigned areawithout permission (e.g., walks around class,goes to reward area of class), completes onlysmall portions of her independent work (e.g., 3of 10 problems), and blurts out answerswithout raising her hand.
Since students often evidence multiple ratherthan single behavior problems, when definingproblem behavior, IEP teams may groupmultiple problem behaviors together. Forexample, Charles’ “call-outs,” “put-downs ofclassmates,” and “vulgar comments madeabout a lesson” might be defined as disruptiveacts. However, if an intervention plan fails to
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change these behaviors, it may be necessary forthe team to separate, individually define, andassess each of these behaviors. Also, it may benecessary to prioritize the behaviors and decidewhich to address first (e.g., the most disruptivebehavior, the easiest behavior to modify).
3. Collect Information on PossibleFunctions of the Problem Behavior
y collecting and analyzing various kinds ofinformation about behavior that
significantly disrupts the teaching and learningprocess, school personnel are better able toselect the most appropriate interventions. Information on the social/environmentalcontext, antecedent and consequent events (i.e.,events preceding or following the behavior,respectively), and past events that mayinfluence present behavior, assists teams inpredicting when, where, with whom, and underwhat conditions certain behavior is most/leastlikely to occur. While the Amendments to theIDEA call for a functional behavioralassessment approach to determine the specificfactors that contribute to problem behavior,they do not recommend specific assessmenttechniques or strategies.
Information from a variety of assessmenttechniques should lead the IEP team to betterunderstand the problem behavior. Dependingon the nature of the behavior of concern, it iscrucial that multiple means be used to collectinformation about the behavior. This mightinclude a review of the student’s records(educational and medical), along with anevaluation of a sample of the student’sacademic products (e.g., in-class assignments,tests, homework). In addition, the use ofvarious observation procedures; questionnaires;interviews with parents, teachers, and otherschool personnel (e.g., bus driver, cafeteriaworkers, playground monitors), as well asinterviews with the student; and perhapsmedical consultation should allow datacollection tailored to produce information that
will help the IEP team to better understand thecauses of the specific problem behavior.
Ways to Categorize Student Behavior
here are several ways the IEP team cancategorize student behavior for purposes
of behavioral intervention planning. One wayis to characterize student behavior according toits function, separating actions which “getsomething” that is positively reinforcing for thestudent (e.g., peer attention or adult approval)from behavior intended to “avoid (or escape)something” that is aversive to the student (e.g.,academic assignments that are too demanding,interactions with specific peers). For example,the IEP team may determine that Mandy makeswisecracks during class lectures because shefinds the laughter of her peers very rewarding. On the other hand, Bill, who is not prepared toparticipate in class discussion, may makewisecracks to be sent out of the room andthereby avoid being called upon to answerquestions. Many times, the student’smisbehavior stems from multiple sources ratherthan a single source. Mandy’s wisecracks,while resulting in peer attention, may also serveto draw attention away from the fact that shedoes not know the answer.
In addition to categorizing behavior byfunction, the team should attempt to distinguishbetween behaviors that stem from a skill deficitversus those that result from a performancedeficit. Skill deficits involve an inability toperform the appropriate behavior. Forexample, Bill does not have the sight wordvocabulary necessary to read his social studiestext aloud; Trish does not have the socialproblem-solving skills to interact appropriatelywith her peers on the playground.
Behavior that is linked to a performance deficitreflects the fact that the student is able toengage in the desired behavior but fails to do sowhen specific conditions are present. Performance deficits are manifested in variousways. For example, Jeff generally is able to
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control his temper when confronted by a peer(“What’s your problem, jerk?”). In someinstances, however, outside factors influencehis behavior, as when hunger, fatigue, orextreme frustration override self-control. Incontrast, Juan may not be able to discriminateexactly what behavior is expected of himwithin a particular social context; Juan may notsee any relationship between what is expectedof him and what he wants to get out of thesituation (e.g., to be verbally supportive of aclassmate he really dislikes). Or, Juan may beunable to deal with competing emotionalresponses (e.g., anger or frustration). In Figure1, we have combined several classificationoptions to account for the fact that problembehavior may stem from multiple sources. Figure 2 gives a specific example, of howTrish’s behavior might be categorized usingthis form. While categorizing behavior byfunction is integral to functional behavioralassessment, recognition that problems can alsorelate to either skill or performance deficits, orboth, can contribute significantly todevelopment of a sound behavioral interventionplan. Finally, it is also important to rememberthat one behavior may have an impact on otherbehaviors the student may engage in.
DIRECT AND INDIRECT MEASURESOF STUDENT BEHAVIOR
unctional behavioral assessment can be atime-consuming process, one that usually is
best accomplished in stages. As discussed inStep 2, the functional behavioral assessmentprocess may begin with a series of initial directand indirect observations (e.g., using ascatterplot) and/or discussions with adults orstudents who have witnessed the behavior(e.g., functional interviews). An examinationof the information from these observations andinterviews may suggest specific times andsettings in which to conduct more thoroughobservations (e.g., during a specific academicsubject or class period). These subsequentobservations would lead the IEP team todevelop an hypothesis statement regarding the
factors that are most predictive of the student’sbehavior (e.g., a science lesson that requireslengthy silent reading of technical material). Both direct and indirect measures of studentbehavior are described more thoroughly in thissection.
Direct Assessment
irect assessment consists of actuallyobserving the problem behavior and
describing the conditions that surround thebehavior (its context). This context includesevents that are antecedent (i.e., that occurbefore) and consequent (i.e., that occur after)to student behaviors of interest. There areseveral tools to select from in recording directassessment data. Each has its particularstrength. IEP teams should consider what theywant or need to know about the presentingbehavior and select direct observationstrategies and recording tools accordingly. Adescription of the most commonly used toolsand the kinds of data they can help gatherfollows.
Scatterplots. Often, initial observations can beaccomplished through the use of a scatterplot(see Appendix A for sample scatterplot forms).The purpose of a scatterplot is to identifypatterns of behavior that relate to specificcontextual conditions. A scatterplot is a chart orgrid on which an observer records single events(e.g., number of student call-outs) or a series ofevents (e.g., teacher requests and studentresponses) that occur within a given
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Categorizing Student Problem Behavior
Student: Mike Grade: 4th
Behavior of concern: non-compliant with teacher directions/swears at teacher
SkillProblem
PerformanceProblem
GetSomething
uses inappropriateattention-seekingbehavior to get peerapproval
inappropriatebehavior morerewarding thanappropriatebehavior
AvoidSomething
lacks skillsnecessary tocomprehendassignment
inconsistently asksfor assistance withdifficult material
Fig
ure
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Categorizing Student Problem Behavior
Student: Trish Grade: 4th
Behavior of concern: aggression toward peers on the playground
SkillProblem
PerformanceProblem
GetSomething
Trish hits, kicks, or usesthreatening language(e.g., “I’m going to killyou!”) with otherstudents during recesswhen she does not gether way.
AvoidSomething
Fig
ure
2
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context (e.g., during teacher-led readinginstruction, at lunch, on the playground). Scatterplots take various forms, depending onthe behavior of interest and its social/physicalcontext. Some require observers to sequentiallyrecord (by category) various events (e.g., formatof instruction, teacher behavior, student/peerresponses, likely purpose of student reaction).
ABC charts. Another way to observe studentbehavior is with an Antecedent-Behavior-Consequence (ABC) chart (also referred to asan Antecedent-Response-Consequence or ARCchart) (see Appendix B for examples of ABCcharts). This approach allows an observer toorganize anecdotal or descriptive information onthe student’s interactions with other studentsand adults in such a way that patterns ofbehavior often become clear. A modified ABCchart might be individualized to contain severalpredetermined categories of teacher or peerantecedent behavior, student responses, andconsequent events, along with space fornarrative recording of classroom observations.
Using scatterplots and ABC charts together. By using the ABC procedure, the student maybe observed in settings and under conditionswhere the behavior is most likely and leastlikely to occur. A scatterplot to chart therelationship between specific types ofinstruction and the student’sappropriate/inappropriate responses may alsobe developed.
A scatterplot can be developed to observe andrecord the relationship between a specific set ofclassroom variables (e.g., teacher lecture andstudent off-task behavior) or playgroundbehaviors and to analyze a particular situation.For instance, out-of-seat behavior might bemeasured in increments of 1-5 minutes, whilefights on the school bus may be recorded daily(e.g., critical incident reports). Furthermore,student behavior may be a function of specificteacher-pupil interactions (e.g., there may be arelationship between teacher reprimands andstudent outbursts). Observing and recording
teacher-pupil interactions may lead to a betterunderstanding of the relationship between thesefactors of classroom interactions. Both theABC and scatterplot procedures are useful inidentifying environmental factors (e.g., seatingarrangements), activities (e.g., independentwork), or times of the day (e.g., mornings) thatmay influence student behavior.
Both ABC and scatterplot recordingprocedures are useful not only in identifyingproblem behavior, but also in identifying theclassroom conditions that may trigger ormaintain the student’s behavior. It is alsoimportant to observe situations in which thestudent performs successfully so that IEPteams can compare conditions and identifysituations that may evoke and maintainappropriate rather than inappropriate behavior(e.g., in science class as opposed to languagearts class). In this way, it is possible to get aclearer picture of the problem behavior,determine the critical dimensions of thebehavior, write a precise definition of thebehavior, select the most appropriateassessment tools, and develop an effectiveintervention plan for changing the behavior.
As we already mentioned, multiple measures ofstudent behavior and its social/ environmentalcontexts usually produce more accurateinformation than a single measure. This isespecially true if the problem behavior servesseveral functions or purposes that may varyaccording to circumstance. In our previousexample of Mandy’s wisecracks, makinginappropriate comments during lectures mayserve in some instances to get her something(e.g., peer attention). In another classroom, thesame behavior may help her to avoid something(e.g., being called on by the teacher). Information gathered through repeatedobservations of Mandy across settings willenable the IEP team to distinguish among thevarious purposes for her inappropriate remarks.
Amount versus quality of behavior. Differenttypes of behavior may require different data
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collection techniques. For example, it isimportant to know how often a behavior occurs(e.g., call-outs); in this case, a system thatyields the number of behaviors, or frequencymeasure, is appropriate. At other times,knowing how long the behavior occurs is morerelevant (e.g., out-of-seat), so that a durationmeasure becomes more useful. Furthermore,the usefulness of documenting the severity orintensity of a behavior is evident when the IEPteam tries to measure other disruptivebehaviors. To say that Charles was upset twotimes yesterday may not reflect the fact that hesucceeded in disrupting instruction in the entiremiddle school wing for a total of 45 minutes.
Severity of Disruptive Behavior Rating
Rubric1. Behavior is confined only to the observed
student. May include such behaviors as: refusalto follow directions, scowling, crossing arms,pouting, or muttering under his/her breath.
2. Behavior disrupts others in the student’simmediate area. May include: slammingtextbook closed, dropping book on the floor,name calling, or using inappropriate language.
3. Behavior disrupts everyone in the class. Mayinclude: throwing objects, yelling, open defianceof teacher directions, or leaving the classroom.
4. Behavior disrupts other classrooms or commonareas of the school. May include: throwingobjects, yelling, open defiance of schoolpersonnel’s directions, or leaving the schoolcampus.
5. Behavior causes or threatens to cause physicalinjury to student or others. May include: displayof weapons, assault on others.
In some cases, it is useful to report the severityand measure of a behavior using a rubric tocapture the magnitude and/or amount ofvariation in the behavior. This is true withregard to both student and adult behavior. Thatis, a student tantrum may be minor or extremeand of short or long duration. Teacherreprimands might be insignificant except whenthey are repeatedly and loudly delivered to the
student for an extended amount of time. Thefollowing rubric could be used to observe andrecord the severity of a student’s disruptivebehavior.
Indirect Assessment
e know that student behavior usually isrelated to the context in which it occurs.
However, the IEP team will not always be ableto directly observe all the events that bringabout or maintain specific student behavior. So-called “setting events” (sometimes referredto as slow triggers) can exist within theclassroom (e.g., Charles is asked to join a newreading group), or be far removed from it butstill exert a powerful influence over studentbehavior (e.g., Charles has an argument withanother student at the bus stop before school). External events of this nature may increase thelikelihood of conflict in the classroom,especially if the student is strugglingacademically and/or dislikes the subject matter. These setting events (or specific antecedentsfor the behavior) often may not be directlyobservable. In other cases, the behavior maybe serious but not occur frequently enough insettings accessible to adults to be readilyobserved (e.g., verbal or physical aggression). In these instances, the behavior must beassessed by using indirect measures.
Methods of indirect assessment. Indirect or, asit is sometimes called, informant assessment,relies heavily on the use of interviews withteachers and other adults (e.g., bus drivers,cafeteria workers, office staff) who have directcontact with the student. (See Appendix C for asample interview form.) In addition, a semi-structured interview with the student, himself,could provide insight into the student’sperspective of the situation and yield a morecomplete understanding of the reasons behindthe inappropriate behavior. It may be useful tofollow the same interview format with both thestudent and significant adults (e.g., special andregular classroom teachers, support personnel)and to compare these two sources of
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information. Even elementary aged students canbe credible informants, capable of sharingaccurate information about contextual factorsthat influence their behavior. Indirect measurescan yield valuable information, but they usuallyare not as reliable as direct observationmeasures. For this reason, IEP teams must becareful not to put too much faith in informationderived from informant accounts alone. Examples of interviews conducted with teachersand students to help determine the likelyfunction of a student’s behavior are included inAppendix D.
Surveys or questionnaires are another source ofindirect information. For example, a ProblemBehavior Questionnaire can be administered toone or more teachers who have day-to-daycontact with a student of concern (see AppendixE for sample Problem Behavior Questionnaireforms). Recalling a typical behavioral episode,teachers read 15 statements and circle a numberon the questionnaire that corresponds to thepercent of time each statement is true for thatstudent. A second form is used for recordingand interpreting the responses from everyonewho completed a questionnaire for that student. Any item marked with a three or above on thisprofile form suggests the potential function ofthe problem behavior. If there are two or morestatements scored as three or above (i.e., (50%of the time) under a particular sub-column (e.g.,escape under peers or attention under adults),then it may indicate a possible primary functionof the behavior.
In collecting information regarding the contextof a behavior problem, it is important tounderstand that contextual factors may includecertain affective or cognitive behaviors, as well. For instance, Juan repeatedly acts out and isverbally threatening during instruction whengiven lengthy and difficult assignments. Evenso, it may not be the assignment itself thattriggers the acting-out behavior. Rather, it maybe the fact that he knows he doesn’t have theskills necessary to complete the work thatprompts an anticipation of failure or ridicule.
Or, he may have a family member who iscritically ill; therefore, he finds it difficult toconcentrate.
Accuracy of Behavior Measurement
here are a number of ways that accuracy inobserving and recording student behavior
and the social/environmental conditions thatsurround it can be jeopardized. Commonproblems include:
♦ a vague definition of the behavior (e.g.,Charles sometimes gets upset);
♦ untrained or inexperienced observers;
♦ difficulty observing multiple studentbehaviors (e.g., out of seat, off task, andrude gestures);
♦ potential observer bias regarding thestudent’s behavior (e.g., the observer issubjected to repeated teacher complaintsabout the severity of the student’sclassroom conduct); or
♦ difficulty precisely capturing classroominteractions (e.g., observing a grouplearning activity in which students moveabout the classroom).
In the end, the usefulness of functional behavioralassessment depends on the skills and objectivity ofthe persons collecting the information. Accordingly,if the information is to be helpful to IEP teams, itmust be reliable and complete information about thebehavior. Those conducting the functionalbehavioral assessment must: a) clearly define thebehavior of concern and regularly review thatdefinition; b) have sufficient training and practice tocollect observation and interview data; c) select themost appropriate assessment procedure(s) for boththe behavior and the context; d) collect informationacross time and settings using multiple strategiesand individuals; and, e) conduct routine checks ofthe accuracy of observer scoring/recordingprocedures.
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4. Analyze Information UsingTriangulation and/or ProblemPathway Analysis
nce the team is satisfied that enoughinformation has been collected, the next
step is to compare and analyze all the compiledinformation. Such an analysis helps todetermine which specific social, affective,and/or environmental conditions are associatedwith student behavior. For example, inrecalling Vignette II, an analysis of Trish’sbehavior might lead the team to conclude thatwhenever Trish does not get her way she reactsby hitting someone. Analysis of theinformation gathered can be accomplishedthrough techniques called data triangulationand problem pathway analysis.
Use of a data triangulation chart (seeAppendix F) allows IEP teams to pull togetherand visually compare information collectedfrom various sources (e.g., functionalinterviews, observations using a scatterplot,student questionnaires). Using a datatriangulation chart, team members attempt toidentify possible patterns of behavior,conditions that trigger the behavior,consequences that maintain or continue thebehavior, and, finally, the likely functions theproblem behaviors serve for the student.
Problem behavior pathway charts also allowthe team to organize information by recording itunder the following columns: a) setting events,b) antecedents, c) the behavior itself, and d)likely maintaining consequences for the behaviorof concern (see Appendix G). In analyzinginformation using these techniques, the IEPteam can develop an hypothesis statement aboutthe probable function of the behavior andidentity one or more variables that may bestarting or continuing the behavior.
5. Generate a Hypothesis StatementRegarding Probable Function ofProblem Behavior
sing the information that emerges fromdata triangulation and/or pathway
analysis, the team can develop an hypothesisstatement regarding the likely function(s) of thestudent behavior. The hypothesis statementcan then be used to predict thesocial/environmental conditions (the context)within which the behavior is most likely tooccur. For instance, should a teacher reportthat Charles swears during reading class, thereason for the behavior might be to: (a) gainattention, (b) avoid instruction, (c) seekstimulation, or (d) some combination of thesefunctions.
Only when the function(s) of the behavior is(are) known is it possible for the IEP team toestablish an effective behavioral interventionand support plan that addresses Charles’ needs. Following are several examples of hypothesisstatements written in such a way that IEPteams can draw specific information from thestatement to develop an individualized behaviorintervention plan.
♦ Charles disrupts reading class by swearing atthe teacher when he is asked to read aloud. He is most likely to disrupt the class if he hasnot had breakfast or if there was a problem atthe bus stop. Charles stops swearing whenhe is told to leave the group.
♦ When she does not get what she wantsfrom her peers, Trish calls them names andhits them until they give in to her demands.
♦ Juan verbally threatens the teacher when he isgiven a math assignment that he sees as toolengthy and too difficult, but stops when he istold to find something else to do.
The hypothesis statement is a concise summaryof information collected during the assessmentphase, a statement that explains or represents a
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“best guess” regarding the reason(s) for thebehavior. A well-written hypothesis statementgives clear direction to IEP members, who areresponsible for developing a behaviorintervention plan. It allows the IEP team tospell out a three-fold contingency—when Xoccurs, the student does Y, in order to achieveZ—and to translate that knowledge into anindividualized behavior intervention plan.
6. Test the Hypothesis StatementRegarding the Function of theProblem Behavior
ecause of the obvious difficultiesassociated with problem behavior in the
school and classroom, school personnel may betempted to proceed immediately to designing abehavioral intervention plan. However, in mostcases, it is important that the team take the timeto make sure that the hypothesis is accurate. To do so, IEP team members should“experimentally manipulate” certain variablesto see if the team’s assumptions regarding thelikely function of the behavior are accurate. For instance, after collecting data, the teamworking with Charles may hypothesize that,during reading class, Charles swears at theteacher to escape an aversive academicsituation. Thus, the teacher might changeaspects of instruction to ensure that Charlesgets work that is within his capability and is ofinterest to him. If these accommodationsproduce a positive change in Charles’ behavior,then the team can assume its hypothesis wascorrect and a behavioral intervention plan canbe fully implemented. However, if Charles’behavior remains the same following thischange in classroom conditions, a newhypothesis should be formulated.
As a general rule, IEP teams will stay with aplan for at least 5-7 lessons, to distinguishbetween behavior changes stemming from thenovelty of any change in classroom conditionsand those changes related specifically to theintervention. It is important to remember thatthe inappropriate behavior has probably served
the student well for some time and that it willbe resistant to change. For this reason, theteam will need to be patient when testing itshypothesis regarding the function(s) of themisbehavior.
A procedure known as analogue assessment isone way to verify the IEP team’s assumptionsregarding the function of a student’s behavior.Analogue assessment involves a contrived set ofconditions to test the accuracy of the hypothesis. This procedure allows school personnel tosubstantiate that a relationship exists betweenspecific classroom events (e.g., an aversive task)and the student’s behavior (e.g., disruptivebehavior). This can be accomplished throughteacher manipulation of specific instructionalvariables (e.g., complexity of learning tasks, oralor written student responses), introduction orwithdrawal of variables (e.g., teacher attention,physical proximity), or other changes inconditions assumed to trigger the occurrence ofproblem behavior (e.g., student seatingarrangement, desk placement). In this way, theIEP team may be able to determine precisely theconditions under which the student is most (andleast) likely to behave appropriately. Finally,similar to an “allergy test,” teachers can brieflysample student responses to a succession ofchanges in classroom conditions to determine theaccuracy of the hypothesis statement.
There are times when it may not be feasible tomake changes to classroom variables and toobserve their effects on student behavior. A primeexample is when a student begins to engage inacting-out or aggressive behavior. In theseinstances, the IEP team should immediatelydevelop and implement a behavioral interventionplan (before any disciplinary action is required). Then, they should directly and continuouslyevaluate its impact against any availableinformation about the level or severity of thebehavior prior to the intervention. IEP teams can,however, continue to consider informationcollected through a combination of interviews anddirect observation.
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Finally, there may be instances when the IEPteam may not be able to identify the exact mix ofvariables that cause the student to misbehave(e.g., composition of the learning group, theacademic subject area, teacher expectations) orthe exact amount of a specific setting orantecedent variable that serves to trigger thebehavior (e.g., repeated peer criticism). Sinceproblem behavior can have multiple sourceswhich can change across time, IEP teams shouldcontinue to evaluate and modify a student’sbehavior—even after an initial intervention planhas been implemented. The nature and severityof the behavior will determine the necessaryfrequency and rigor of this ongoing process.
SUMMARY OF STEPS
TO CONDUCT A FUNCTIONALBEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT
o review, in conducting a functionalbehavioral assessment, the IEP team
identifies and defines the problem behavior firstin broad and then specific terms (Steps 1 and2). The team reviews information from varioussources (e.g., questionnaires; semi-structuredinterviews with students, teachers, and others;or observations of students in various settings)and in various forms (e.g., scatterplots or ABCcharts) (Step 3). Next, the team carefullyexamines what they have learned about thebehavior and its context in order to determineits function(s) and decides what to do next(Step 4). In some cases, both the purpose of themisbehavior and an appropriate interventionwill quickly become apparent, as when astudent repeatedly acts up when asked tocomplete too demanding an assignment inreading. In other instances, the IEP team willneed to collect and analyze different types ofinformation and look for multiple cluesregarding the source(s) of the problembehavior, such as antecedents that trigger orconsequences that maintain acting-out behavior(Step 5).
As we have suggested, no two problems arelikely to stem from the exact same source, and
information collected on different students willlikely vary in kind and amount. In the end, theteam must work to develop a probableexplanation of why the student is not behavingappropriately, test the hypothesis (Step 6), anddevelop a behavior intervention planaccordingly.
THE BEHAVIOR
INTERVENTION PLAN
fter collecting sufficient information abouta student’s behavior to determine the
likely function of that behavior, the IEP teammust develop (or revise) the student’s behaviorintervention plan. The process of identifyingpossible behavioral supports and developingand implementing a behavioral interventionplan will be discussed in more detail in thethird and final monograph in this series. Thisplan should include positive strategies,program modifications, and the supplementaryaids and supports required to address thedisruptive behaviors and allow the student to beeducated in the least restrictive environment. Italso should contain strategies to teach thestudent “functionally equivalent” replacementbehaviors (i.e., behavior that serves the samepurpose but is more acceptable). This isaccomplished by drawing upon the informationcollected during the functional behavioralassessment to determine the most effective andpractical intervention(s) and supports toaddress the student’s behavior.
CONCLUSION
ccording to the 1997 Amendments to theIDEA, the IEP team is required under
certain circumstances to develop a functionalbehavioral assessment plan and a behaviorintervention plan to address a student’sbehaviors that interfere with learning or requiredisciplinary action. Schools are seeking tobetter understand the exact conditions underwhich to implement this provision of IDEA. The persons responsible for conducting the
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functional behavioral assessment likely will varyfrom state to state, district to district. Somefunctional behavioral assessment procedureswill require persons with specific training (e.g.,a behavior specialist or a school psychologist). With specialized training and experience, anadjusted job assignment, and ongoing technicalsupport, various IEP team members (e.g.,special or general educators, counselors,parents) can conduct different parts of theassessment.
Regardless of who is charged with theresponsibility to conduct a functionalbehavioral assessment, emphasis should be ondeveloping both a short- and long-term plan toenhance the student’s ability to benefit as muchas possible from classroom instruction. Students can be helped to accomplish this goalthrough positive behavior interventions based
on an accurate assessment of their individualneeds. This goal is best accomplished beforestudent behavior becomes so severe that formaldisciplinary action is necessary.
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ON FUNCTIONAL BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT
The following references served as the basis for this monograph and represent useful sources ofadditional information on functional behavioral assessment and behavioral intervention plans.
Alberto, P. A., & Troutman, A. C. (1999). Applied behavior analysis for teachers (5th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Merrill/Prentice-Hall.
Cantrell, R. P., & Cantrell, M. L. (1980). Ecological problem solving: A decision makingheuristic for prevention-intervention education strategies. In J. Hogg & P. Mittler (Eds.), Advances inmental handicap research. Vol. 1. Chicester, England, New York: John Wiley Publishers.
Carr, E. G., & Durand, V. M. (1985). Reducing behavior problems through functionalcommunication training. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 18, 111-126.
Donnellan, A. M., Mirenda, P. L, Mesaros, R. A., & Fassbender, L. L. (1984). Analyzing thecommunicative functions of aberrant behavior. Journal of the Association of Persons with SevereHandicaps, 9, 201-212.
Dunlap, G., Kern, L., dePerczel, M., Clarke, S., Wilson, D., Childs, K. E., White, R., & Falk,G. D. (1993). Functional analysis of classroom variables for students with emotional and behavioraldisorders. Behavioral Disorders, 18, 275-291.
Durand, V. M. (1990). Severe behavior problems: A functional communication trainingapproach. New York: Guilford.
19
Flugum, K., & Reschly, D. (1994). Prereferral interventions: Quality indices and outcomes.Journal of School Psychology, 32, 1-14.
Fox, J., Vaughn, K., Cindy, D., Bush, M., Byous, M., Orso, M., & Smith, S. (1998). Translating the IEP into practice: Ensuring positive outcomes for students with E/BD in areas ofconduct and social skills. In L. M. Bullock & R. A. Gable (Eds.), Implementing the 1997 IDEA: Newchallenges and opportunities for serving students with E/BD (pp. 7-16). Reston, VA: Council forChildren with Behavioral Disorders.
Gable, R. A. (1996). A critical analysis of functional assessment: Issues for researchers andpractitioners. Behavioral Disorders, 22, 36-40.
Gable, R. A., Quinn, M. M., Rutherford, R. B., Jr., & Howell, K. W. (1998). Functionalbehavioral assessments and positive behavioral interventions. Preventing School Failure, 42, 106-119.
Gable, R. A., Sugai, G. M., Lewis, T. J., Nelson, J. R., Cheney, D., Safran, S. P., & Safran,J. S. (1998). Individual and systemic approaches to collaboration and consultation. Reston, VA;Council for Children with Behavioral Disorders.
Gresham, F. M. (1985). Behavior disorders assessment: Conceptual, definitional, andpractical considerations. School Psychology Review, 14, 495-509.
Gresham, F. M. (1991). Whatever happened to functional analysis in behavioral consultation? Journal of Educational Psychological Consultation, 2, 387-392.
Iwata, B. A., Bollmer, T. R., & Zarcone, J. R. (1990). The experimental (functional) analysisof behavior disorders: Methodology, applications, and limitations. In A. C. Repp & N. Singh (Eds.),Aversive and nonaversive treatment: The great debate in developmental disabilities (pp. 301-330). DeKalb, IL: Sycamore Press.
Kameenui, E. J., & Darch, C. B. (1995). Instructional classroom management: A proactiveapproach to behavior management. Reston, VA: Council for Exceptional Children.
Kerr, M. M., & Nelson, C. M. (1998). Strategies for managing behavior problems in theclassroom (3rd ed.). New York: MacMillan.
Korinek, L., & Popp, P. A. (1997). Collaborative mainstream integration of social skills withacademic instruction. Preventing School Failure, 41, 148-152.
Lawry, J. R., Storey, K., & Danko, C. D. (1993). Analyzing behavior problems in theclassroom: A case study of functional analysis. Intervention in the School and Clinic, 29, 96-100.
Lewis, T. J., Scott, T. M., & Sugai, G. M. (1994). The problem behavior questionnaire: Ateacher-based instrument to develop functional hypotheses of problem behavior in general educationclassrooms. Diagnostique, 19, 103-115.
Mathur, S. R., Quinn, M. M., & Rutherford, R. B. (1996). Teacher-mediated behaviormanagement strategies for children with emotional/behavioral disorders. Reston, VA: Council forChildren with Behavioral Disorders.
20
Quinn, M. M., Gable, R. A., Rutherford, R. B. Jr., Nelson, C. M., & Howell, K. (1998). Addressing student problem behavior: An IEP team’s introduction to functional behavioral assessmentand behavior intervention plans (2nd ed.). Washington, D.C.: Center for Effective Collaboration andPractice.
Reed, H., Thomas, E., Sprague, J. R., & Horner, R. H. (1997). Student guided functionalassessment interview: An analysis of student and teacher agreement. Journal of Behavioral Education,7, 33-49.
Rutherford, R. B., Quinn, M. M., & Mathur, S. R. (1996). Effective strategies for teachingappropriate behaviors to children with emotional/behavioral disorders. Reston, VA: Council forChildren with Behavioral Disorders.
Sasso, G. M., Reimers, T. M., Cooper, L. J., Wacker, D., & Berg, W. (1992). Use ofdescriptive and experimental analyses to identify the functional properties of aberrant behavior inschool settings. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 25, 809-821.
Schmid, R. E., & Evans, W. H. (1998). Curriculum and instruction practices for student withemotional/behavioral disorders. Reston, VA: Council for Children with Behavioral Disorders.
Sugai, G. M., & Tindal, G. A. (1993). Effective school consultation: An interactive approach. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Symons, F. J., McDonald, L. M., & Wehby, J. H. (1998). Functional assessment and teachercollected data. Education and Treatment of Children, 21(2), 135-159.
Touchette, P. E., Macdonald, R. F., & Langer, S. N. (1985). A scatter plot for identifyingstimulus control of problem behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 18, 343-351.
Van Acker, R. (1998). Translating discipline requirements into practice through behavioralintervention plans. In L. M. Bullock & R. A. Gable (Eds.), Implementing the 1997 IDEA: Newchallenges and opportunities for serving students with E/BD (pp. 29-41). Reston, VA.: Council forChildren with Behavioral Disorders.
Walker, H. M., Colvin, G., & Ramsey, E. (1995). Antisocial behavior in school: Strategiesand best practices. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Wood, F. M. (1994). May I ask you why you are hitting yourself? Using oral self-reports inthe functional assessment of adolescents’ behavior disorders. Preventing School Failure, 38, 16-20
.
OTHER AVAILABLE RESOURCES
The Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice has produced additional materials onimproving services for children and youth with emotional and behavioral problems. Most of ourproducts are free of charge and available by contacting the Center, except where otherwise indicated.These and other related Center documents are also available on our web site, and we encourage you todownload them and make and distribute copies.
• Addressing Student Problem Behavior–Part I: An IEP Team’s Introduction to FunctionalBehavioral Assessment and Behavior Intervention Plans. Written with some of the country’sleading experts, this document serves as a useful tool for educators to understand therequirements of IDEA 97 with regard to addressing behavior problems and implement thefundamental principals and techniques of functional behavioral assessment and positivebehavioral supports with students with behavior problems.
The third document in this series – Addressing Student Problem Behavior–Part III: Creatingand Implementing Behavior Intervention Plans—is forthcoming.
• Functional assessment and behavioral intervention plans: Part 1 is a two-hour videoworkshop on functional behavioral assessment. Produced as a cooperative effort between theCenter for Effective Collaboration and Practice and Old Dominion University as part of ODU’sstate-funded technical assistance project, it covers the definitions and origins of functionalbehavioral assessment, what is involved in conducting a functional behavioral assessment andthe criteria for determining when one is needed, and other relevant issues surrounding thistechnique. It is available from Training and Technical Assistance Center, Old DominionUniversity, 1401 West 49th Street, Norfolk, VA 23529-0146.
• The National Agenda for Achieving Better Results for Children and Youth with SeriousEmotional Disturbance (SED). Prepared for the U.S. Department of Education, the NationalAgenda offers a blueprint for change and presents seven strategic targets and cross-cuttingthemes for achieving better results for children and youth with SED.
• Early Warning, Timely Response: A Guide to Safe Schools. This document was produced incollaboration with the National Association of School Psychologists in response to thePresident’s call for the development of an early warning guide to help “adults reach out totroubled children quickly and effectively.” This guide has been distributed to every district inthe nation to help them identify children in need of intervention into potentially violent emotionsand behaviors. It can be acquired through the U.S. Department of Education by calling toll-free 1-877-4ED-PUBS or via the Center’s web site.
• Safe, Drug-Free, and Effective Schools for ALL Students: What Works! This report came outof a collaborative effort between the Office of Special Education Programs and the Safe andDrug-Free Schools Program, both of the U.S. Department of Education. It profiles sixdifferent approaches in three different communities or districts to addressing schoolwideprevention and reduction of violent and aggressive behavior by all students. The report is theresult of a literature review and focus groups with students, families, administrators, teachers,and community change agents from local agencies.
CENTER FOR EFFECTIVE COLLABORATION AND PRACTICE:Improving Services for Children and Youth with Emotional and Behavioral Problems
It is the mission of the Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice (CECP) to supportand promote a reoriented national preparedness to foster the development and adjustment ofchildren with or at risk of developing serious emotional disturbance. To achieve that goal, theCenter is dedicated to a policy of collaboration at Federal, state, and local levels that contributesto and facilitates the production, exchange, and use of knowledge about effective practices. Wehave strategically organized the Center to identify promising programs and practices, promote theexchange of useful and useable information, and facilitate collaboration among stakeholders andacross service system disciplines.
Note: This document was reviewed for consistency with the Individuals with DisabilitiesEducation Act (P.L. 105-17) by the U.S. Office of Special Education Programs.
This document was produced under contract number HS92017001 and grant numberH237T60005. The views expressed herein do not necessarily reflect the views of the U.S. Departmentof Education or any other Federal agency and should not be regarded as such. The Center for EffectiveCollaboration and Practice: Improving Services for Children and Youth with Emotional andBehavioral Problems is funded under a cooperative agreement with the Office of Special EducationPrograms, Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services, U.S. Department of Education,with additional support from the Child, Adolescent, and Family Branch, Center for Mental HealthServices, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Administration, of the U.S. Department of Health andHuman Services.
A-1
Functional Assessment Scatterplot
Student Trish Setting playground Observer(s)
Activity free play Date 9/26
No. of Students –50 Start Time 9:00 End Time 9:15 Total
ObservationInterval: 10 sec 15 sec 20 sec X Time Sampling
Procedure:1. Continuous
Recording: 2. Non-Continuous
Recording X (every 3 min.):
3. Other:
Appropriate Responses Consequences of Inappropriate Responses Consequences of
Phase
AppropriateResponses
InappropriateResponses
Pee
r In
tera
ctio
n
Alo
ne
Adu
lt In
tera
ctio
n
Org
aniz
ed G
ames
Par
alle
l Pla
y
Tot
al
Pee
r In
tera
ctio
n
Alo
ne
Adu
lt In
tera
ctio
n
Org
aniz
ed G
ames
Par
alle
l Pla
y
Tot
al
X
X
X
X
X Gets football fromMarsha
X Plays catch withRae
X
X
Other
Total
AP
PE
ND
IX A
SC
AT
TE
RP
LO
TS
Act
ivity
Comments:
A-2
Functional Assessment Scatterplot
Student Setting Observer(s)
Activity Date 9/26
No. of Students Start Time End Time Total
ObservationInterval: 10 sec 15 sec 20 sec Time Sampling
Procedure:1. Continuous
Recording: 2. Non-Continuous
Recording (every min.):
3. Other:
Appropriate Responses Consequences of Inappropriate Responses Consequences of
Phase
AppropriateResponses
InappropriateResponses
Pee
r In
tera
ctio
n
Alo
ne
Adu
lt In
tera
ctio
n
Org
aniz
ed P
lay
Par
alle
l Pla
y
Tot
al
Pee
r In
tera
ctio
n
Alo
ne
Adu
lt In
tera
ctio
n
Org
aniz
ed P
lay
Par
alle
l Pla
y
Tot
al
Other
Total
Act
ivity
Comments:
A-3
Scatterplot for the Playground
Student: Trish Observer: Mr. ChurchSetting: Morning Recess Time: 9:00-9:15 Intervals: 30 secondsCode: A = Appropriate Behavior;
V = Verbal AggressionP= Physical Aggression
Interval 10/1 10/2 10/3 10/4 Total PercentageA V P A V P
1 A A A A 4 42 A A A A 4 103 A A A A 4 1004 A A A V 3 1 75 255 A V A P 2 1 1 50 25 256 A P A P 2 2 50 507 A P A V 2 1 1 50 258 A V A V 2 2 50 509 A A A A 4 10010 V A A A 3 1 75 2511 V A A A 3 1 75 2512 P A V A 2 1 1 50 25 2513 V A P A 2 1 1 50 25 2514 A A P V 2 1 1 50 25 2515 A A V A 3 1 75 2516 A A A A 4 10017 A A A A 4 10018 V A A V 2 2 50 5019 A V A A 3 1 75 2520 A P A A 3 1 75 2521 A V A A 3 1 75 2522 A P A V 2 1 1 50 25 2523 V V A A 2 2 50 5024 V V A A 2 2 50 5025 A A A A 4 10026 A A A A 4 10027 A A V A 3 1 75 2528 A A P A 3 1 75 2529 A A V A 3 1 75 2530 A A V A 3 1 75 25
DailyTotals
87 23 10 73% 19% 8%
A 23V 6P 1
A-4
Scatterplot for the Playground
Student: Observer:Setting: Time: Intervals:Code: A = Appropriate Behavior;
V = Verbal AggressionP= Physical Aggression
Interval 10/1 10/2 10/3 10/4 Total PercentageA V P A V P
123456789101112131415161718192021222324252627282930
DailyTotals
AVP
A-5
Classsroom Scatterplot
Student Charles Teacher Miller Observer(s) Evans
Activity Date
No. of Students 21 Start Time 9:10 End Time 9:55 Total 45 min.
ObservationInterval: 10 sec 15 sec 20 sec X Time Sampling
Procedure:1. Continuous
Recording: 2. Non-Continuous
Recording X (every 3 min.):
3. Other:
Appropriate Responses Inappropriate Responses
Phase
baseline
Acad
Talk
Answ
erQ
ues
Ask
Que
s
Atte
n
Task
Parti
c
Read
Alou
d
Read
Sile
nt
Writ
e
Oth
erAp
pro.
Tota
l
Aggr
ess/
Disr
uptiv
e
Off
Task
Out
of
Seat
Non
Com
plia
nce
Talk
Out
Oth
erIn
appr
o.
Tota
lIn
appr
opro
.
Gra
ndTo
tal
Paper—Pencil
Listen-Lecture I 1 2
Teacher-PupilDiscussion
II II 4 I II 3 7
Manipulatives
Inst. Games
WorksheetsWorkbook
Readers IlI II II IIll II 14 14
Student-StudentMedia/Tech-Other
Transition
Other
Total 0 2 1 2 0 0 0 0 5 4 2 0 2 7 2 17 22
Inst
ruct
ion
al C
on
dit
ion
s
A-6
Classsroom Scatterplot
Student Teacher Observer(s)
Activity Date
No. of Students Start Time End Time Total .
ObservationInterval: 10 sec 15 sec 20 sec Time Sampling
Procedure:1. Continuous
Recording: 2. Non-Continuous
Recording (every min.):
3. Other:
Appropriate Responses Inappropriate Responses
Acad
Talk
Answ
erQ
ues
Ask
Que
s
Atte
n
Task
Parti
c
Read
Alou
d
Read
Sile
nt
Writ
e
Oth
erAp
pro.
Tota
l
Aggr
ess/
Disr
uptiv
e
Off
Task
Out
of
Seat
Non
Com
plia
nce
Talk
Out
Oth
erIn
appr
o.
Tota
lIn
appr
opro
.
Gra
ndTo
tal
Paper—Pencil
Listen-Lecture
Teacher-PupilDiscussion
Manipulatives
Inst. Games
WorksheetsWorkbook
Readers
Student-StudentMedia/Tech-Other
Transition
Other
Total
Phasebaseline
Inst
ruct
ion
al C
on
dit
ion
s
A-7
Functional Assessment Scatterplot
Student: Myree Grade: 6th School: John B. Lynn
Date(s): 10/4/97 to 10/8/97 Observer(s): Dennis
Behavior(s) of concern: disrupts class w/inappropriate comments and verbal threats directed at peers.
Setting:
DAY OF THE WEEKACTIVITY TIME
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday
TOTAL
Math 9:20 – 10:10 ll l Illl IIll llll Ill Ill IIll 29
Science 10:10 – 11:00 ll l l 4
Social Studies 11:00 – 11:50 l 1
English 11:50 – 12:30 l l IIll l Illl ll 15
Lunch 12:30 – 1:00 0
Health/P.E. 1:00 – 1:50 0
Art 1:50 – 2:40 0
Total 5 18 15 4 7 49
A-8
Functional Assessment Scatterplot
Student: Grade: School:
Date(s): Observer(s):
Behavior(s) of concern:
Setting:
DAY OF THE WEEKACTIVITY TIME
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday
TOTAL
Total
B-1
APPENDIX B
ABC OBSERVATION FORM
Student Name: Trish Observation Date: 10/5
Observer: Ms. Pasillas Time: 9:40-9:55 a.m.
Activity: disruptive behavior on the playground Class Period: 3
ANTECEDENT BEHAVIOR CONSEQUENCE
Trish joins group of 4 girlsplaying catch.
Ball is again thrown toKaren.
Karen begins to walk awaywith the ball.
Trish waits for ball to bethrown to her.
Trish yells “Throw it tome!”
Trish yells “I said throw itto me you jerk!”
Trish runs up behind Karenand kicks her saying “Giveit to me damn it!”
Girls do not throw ball toTrish.
Girls throw ball to her, shemisses it and another girl,LuAnne catches it andthrows it to Sandy.
Karen cries. Trish takes theball.
B-2
ABC OBSERVATION FORM
Student Name: Observation Date:
Observer: Time:
Activity: Class Period:
ANTECEDENT BEHAVIOR CONSEQUENCE
B-3
ABC OBSERVATION FORM
Student Name: Ben S. Observation Date: 10/5
Observer: R. Day Time: 9:40-9:55 a.m.
Activity: disruptive behavior Class Period: 3
ANTECEDENT BEHAVIOR CONSEQUENCE
Teacher begins – tellsstudents to look at board.
Teacher puts examples onboard and asks class towork problems.
Teacher tells class to do 5more problems.
Ben looks around room andat other kids.
Ben looks around and callsto Fran.
Ben turns around and pokesFran with pencil.
Ben calls out, “this is toohard.” He throws worksheetand book on floor.
Teacher continues lesson;ignores Ben.
Teacher asks for quiet.
Teacher tells Ben, “get towork, NOW!”
Teacher demands that Bencome forward, get a hallpass, and go to the office.
B-4
ABC OBSERVATION FORM
Student Name: Observation Date:
Observer: Time:
Activity: Class Period:
ANTECEDENT BEHAVIOR CONSEQUENCE
APPENDIX C
Functional Assessment Interview Form
Interviewer(s) Mr. Church Date(s) 10/3
Student(s) Trish
Respondent(s) Ms. Pasillas Title Paraprofessional
1. Describe the behavior of concern. Trish gets mad on playground and yells at other kids. She sometimes hits other students or kicks them. None of the kids want to play with her.
2. How often does the behavior occur? It seems like everyday.
How long does it last? Not long. I keep my eye on her and stop her before it gets out of hand.
How intense is the behavior? I don’t think she has drawn blood, but she hits and kicks so hard I bet she bruises kids.
3. What is happening when the behavior occurs? Trish wants to play with others who are already
involved in a game.
4. When/where is the behavior most/least likely to occur? It happens everywhere.
5. With whom is the behavior most/least likely to occur? Usually with other girls. I don’t think I remember
her fighting with a boy.
C-1
6. What conditions are most likely to precipitate (“set-off”) the behavior? Trish doesn’t get her way.
7. How can you tell the behavior is about to start? She usually yells before she hits.
8. What usually happens after the behavior? Describe what happens according to adult(s), peers, andstudent responses. When she starts yelling I usually make her stand by me for a while. If it is a major hit,
I send her to the office. If it is a shove or something like that I usually just have her stand by me.
9. What is the likely function (intent) of the behavior; that is, why do you think the student behaves this way?What does the student get or avoid? I think she does it to get her way.
10. What behavior(s) might serve the same function (see question 9) for the student that is appropriate withinthe social/environmental context? She needs to learn to wait her turn, ask nicely and control her temper.
She needs to learn to make friends, too. Nobody wants to play with her.
11. What other information might contribute to creating an effective intervention plan (e.g., under whatconditions does the behavior not occur)? She’s pretty good when she is talking with me or when she is
playing games that I supervise.
12. Who should be involved in planning and implementing the intervention plan? I think I should. I’m the one
out here with her. Also, Mr. Church seems to keep her under control while we’re in the lunchroom.
C-2
Functional Assessment Interview Form
Interviewer(s) Date(s)
Student(s)
Respondent(s) Title
1. Describe the behavior of concern.
2. How often does the behavior occur?
How long does it last?
How intense is the behavior?
3. What is happening when the behavior occurs?
4. When/where is the behavior most/least likely to occur?
5. With whom is the behavior most/least likely to occur?
C-3
6. What conditions are most likely to precipitate (“set-off”) the behavior?
7. How can you tell the behavior is about to start?
8. What usually happens after the behavior the behavior? Describe what happens according to adult(s),peers, and student responses.
9. What is the likely function (intent) of the behavior; that is, why do you think the student behaves this way?What does the student get or avoid?
10. What behavior(s) might serve the same function (see question 9) for the student that is appropriate withinthe social/environmental context?
11. What other information might contribute to creating an effective intervention plan (e.g., under whatconditions does the behavior not occur)?
12. Who should be involved in planning and implementing the intervention plan?
C-4
D-1
APPENDIX D
SAMPLE TEACHER AND STUDENT INTERVIEWS
Functional Interview with a Teacher
Functional interviews should be structured so that they give the IEP team information regardingthe behavior of concern and its social, affective, and/or environmental content. Here is an exampleof an intervention conducted with Mandy’s science teacher.
Q: “In what settings and under what conditions do you observe the behavior?”
A: “Group discussions, usually when discussing what students learned from the previous night’sreading assignment.”
Q: “Are there any settings/situations in which the behavior does not occur?”
A: “When Mandy is working alone or on small cooperative group projects.”
Q: “Who is present when the behavior occurs?”
A: “The entire class and me.”
Q: “What activities or interactions take place just prior to the behavior?”
A: “The class is asked to take out their notes on the reading assignment.”
Q: “What activities or interactions usually take place immediately following the behavior?”
A: “The class looks at Mandy and smiles; actually, there are times I can’t help laughing myself; sheis funny. But, it takes us a long time to get back on track and often a significant amount ofvaluable instructional time is lost.”
Q: “Are there other behaviors that occur along with the problem behavior?”
A: “None that I can think of.”
Q: “Can you think of any reasons why Mandy might behave this way?”
A: “I think she really enjoys the attention. But, there are other, more appropriate ways for her toget attention; maybe I could begin with that thought.”
Q: “What would be a more acceptable way for the student to achieve the same outcome?”
A: “I’m not sure. I could give it some thought. Maybe if she contributed to the discussion insteadof getting us all off track, or if she could at least wait until we are finished to tell us what shefinds funny about the subject.”
D-2
Functional Interview with a Student
In addition to interviews conducted with adults, interviews with students may be useful inidentifying how they perceive the situation and what causes them to act (or react) in the way that theydo. What follows is an example of a functional interview conducted with Mandy:
Q: “Is there anything that is happening outside of school lately that bothers you?”
A: “No.”
Q: “Is there something new that is happening to you?”
A: “Not really.… Well, we just got a new foster kid.”
Q: “Does it bother you?”
A: “No, I like playing with him and I get to feed him sometimes, too.”
Q: “What was the lesson about that was being taught right before you made the commentsthat made your classroom laugh?”
A: “I don’t know, something about rocks, I think.”
Q: “What was your teacher doing?”
A: “We were discussing our homework reading assignment.”
Q: “Do you remember what were you thinking right before you made the comments?”
A: “It was just so boring!”
Q: “How do you feel about getting homework in science?”
A: “Frustrated. The book is hard to read and so I get real confused.”
Q: “Can you tell me what Mr. Smith was expecting of you during science class?”
A: “He wants us to talk about the homework, answer questions...you know, that kind of stuff.”
Q: “When you make the funny comments in class, what usually happens afterward?”
A: “Everyone laughs and looks at me. Sometimes, even Mr. Smith cracks up.”
Q: “How does that make you feel?”
A: “Pretty good. I guess I like it when the other kids notice me. I don’t know.…”
D-3
Functional Interview with Geoffrey(10th grade student with mental retardation)
Q: “Is there anything that is happening outside of school lately that bothers you?”
A: “No.”
Q: “Is there something new that is happening to you?”
A: “Well, yeah, I’ve been hanging out with Drew and Kurt a lot. They are real cool!”
Q: “What kind of things do you do with Drew and Kurt?”
A: “We talk about girls and cars and stuff mostly.”
Q: “How did the marijuana get in your locker?”
A: “I was holding it for Drew. He said he forgot to put it in his locker and he didn’t want histeacher to find out he had it.”
Q: “Did you know that it was against school rules to have drugs in your locker?
A: “Yea, but Drew asked me to.”
Q: “How does it make you feel when Drew asks you to do him favors?”
A: “Oh, I feel like an important friend. You don’t say no to important friends.”
Q: “What do you think would happen if you told Drew ‘no’.”
A: “He probably wouldn’t be my friend any more. I couldn’t hang out with him after school anymore.”
Q: “Can you tell me what might happen if you are caught with drugs at school?”
A: “I could get in lots of trouble.”
Q: “How does that make you feel?”
A: “Well, bad. My dad says school will make me smart so I can get a good job when I finish.”
APPENDIX E: PROBLEM BEHAVIOR QUESTIONNAIRE
Respondent Information
Student Trish DOB 2/24/19— Grade 4th Sex: M F IEP: Y NTeacher Mr. Church School Tucker Creek ElementaryTelephone _______________________________________ Date 9/30________________
STUDENT BEHAVIOR: Please briefly describe the problem behavior(s)
Disruptive and aggressive behavior on the playground.
DIRECTIONS: Keeping in mind a typical episode of the problem behavior, circle the frequency at which each of thefollowing statements are true.
PERCENT OF THE TIME
Never 10% 25% 50% 75% 90% Always
1. Does the problem behavior occur and persist when youmake a request to perform a task? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
2. When the problem behavior occurs do you redirect thestudent to get back to task or follow rules? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
3. During a conflict with peers, if the student engages inthe problem behavior do peers leave the studentalone?
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
4. When the problem behavior occurs do peers verballyrespond or laugh at the student? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
5. Is the problem behavior more likely to occur following aconflict outside the classroom? (e.g., bus write up) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
6. Does the problem behavior occur to get your attentionwhen you are working with other students? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
7. Does the problem behavior occur in the presence ofspecific peers? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
8. Is the problem behavior more likely to continue to occurthroughout the day following an earlier episode? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
9. Does the problem behavior occur during specificacademic activities? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
10. Does the problem behavior stop when peers stopinteracting with the student? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
11. Does the behavior stop when peers are attending toother students? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
12. If the student engages in the problem behavior do youprovide one-on-one instruction to get student back on-task?
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
13. Will the student stop doing the problem behavior if youstop making requests or end an academic activity? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
14. If the student engages in the problem behavior, dopeers stop interacting with the student? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
15. Is the problem behavior more likely to occur followingunscheduled events or disruptions in classroomroutines?
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Source: Lewis, T.J., Scott, T.M., and Sugai, G. (1994). The problem behavior questionnaire: A teacher-based instrument to develop functionalhypotheses of problem behavior in general education settings. Diagnostique, 19, 103-115. Reprinted with permission.
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PROBLEM BEHAVIOR QUESTIONNAIRE PROFILE
Student _Trish_______________________________________________________Grade__4th ___________________School _Tucker Creek Elementary_________________________________ Date 9/30/ ______________________
DIRECTIONS: Circle the score given for each question from the scale below the corresponding question number (in bold).
PEERS ADULTS SETTING EVENTS
Escape Attention Escape Attention
3 10 14 4 7 11 1 9 13 2 6 12 5 8 15
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ANALYSIS OF POSSIBLE FUNCTION(S) OF STUDENT BEHAVIOR
Trish appears to get attention from her peers and adults when engaging ininappropriate behavior.
Source: Lewis, T.J., Scott, T.M., and Sugai, G. (1994). The problem behavior questionnaire: A teacher-based instrument to develop functionalhypotheses of problem behavior in general education settings. Diagnostique, 19, 103-115. Reprinted with permission.
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PROBLEM BEHAVIOR QUESTIONNAIRE
Respondent Information
Student _______________________ DOB _____________ Grade _______________ Sex: M F IEP: Y NTeacher _________________________________________ School ___________________________________________Telephone _______________________________________ Date ________________
STUDENT BEHAVIOR: Please briefly describe the problem behavior(s)
DIRECTIONS: Keeping in mind a typical episode of the problem behavior, circle the frequency at which each of thefollowing statements are true.
PERCENT OF THE TIME
Never 10% 25% 50% 75% 90% Always
16. Does the problem behavior occur and persist when youmake a request to perform a task? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
17. When the problem behavior occurs do you redirect thestudent to get back to task or follow rules? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
18. During a conflict with peers, if the student engages inthe problem behavior do peers leave the studentalone?
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
19. When the problem behavior occurs do peers verballyrespond or laugh at the student? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
20. Is the problem behavior more likely to occur following aconflict outside the classroom? (e.g., bus write up) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
21. Does the problem behavior occur to get your attentionwhen you are working with other students? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
22. Does the problem behavior occur in the presence ofspecific peers? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
23. Is the problem behavior more likely to continue to occurthroughout the day following an earlier episode? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
24. Does the problem behavior occur during specificacademic activities? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
25. Does the problem behavior stop when peers stopinteracting with the student? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
26. Does the behavior stop when peers are attending toother students? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
27. If the student engages in the problem behavior do youprovide one-on-one instruction to get student back on-task?
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
28. Will the student stop doing the problem behavior if youstop making requests or end an academic activity? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
29. If the student engages in the problem behavior, dopeers stop interacting with the student? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
30. Is the problem behavior more likely to occur followingunscheduled events or disruptions in classroomroutines?
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Source: Lewis, T.J., Scott, T.M., and Sugai, G. (1994). The problem behavior questionnaire: A teacher-based instrument to develop functionalhypotheses of problem behavior in general education settings. Diagnostique, 19, 103-115. Reprinted with permission.
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PROBLEM BEHAVIOR QUESTIONNAIRE PROFILE
Student ____________________________________________________________ Grade_____________________________School ____________________________________________________________ Date _____________________________
DIRECTIONS: Circle the score given for each question from the scale below the corresponding question number (in bold).
PEERS ADULTS SETTING EVENTS
Escape Attention Escape Attention
3 10 14 4 7 11 1 9 13 2 6 12 5 8 15
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ANALYSIS OF POSSIBLE FUNCTION(S) OF STUDENT BEHAVIOR
Source: Lewis, T.J., Scott, T.M., and Sugai, G. (1994). The problem behavior questionnaire: A teacher-based instrument to develop functionalhypotheses of problem behavior in general education settings. Diagnostique, 19, 103-115. Reprinted with permission.
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F-1
Data Triangulation Chart
Student Trish Date(s) 9/26 – 10/8
Source 1 Source 2 Source 3
Interview with playgroundsupervisor:
Scatterplot: ABC Chart:
Trish yells at students whenthey don’t do what she says.She hits students when shedoes not get her way.
Trish yells at and hits othergirls when she doesn’t gether way. This usuallyhappens when there are noadults nearby.
Trish engages in appropriatebehavior on the playgroundabout 73% of the time;verbally aggressive behaviorabout 19% of the time; andphysical aggression 8% ofthe time.
Interpretation:
1. Precipitating events: Playground, undersupervised games involving girls.
2. Maintaining consequences: Trish usually gets her way when she becomes verbally orphysically aggressive. She also gets to spend time with the playground supervisor.
3. Function(s): Trish’s behavior allows her to get her way (albeit for a short time) and playwith other girls. She thinks this is an effective way to join groups.
F-2
Data Triangulation Chart
Student Date(s)
Source 1 Source 2 Source 3
F-3
Data Triangulation Chart
Student Dom Z. Date(s) 3/6/99 – 3/17/99
Source 1 Source 2 Source 3
Teacher lesson plan book
Discussion w/teacher
Scatterplot
Dom’s comments are mostfrequent during board work,the end of group lectures,and, although inconsistent,during independent work.Dom’s inappropriatecomments drasticallydecrease when working insmall groups.
Examination of lesson planbook reveals Dom’sinappropriate comments werehigher during assignmentsthat required a lot of reading.
Discussion with Dom revealsthat he sometimes feelsfrustrated when he has toread a lot of material. Heoften makes distractingcomments so his classmateswon’t find out he hasproblems reading.
Interpretation: Dom’s problems with reading cause him frustration.
4. Precipitating events: Dom is asked to read materials beyond his ability.
5. Maintaining consequences: Comments distract teacher and classmates.
6. Function(s): Dom is not asked to read. He avoids a potentially embarrassing/frustratingsituation.
F-4
Data Triangulation Chart
Student Date(s)
Source 1 Source 2 Source 3
G-1
Problem Behavior Pathway
Student: Trish B. Grade: 4th School: Tucker Creek Elementary Date: 10/6
Time: 10:15 – 10:30 am Setting: Recess
Setting Events
Playground freeplay
öö
TriggeringAntecedents
Trish sees Marshawith the classfootball and decidesplaying catch withher friend Raewould be fun. öö
ProblemBehavior(s)
Trish approachesMarsha and says,“Give me thefootball.” Marshasays “no,” so Trishyanks the ball fromMarsha and shovesher to the ground.
öö
MaintainingConsequences
Trish gets the balland finds Rae.They play catchuntil the bell ringsto return to class.Marsha goes andsits alone on aswing, too afraid totell the playgroundsupervisor whathappened.
G-2
Problem Behavior Pathway
Student: Grade: School: Date:
Time: Setting:
Setting Events
öö
TriggeringAntecedents
öö
ProblemBehavior(s)
öö
MaintainingConsequences
G-3
MaintainingConsequence(s)
Trish plays withothers.
Triggering AntecedentsAccommodations
When Trishbegins to jumponto the court Ms.Pasillas stops herand reminds her towait until it is agood time to ask tojoin the group.
Setting EventsAccommodations
Para-professionalsupervises thebasketball courtand stays in closeproximity ofTrish.
DesiredBehavior(s)
Trish waits forthe ball to go outof play then asksto join the game.Waits her turnfor the ball.
MaintainingConsequence(s)
Trish playsbasketball withothers.
TriggeringAntecedents
Trish pushes herway into ongoinggame.
Setting Events
Playgroundbasketball court
ProblemBehavior(s)
Trish does notwait her turn andaggressivelytakes the ballaway.
ReplacementBehavior(s)
Trish joins gamebut does not hitor yell at anyone.
COMPETING BEHAVIOR PATHWAY
Student: Trish Grade: 4 School: Tucker Creek Date: 10/3
G-4
MaintainingConsequence(s)
Triggering AntecedentsAccommodations
Setting EventsAccommodations
DesiredBehavior(s)
MaintainingConsequence(s)
TriggeringAntecedents
Setting Events
ProblemBehavior(s)
ReplacementBehavior(s)
COMPETING BEHAVIOR PATHWAY
Student: Grade: School: Date:
G-5
MaintainingConsequence(s)
Ms. HayespraisesMaurice forcorrectresponses &for askingappropriatelyfor help
Triggering AntecedentsAccommodations
students assigned to teams & given group- individualized assignments & roving assistants
Setting EventsAccommodations
group-individualizedinstruction inmixed abilityteams withMs. Hayesworking withteams
DesiredBehavior(s)
Mauricecomplies byworking withclassmate &asking forassistance
MaintainingConsequence(s)
Maurice getsout of doingworksheet onfractions
TriggeringAntecedents
Ms. Hayes asks class to begin work on worksheet on fractions
Setting Events
whole groupinstruction-Ms. Hayesputs severalproblems onboard & workswith class
ProblemBehavior(s)
Mauricebecomesangry &disrupts classby tantruming
ReplacementBehavior(s)
Mauriceexpressesfrustration toMs. Hayes
COMPETING BEHAVIOR PATHWAY
Student: Maurice R. Grade: 5 School: Kingston Elem. Date: 2/9/98
G-6
MaintainingConsequence(s)
Triggering AntecedentsAccommodations
Setting EventsAccommodations
DesiredBehavior(s)
MaintainingConsequence(s)
TriggeringAntecedents
Setting Events
ProblemBehavior(s)
ReplacementBehavior(s)
COMPETING BEHAVIOR PATHWAY
Student: Grade: School: Date:
ADDRESSING STUDENT PROBLEM BEHAVIOR—PART III:
CREATING POSITIVE BEHAVIORAL INTERVENTION PLANS AND SUPPORTS
(1ST EDITION)
June 2, 2000
Prepared By
Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice
Robert A. GableOld Dominion University
Mary Magee QuinnCenter for Effective Collaboration and Practice
American Institutes for ResearchWashington, D.C.
Robert B. Rutherford Jr.Arizona State University
Kenneth W. HowellWestern Washington University
Catherine C. HoffmanCenter for Effective Collaboration and Practice
American Institutes for ResearchWashington, D.C.
This information is copyright free. Readers are encouraged to copy and share it, butplease credit the Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice.
Please address all correspondence to: Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice,American Institutes for Research, 1000 Thomas Jefferson Street, NW, Suite 400, Washington,DC 20007.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thank the following individuals for their valuable assistance in thereview and production of this document:
Ed Amundson, National Education AssociationGeorge Bear, National Association of School PsychologistsMaureen Conroy, University of FloridaJames Fox, Eastern Tennessee State UniversityLee Kern, Lehigh UniversityMegan McGlynn, Arizona State UniversityKathy Riley, American Federation of TeachersPat Rutherford, Special Education Teacher, Anasazi School, Scottsdale, AZTom Valore, West Shore Day Treatment Center
i
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements ..............................................................................................................i
Introduction..........................................................................................................................1
Rationale for Developing Positive Behavioral Interventions ...........................................3
Overview of Functional Behavioral Assessment ...............................................................3
Addressing Student Problem Behavior is a Team Effort.................................................4
A Method for Developing, Implementing and Monitoring a Positive BehavioralIntervention Plan .................................................................................................................4
7. Develop and Implement Behavioral Intervention Plan ................................................4
Elements of a Behavioral Intervention Plan ...............................................................6
Strategies to Address Different Functions of a Student’s Behavior...........................7
Skill Deficits and Performance Deficits .....................................................................10
Selecting and Implementing Interventions .................................................................11
Student Supports as Part of the Behavioral Intervention Plan ...................................12
Reinforcement of Appropriate Student Behavior.......................................................13
Special Considerations ...............................................................................................15
8. Monitor Faithfulness of Implementation of the Plan ...................................................16
9. Evaluate Effectiveness of the Behavioral Intervention Plan........................................17
10. Modify the Behavioral Intervention Plan ....................................................................17
Obstacles to Effective Functional Behavioral Assessment and Behavioral InterventionPlans and Supports ..............................................................................................................18
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................19
Additional Information on Functional Behavioral Assessmentand Positive Behavioral Intervention Plans ......................................................................20
Appendix A: Functional Assessment/Behavioral Intervention Checklist.......................A-1
Appendix B: Positive Behavioral Intervention Plan Planning Form ..............................B-1
Appendix C: Forced-Choice Reinforcement Menu ..........................................................C-1
Appendix D: Sample Crisis/Emergency Plan ....................................................................D-1
Other Available Resources ..........................................................................Inside Back Cover
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1
ADDRESSING STUDENT PROBLEM BEHAVIOR—PART III:CREATING POSITIVE BEHAVIORAL INTERVENTION PLANS AND SUPPORTS
oday, educators at all grade levels face agrowing number of students whose
behavior challenges the success of dailyclassroom instruction. Fortunately, teachersusually are able to rely on standard strategiesfor addressing classroom misbehavior, such assolid teaching practices, clear rules andexpectations, being physically close to theirstudents, and praising and encouragingpositive behaviors. Either independently orwith the support of colleagues, they are able tofind a successful solution to the problem.However, for some students—both with andwithout disabilities—these tactics fail toproduce the desired outcome and may actuallyworsen an already difficult situation.
In recognition of the negative effect thatstudent misbehavior can have on the teachingand learning process, the 1997 Amendments tothe Individuals with Disabilities Education Act(IDEA) (the law that governs specialeducation) requires schools to take varioussteps to address behavior that preventsstudents from learning and other inappropriateclassroom behavior. In an effort to ensure thatschools are safe and conducive to learning, the1997 Amendments include the use of theprocess known as functional behavioralassessment to develop or revise positivebehavioral intervention plans and supports.
With the 1997 Amendments to the IDEA, wesee a basic emphasis not only on ensuringaccess to the “least restrictive environment,”but also on promoting positive educationalresults for students with disabilities. The 1997Amendments also highlight the roles of theregular education teacher, the generalcurriculum, and appropriate classroomplacement in helping students advanceacademically and behaviorally.
Another change relates to disciplinarypractices. The 1997 Amendments are explicitin what is required of Individualized EducationProgram (IEP) teams when addressingbehaviors of children with disabilities thatinterfere with their learning or the learning ofothers.
♦ The IEP team must consider, whenappropriate, strategies—including positivebehavioral interventions, strategies, andsupports—to address that behavior throughthe IEP process (see 614(d)(3)(B)(i)).
♦ In response to disciplinary actions byschool personnel described in Sec.615(k)(l)(B), the IEP team must, eitherbefore or no later than 10 days after thedisciplinary action, develop a functionalbehavioral assessment plan to collectinformation. This information is to be usedfor developing a behavioral interventionplan to address such behaviors, ifnecessary. If the child already has abehavioral intervention plan, the IEP teammust review the plan and modify it, ifnecessary, to address the behavior.
♦ In addition, states are required to addressthe in-service training needs and pre-service preparation of personnel (includingprofessionals and paraprofessionals whoprovide special education, generaleducation, related services, or earlyintervention services) to ensure that theyhave the knowledge and skills necessary tomeet the needs of students withdisabilities. This includes enhancing theirabilities to use strategies such asbehavioral interventions and supports(653(c)(3)(D)(vi)).
This is the third of three guides that addressthe 1997 Amendments to IDEA as they relate
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to the issue of functional assessment andpositive behavioral intervention plans andsupports. The first monograph, Addressing
Student Problem Behavior: An IEP Team’sIntroduction to Functional BehavioralAssessment and Behavioral InterventionPlans, provides a general overview of theserequirements. The second monograph, entitledAddressing Student Problem Behavior—PartII: Conducting a Functional BehavioralAssessment, examines the rationale forfunctional behavioral assessment and theprocess of conducting one, and describes theways schools and IEP teams can translate thisnew public policy into classroom practice, bymeans of a step-by-step approach to functionalbehavioral assessment. The second monographcovers steps 1–6 of an integrated ten-stepprocess that has been used by some forconducting functional behavioral assessments(see sidebar: A Method for Conducting aFunctional Behavioral Assessment) andfocuses on determining the function of studentproblem behaviors. Both are copyright-freeand are available on the Center for EffectiveCollaboration and Practice’s web site(www.air.org/cecp) or by calling toll free 1-888-475-1551.
This third monograph discusses how to use theinformation gathered during the functionalbehavioral assessment process to develop andimplement positive behavioral interventionplans that address both the short- and long-term needs of the student. We cover steps 7–10 of a functional assessment process thatincludes ways some school personnel aredeveloping positive behavioral interventionplans and supports. In addition, we explorevarious factors associated with developing athorough intervention plan and offer somethoughts on possible obstacles to conductingfunctional behavioral assessments. Finally, weencourage schools to make use of thefunctional behavioral assessment process andpositive behavioral intervention plans as partof a system-wide program of academic and
behavioral supports to better serve all students.We offer a list of sources for readers interested
A Method for Performing a FunctionalBehavioral Assessment
(see Addressing Student Problem Behavior—Part II:Conducting a Functional Behavioral Assessment for a
detailed discussion of these steps)
1. Describe and verify the seriousness of theproblem.
2. Refine the definition of the problembehavior.
3. Collect information on possible functions ofthe problem behavior.
4. Analyze information using data triangulationand/or problem pathway analysis.
5. Generate a hypothesis statement regardingthe probable function of the problembehavior.
6. Test the hypothesis statement regarding thefunction of the problem behavior.
A Method for Developing, Implementing andMonitoring a Behavior Intervention Plan
7. Develop and implement a behavioralintervention plan.
8. Monitor the faithfulness of implementationof the plan.
9. Evaluate effectiveness of the behaviorintervention plan.
10. Modify behavior intervention plan, asneeded.
in obtaining more information on functionalbehavioral assessment and positive behavioralintervention plans. Blank forms and samplecompleted forms that might be used for
3
developing positive behavioral interventionplans and crisis/emergency intervention plansare included in the Appendices.
RATIONALE FOR DEVELOPING
POSITIVE BEHAVIORAL
INTERVENTIONS
raditionally, teachers have dealt withstudent behavior that interferes with
classroom instruction by using various kindsof negative consequences (e.g., verbalreprimands, time-out, and suspension). Thegoal, of course, has been to reduce, if noteliminate the immediate problem. However,experience has shown that these usually arenot the most effective or efficient means toeliminate problem behavior. “Reactive”approaches that follow inappropriate behavior,such as punishment, are not only timeconsuming, but they fail to teach the studentacceptable replacement behaviors and alsomay serve to reinforce the inappropriatebehavior. Many teachers have thus begun tointroduce various programs to teach studentsmore acceptable, alternative responses. Forexample, social skills programs have been anespecially popular way to teach appropriatebehavior; however, decisions regarding whichbehavior to teach a student usually are basedon the program’s curriculum, rather than onwhat skill a student demonstrates he or shelacks. As a result, understanding why thestudent misbehaved in the first place is seldomaddressed.
Today, there is growing recognition that thesuccess of an intervention hinges on: 1)understanding why the student behaves in acertain way; and 2) replacing the inappropriatebehavior with a more suitable behavior thatserves the same function (or results in thesame outcome) as the problem behavior.Intervention into problem behavior begins withlooking beyond the misbehavior anduncovering the underlying causes of themisbehavior. Examples of statements thatconsider “why” a student misbehaves are:
♦ Charles swears at the teacher to get out ofcompleting a difficult assignment.
♦ Juan makes jokes when given a geographyassignment to avoid what he perceives as aboring assignment and to gain peerattention.
Knowing what compels a student to engage ina particular behavior is integral to thedevelopment of effective, individualizedpositive behavioral intervention plans andsupports.
Generally, the logic behind functionalassessment is driven by two principles. First,practically all behavior serves a purpose: itallows students to “get” something desirable,“escape” or “avoid” something undesirable, orcommunicate some other message or need.Second, behavior occurs within a particularcontext. It may occur in certain settings (e.g.,in the cafeteria), under certain conditions (e.g.,only when there is a substitute teacher), orduring different types of activities (e.g., duringrecess). Because of these two things, studentswill change the inappropriate behavior onlywhen it is clear to them that a differentresponse will more effectively and efficientlyaccomplish the same thing. For this reason,identifying the causes of a behavior—what thestudent “gets,” “escapes,” or “avoids,” or isattempting to communicate through thebehavior—can provide the informationnecessary to develop effective strategies toaddress those behaviors that interfere withlearning or threaten safety. This can beaccomplished by means of a functionalbehavioral assessment.
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OVERVIEW OF FUNCTIONAL
BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT
unctional behavioral assessment generallyis considered a team problem-solving
process that relies on a variety of techniquesand strategies to identify the purposes ofspecific behavior and to help IEP teams toselect appropriate interventions to directlyaddress them. A major objective is to learnhow best to promote student behavior thatserves the same function as current behavior,but that is more socially acceptable andresponsible. A functional behavioralassessment looks beyond the behavior itselfand focuses on identifying significant, pupil-specific social, sensory, physical, affective,cognitive, and/or environmental factorsassociated with the occurrence (and non-occurrence) of specific behaviors. This broaderperspective offers a better understanding of thefunction or purpose behind student behavior.Intervention plans based on an understandingof “why” a student misbehaves are extremelyuseful in addressing a wide range of problembehaviors.
One step in performing a functional behavioralassessment is to collect information on thepossible functions of the problem behavior. Inmany instances, knowledge of these factorscan be obtained through repeated directassessments or observations. Whileobservation may reveal a possible reasonbehind the misbehavior, a caution iswarranted. Too limited an assessment canyield an inaccurate explanation. Some factors,including thoughts and feelings such asdistorted perceptions, fear of a negativeoutcome, or the desire to appear competent,are not directly observable, but can be revealedthrough indirect assessment strategies such asinterviews or surveys with the student, teacher,peers, or others who interact frequently withthe student. This is why it is best to use avariety of techniques and strategies to gatherinformation on the function of a student’sbehavior. (These approaches and strategies are
described in greater detail in AddressingStudent Problem Behavior—Part II:Conducting A Functional BehavioralAssessment.) Once information has beenobtained and analyzed, and a hypothesis hasbeen made about that function, it can be usedto guide proactive interventions that helpeducators focus on instructional goals, asopposed to simply management goals.
ADDRESSING STUDENT PROBLEM
BEHAVIOR IS A TEAM EFFORT
efore beginning, we want to stress the rolethat teamwork plays in addressing student
behavior problems. In conducting a functionalbehavioral assessment and developing abehavioral intervention plan, educationpersonnel should draw upon a range ofcommunication and interpersonal skills. Likeknowledge of assessment itself, IEP teammembers may need special training in theskills of successful collaboration, such as timemanagement, group problem-solving(including “brainstorming” strategies), activelistening, and conflict resolution processes, tomention a few. If team members are to conductthe assessment, they may also need training inthe skills and knowledge required to conduct afunctional behavioral assessment and use ofbehavior intervention techniques. As withother collaborative efforts, building-leveladministrative and collegial support is essentialto a successful outcome. The value andappropriateness of student and parentinvolvement in the process also should becarefully considered. Too often they areexcluded from activities when they have muchto offer.
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5
A METHOD FOR DEVELOPING,IMPLEMENTING AND MONITORING A
POSITIVE BEHAVIORAL
INTERVENTION PLAN
7. Develop and Implement BehavioralIntervention Plan
fter collecting and analyzing enoughinformation to identify the likely function
of the student’s behavior, the IEP team mustdevelop (or revise) the student’s positivebehavioral intervention plan. This processshould be integrated, as appropriate,throughout the process of developing,reviewing, and, if necessary, revising astudent’s IEP. The behavioral interventionplan will include, when appropriate: (1)strategies, including positive behavioralinterventions, strategies, and supports; (2)program modifications; and (3) supplementaryaids and services that may be required toaddress the problem behavior.
As mentioned previously, there are variousreasons why students engage in inappropriate,problem behavior (see sidebar: Functions ofProblem Behavior). To fully understand themotivation behind student problem behavior, it isuseful to consider that problem behavior may belinked to skill deficits (e.g., Charles cannot dodouble-digit addition), performance deficits (e.g.,Calvin has the ability, but does not comply withthe cafeteria rules), or both (e.g., Mary cannotread maps and is unsure how to ask for helpduring cooperative activities, though she is ableto do so during independent seatwork). Ourdiscussion of behavioral intervention plans andsupports is based on these two overlappingperspectives on problem behavior in school.
Intervention plans and strategies emphasizingskills students need in order to behave in a moreappropriate manner, or plans providingmotivation to conform to required standards, willbe more effective than plans that simply serve tocontrol behavior. Interventions based uponcontrol often fail to generalize (i.e., continue to
be used for long periods of time, in manysettings, and in a variety of situations)—andmany times they serve only to suppressbehavior—resulting in a child seeking to meetunaddressed needs in alternative, usually equallyinappropriate ways. Proactive, positiveintervention plans that teach new ways ofbehaving, on the other hand, will address boththe source of the problem, by serving the samefunction, and the problem itself.
Functions of Problem Behavior
If we wish to gain insight into the functions of astudent’s behavior, we need only to examine the functionsof our own behavior. Efforts to resolve conflict, expressanxiety, gain access to a social group, maintain friendlyrelationships, avoid embarrassment, and please others areall completely normal behaviors. However, we all mightremember situations where we or someone else soughtthese outcomes through inappropriate means.
At the core of functional behavioral assessment is thechange of focus from the student’s behaviors to thefunctions the student is trying to meet with those behaviors.Here are some examples of functions as they fall into fourgeneral categories:
♦ The function is to get:─ social reinforcement (e.g., a response from an
adult for calling out during a social studieslecture), or
─ tangible reinforcement (e.g., a classmate’sworkbook or access to a preferred activity).
♦ The function is to escape or avoid:─ an aversive task (e.g., a difficult, boring, or
lengthy assignment), or─ situation (e.g., interaction with adults or certain
other peers).
♦ The function is both (e.g., get the attention ofclassmates and escape from a boring lesson).
♦ The function is to communicate something(e.g., that she does not understand the lesson or that hedoes not like having to answer questions in front ofhis peers).
In addition, the student may find that engaging in abehavior to accomplish one purpose might lead to therealization of a completely different function. For example,a student who fights to try to escape teasing could discoverthat fighting itself can be reinforcing (e.g., the physicalexcitement associated with fighting). These things shouldbe considered when developing a behavioral interventionplan.
A
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Elements of a BehavioralIntervention Plan
When an IEP team has determined that abehavioral intervention plan is necessary, theteam members generally use information aboutthe problem behavior’s function, gatheredfrom the functional behavioral assessment.The IEP team should include strategies to: (a)teach the student more acceptable ways to getwhat he or she wants; (b) decrease futureoccurrences of the misbehavior; and (c)address any repeated episodes of themisbehavior. The resulting behavioralintervention plan generally will not consistthen of simply one intervention; it will be aplan with a number of interventions designedto address these three aspects of addressing astudent’s problem behavior. The formsprovided in Appendices A, B and C can helpguide IEP teams through the process ofconducting a functional behavioral assessmentand writing and implementing a positivebehavioral intervention plan. We encouragereaders to refer to these forms as they readthrough the following sections.
Most behavioral intervention plans aredesigned to teach the student a moreacceptable behavior that replaces theinappropriate behavior, yet serves the samefunction (e.g., ways to gain peer approvalthrough positive social initiations; ways toseek teacher attention through non-verbalsignals). Since most plans will require multipleintervention options rather than a singleintervention, however, IEP teams may want toconsider the following techniques whendesigning behavior intervention plans,strategies, and supports:
♦ Teach more acceptable replacementbehaviors that serve the same function asthe inappropriate behavior, such as askingto be left alone or using conflict resolutionskills, or alternative skills, such as self-management techniques, tolerating delay,or coping strategies;
♦ Teach students to deal with setting events(the things that make the desired behaviormore likely to occur), such as the physicalarrangement of the classroom,management strategies, seatingarrangements, or sequence of academicinstruction;
♦ Manipulate the antecedents (the things thathappen before the behavior occurs) to thedesired behavior, such as teacherinstructions or directions, or instructionalmaterials;
♦ Manipulate consequences (the things thathappen after the behavior occurs) of thedesired behavior, such as precise praise orfeedback, keeping in mind the principlesof shaping and reinforcing incompatiblebehaviors;
♦ Implement changes to the classroomcurriculum and/or instructional strategies,for example, multi-level instruction, orencouraging oral rather than writtenresponses; and
♦ Begin interventions that offerreinforcement for appropriate behavior,such as student performance contracts orgroup motivational strategies.
Using these strategies, school personnel candevelop a plan to both teach and supportreplacement behaviors that serve the samefunction as the current problem behavior. Atthe same time, employing these techniqueswhen developing the behavioral interventionplan can yield interventions that decrease oreliminate opportunities for the student toengage in the inappropriate behavior. Forexample, a student may be physicallyaggressive at recess because he or she believesviolence is the best way to end aconfrontational situation and that suchbehaviors help accomplish his or her goals.However, when taught to use problem-solvingskills (e.g., self-control or conflict resolution)
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to end a confrontational situation andaccomplish his or her goal, while using moreeffective management strategies with thestudent during recess, the student may be morelikely to deal with volatile situations in a non-violent manner (e.g., defusing the situation byavoiding threatening or provocative remarks orbehavior).
This step in the process of creating positivebehavioral intervention plans and supportsincludes discussion of information onstrategies to address different functions of astudent’s behavior and how to select theappropriate interventions; skill deficits andperformance deficits; student supports; andreinforcement considerations and procedures.It also addresses special considerations, suchas the use of punishment and emergency/crisisplans. The IEP team should know about andconsider all of these elements as it developsand implements the behavioral interventionplan.
Strategies to Address DifferentFunctions of a Student’s Behavior
As described above, students’ misbehavior isoften motivated by their desire to getsomething, or escape or avoid something.These motivations can be external, internal, ora combination of both. For example, Patrickmight grab a basketball in order to get achance to play with his peers (external), orHeather might study her vocabulary list so shewill get a good grade (external) and a feelingof success (internal). Vinnie might complain ofbeing sick so he can avoid giving his oralreport (external) and the bad feeling that hegets when he has to speak in front of a group(internal). And Elsa does not do her homeworkso she can stay in at recess and avoid gettingbeat up on the playground (external).Constructing a table like the one below is oftenhelpful in determining the possible motivationsfor behaviors. Appendix B offers completedexamples of this table.
Internal External
ObtainSomething
AvoidSomething
Interventions will be different depending onthe motivations behind the behavior. Thissection uses two examples to illustrate thekinds of strategies IEP teams can use whenconsidering interventions for the positivebehavioral intervention plan: attention-seekingbehavior and escape-motivated behavior.
Strategies for Dealing with Attention-Seeking Behavior
The desire for attention is a very commonreason given for student misbehavior;however, attention is often a by-product ofmisbehavior and not the primary function.Second, students seldom seek forms ofattention that could include ridicule, abuse,and assault. It is more likely that students wantadults and peers to like them, to be attentive,and to value them and their work.
Most teachers can attest to the fact thatstudents sometimes use inappropriate orproblem behavior to get the attention of theirteacher and/or peers. These behaviors usuallystem from the notion they are not likely to getthat attention any other way. Commonexamples include: calling out, swearing,yelling at a classmate or teacher, having atantrum, or ignoring an adult request.Interventions that focus on teaching thestudent appropriate ways to get attention areusually successful in ending theseinappropriate behaviors. For example, thestudent might be taught various ways to obtainpositive peer social interactions or get ateacher’s verbal praise. Once the conditionsunder which the behavior occurs have beenidentified, “role play” exercises might be
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introduced to teach the student appropriatethings to say (e.g., “I’m really stuck on thisproblem.”). It is important to remember thatunderstanding the amount of time a studentwill wait for the attention they need is criticaland should be a major consideration whendeveloping such a plan. Students may need tobe systematically taught to tolerate longer andlonger wait times. Other intervention optionsinclude giving teacher attention followingappropriate student behavior and taking awayattention (e.g., ignoring, placing a student intime-out, assuming the teacher can get thestudent into time out without drawing theattention of peers) following inappropriatebehavior. Finally, reprimanding students hasproven ineffective in dealing with attention-seeking behavior, probably because it is a formof attention.
A more effective intervention plan forattention-seeking behavior combines strategiesto: 1) keep the student from engaging in theoriginal problem or inappropriate behavior(e.g., verbal threats); 2) teach replacementbehavior; 3) ensure that the student getsenough opportunities to engage in the newreplacement behavior (e.g., request assistance);and 4) offer opportunities for the student to bereinforced for the new behavior (e.g., verbalpraise from adults or peers). For thereinforcement to work, it has to be easier to getand be a better pay-off than the pay-off fromthe problem behavior. In a later section, wediscuss more fully reinforcement of studentbehavior.
Strategies for Dealing with Escape-Motivated Behavior
Inappropriate or problem behavior often stemsfrom a student’s need either to escape or avoidan unpleasant task or situation, or to escape tosomething, such as a desired activity orlocation. Examples include:
♦ difficult, irrelevant, lengthy or unclearclassroom assignments;
♦ working in groups with others that they donot like;
♦ negative peer or adult interactions; or♦ wanting to be removed from class to be
with friends in another class.
Behavior that is used to avoid or escape adifficult academic task might be addressed byteaching the student to use a sociallyacceptable escape behavior (e.g., asking forhelp, which must be available once the studentasks for it). If the student is unable to completethe assignment because he or she does nothave the skills necessary to do so, the originalassignment should be replaced with anotherassignment that is more appropriate (i.e.,within the student’s skill level), or strategiesand supports should be provided to assist thestudent (e.g., direct instruction, manipulatives,work with peers).
The IEP team might address behavior that ismeant to escape an unpleasant socialinteraction with an adult by only allowing thestudent to leave after he or she has made anacceptable bid to leave that situation (e.g., “Iwant to be by myself for awhile.”). Finally, itmay be useful to devise a multi-step plan inwhich the student is taught and encouraged tomake an appropriate verbal request (e.g., askto be excused for short periods of time duringdifficult math assignments). An incentive canbe used to reward the student for graduallyspending more time at the undesirable task.Thus, this incentive would be both time-limited and part of a larger plan to promote—through a step-by-step approach—the desiredstudent behavior.
Other interventions for dealing with escape-motivated behavior include:
♦ placing some kind of demand on thestudent (e.g., using the correct behavior toask for additional help or to be temporarilyexcused) when facing a frustrating task ordifficult situation;
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♦ using signal responses (e.g., the teachersignals the student to use a predeterminedalternative behavior); and
♦ making curricular accommodations orinstructional modifications to boost studentinterest in and/or ability to successfullycomplete the assignment.
While time-out has often been used as aconsequence for escape-motivated behaviors,as well, in these cases time-out might actuallybe reinforcing because it allows the student toescape or avoid the situation. Time-out istherefore likely to increase rather than decreasethe inappropriate behavior.
Sometimes, student noncompliance stems froma need to exert control over a situation—topressure others to “give up” or “back off,” aswhen a teacher makes academic demands thatthe student sees as too difficult. Recognizingthat the function of the student’s behavior is toescape from this uncomfortable situation bycontrolling it, the teacher might begin bymodifying the assignment, as well as themanner with which he or she interacts with thestudent regarding the assignment.
Case Study
What happens if the same behavior occurs indifferent students for different reasons? In thiscase, it is unlikely that there is only onepossible solution for the problem. Thishighlights the point that the interventions thatthe IEP team chooses need to be carefullyaligned with the results of the functionalbehavioral assessment. When this alignmentoccurs, the desired behaviors that a studentwill be taught or encouraged to use will fulfillthe same function as the inappropriatebehavior, yielding more positive behavioraloutcomes.
Here is an illustration:
Function Behavior
Susan
Wishes toavoid lookingdumb in frontof others
Ignores teacherrequests to participatein a group discussionby looking away andfailing to respond
Larry
Wants to bewith hisfriends whoare in anothergroup
Ignores teacherrequests to participatein a group discussionby looking away andfailing to respond
Choosing from the following interventions,which is likely an inappropriate interventionfor each student?(a) assigning the student to be a discussion
leader;
(b) allowing the student to pick anydiscussion group; or
(c) sending the student to time-out.
Assigning Susan to be a discussion leaderwould exaggerate her fear and probablyescalate her attempts to escape. Allowinggroup selection would not work, althoughallowing her to select the topic might. Time-out, for Susan, would meet her function, butprobably in a punitive way. In contrast toSusan, Larry would like to pick his own groupso as to be with his friends; therefore, thatchoice would reinforce his ignoring behavior.Being appointed a discussion leader could goeither way, depending on the group he wasleading. Time out might reduce the behavior,but would not be a proactive solution.
As we can see, the two students are engagingin the same behavior for different purposes, sothere cannot be a single intervention thatworks for any one behavior, regardless of thestudent. Having knowledge of the function ofthe behavior tells us that Susan may need to beaccommodated through placement in groupsthat discuss topics she knows about.Meanwhile, Larry needs to be taught the
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instructional, not the social, value of groupdiscussions. The key to these interventiondecisions is that IEP teams must learn to aligninterventions with assessment informationabout the function of behavior. To be mosteffective, this means that teacher actions,instructional materials, and monitoring systemsshould all complement the desired learningoutcome, as well. This will require IEP teamsto think about quality instruction instead ofsimply behavioral control.
Skill Deficits and PerformanceDeficits
Sometimes, a student does not perform thedesired appropriate behavior because he or shedoes not know how to do it (a skill deficit).Other times, a student may have the skillsneeded to perform the appropriate behavior buteither chooses not to do so or, for reasons suchas anxiety, anger, frustration, or a medicalcondition, cannot perform the behavior (aperformance deficit). It is also possible that astudent may be experiencing both a skill and aperformance deficit. This section describesstrategies that can be considered for addressingthese deficits.
Addressing Skill Deficits: Working WithStudents Who Lack Skills
A functional behavioral assessment mightindicate that the student engages in theinappropriate behavior because she or he lacksthe appropriate, alternative skills and/orbelieves the inappropriate behavior is effectivein getting what he or she wants (e.g., allowsthe student to escape or avoid an unpleasanttask or situation). If the student does not knowwhat behaviors are expected, an interventionplan could resolve the confusion by teachingthe student to sort positive and negativeexamples of what is expected. A plan shouldalso include the supports, aids, strategies, andmodifications necessary to accomplish that
instruction. If the student does not know howto perform the expected behavior, theintervention plan should include instruction toteach the needed skills. Sometimes, it mayrequire teaching both behavioral and cognitiveskills and may call for a team member toconduct a task analysis (i.e., break down theskill into its component parts) of the individualbehaviors that make up the skill. Regularbehavior management techniques may noteven be appropriate. For example, if thestudent is to think through and solve socialproblems, the individual skills may include thefollowing components:
♦ Recognize the social problem;♦ Determine if the problem requires action;♦ Observe what is going on and ask:
─ “What do the participants want?”─ “What is the conflict?”─ “How might the conflict be resolved?”
♦ Develop a plan to solve the problem;♦ Evaluate the plan by judging its potential
for success;♦ Implement the plan; and♦ Monitor the impact of the plan.
In other instances, a student may be unable toappropriately handle the aggressive verbalbehavior of a classmate. The student may needto be taught to recognize those words (oractions) that usually lead to aggression and todiscern whether the behavior is or is notprovoked by the student. Then, a series of roleplaying sessions might teach the student waysto defuse the situation (e.g., avoiding criticalremarks, put downs, or laughing at the otherstudent), along with when to walk away orseek assistance from peers or adults. Forexample, Helen may be able to accurately reada problem situation, but lacks the impulsecontrol to self-regulate her behavior andrespond appropriately. Overt teachermodeling of self-control, along with guidedand independent practice (behavioralrehearsal), and individual or small groupdiscussion of “when and how to” strategies
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may prove effective. Other options includeinstruction in the use of mnemonic devices thatenable Helen to handle a problem situation in apositive manner (e.g., FAST—Freeze, Assessthe Situation, Select a response, Try it out).
Addressing Performance Deficits:Working With Students Who Have SkillsBut Do Not Use Them
Sometimes, the IEP team will find that thestudent knows the skills necessary to performthe behavior, but does not consistently usethem. In that case, the intervention plan shouldinclude techniques, strategies, and supportsdesigned to increase the student’s use of thebehavior. If the functional assessment showsthat the student is engaging in the problembehavior because he or she actually believesthat this behavior is more desirable than thealternative, appropriate behavior, theintervention plan should include techniques foraddressing that belief. For example, a studentmight think that acting quickly is best becauseshe values resolution. This belief might becountered by assigning the student to list theadditional problems a faulty, but quick,solution can produce.
Sometimes, a student does not perform thebehavior simply because he or she sees nogood reason to do so. For example, if Trishcan avoid feeling ridiculed by threatening orhitting her classmates on the playground, shemay not see the advantage of interactingpositively with others. Therefore, thebehavioral intervention plan may includestrategies to increase her use of existing skillsto interact appropriately with peers. Finally,because of her aggressive behavior, it may benecessary to prompt classmates to initiate playwith Trish, and to reinforce both her and herclassmates for engaging in positive socialexchanges.
Selecting and ImplementingInterventions
As we have stated frequently in our discussionof creating behavioral intervention plans, IEPteams draw upon information collectedthrough the functional assessment process todevelop individualized plans. Once thisinformation has been analyzed and a numberof possible interventions have been identified,the IEP team needs to select options for thebehavioral intervention plan and consider themost effective method of implementation.
Guidelines for Selecting InterventionOptions
Once some ideas about positive behavioralinterventions have been generated for astudent’s behavioral intervention plan, IEPteams should consider the following questions:
♦ Which intervention aligns with thefunction of the behavior?
♦ Which intervention is appropriate giventhe student’s need and current levels ofperformance?
♦ Which intervention directly teaches thetarget behavior?
♦ Which is the “least intrusive” and “leastcomplex” intervention likely to producepositive changes in student behavior?
♦ Which aligned intervention (orcombination of interventions) is mostlikely to positively change studentbehavior quickly and easily?
♦ Which aligned intervention (orcombination of interventions) is leastlikely to produce negative side effects?
♦ Which intervention has evidence ofeffectiveness with the targeted behavior?
♦ Which intervention is most acceptable tothe team member(s) responsible forimplementing the plan?
♦ Which intervention is most likely to beacceptable to the targeted student?
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♦ Which intervention is most likely topromote a replacement behavior that willoccur and be reinforced in the naturalenvironment?
♦ For which intervention is there the mostsystem-wide support?
Answering these questions should yield adecision regarding which intervention(s) toadopt.
Putting Interventions into RoutineContexts
Members of IEP teams have learned thatincorporating interventions into dailyinstruction is an effective way to: 1) teachstudents appropriate behavior before problemsarise; and 2) promote replacement behaviors.A technique known as curricular integration isuseful when teaching a range of academic andnonacademic skills to students. The concept ofcurricular integration is based on the premisethat a skill is more likely to be learned whentaught in the context in which it is to be used.The technique involves integrating positivestrategies for changing problem behavior intothe existing classroom curriculum. Forinstance, teaching social skills and problemsolving strategies might be incorporated into ahistory lesson by means of a group activitydesigned to solve historic problems in non-violent ways (e.g., Boston Tea Party). Well-structured cooperative learning lessons createopportunities to teach and reinforce a widerange of behavioral objectives while alsoaddressing academic objectives.
Student Supports as Part of theBehavioral Intervention Plan
A commonly overlooked provision in Federallegislation that relates to behavioralintervention plans is the concept of supports.In some cases, an intervention plan isincomplete unless additional supports areprovided to help students use appropriatebehavior. Though supports and the
interventions that have been discussed work intandem with one another, supports can bethought of differently than interventions.Supports generally are designed to addressfactors beyond the immediate context in whichthe inappropriate behavior occurs. The student,for example, may benefit from work withschool personnel, such as counselors or schoolpsychologists, to help him or her addressacademic or personal issues that maycontribute to the problem behaviors. Otherpeople who may provide sources of supportinclude:
♦ Peers, who may provide academic orbehavioral support through tutoring orconflict-resolution activities, therebyfulfilling the student’s need for attention inappropriate ways;
♦ Families, who may provide supportthrough, for example, setting up ahomework center in the home anddeveloping a homework schedule, or bypositively reinforcing their child forappropriate behavior in school;
♦ Teachers and paraprofessionals, who mayprovide both academic supports andcurricular modifications to address anddecrease a student’s desire to avoidacademically challenging situations;
♦ Language specialists, who are able toincrease a child’s expressive and receptivelanguage skills, thereby providing the childwith alternative ways to respond tostressful situations;
♦ Other school staff, including custodians,cafeteria workers, or volunteers withwhom students sometimes feel morecomfortable;
♦ Community agency service providers,including mental health, juvenile justice,Big Brother or Sister organizations, orother agency personnel who are involvedin providing broad-based and long-termstudent and family intervention andsupport; and/or
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♦ Other community organizations, such aschurches, religious groups, cultural/ethnicorganizations, YMCA or YWCA,recreation centers, and others, which canbe quite influential and therapeutic.
It is important to realize that in some instances,for biological or other reasons, a student maynot be able to control his or her behaviorwithout supports. Although it is never theplace of the IEP team to make medicaldiagnoses, it is appropriate for the team tomake referrals and to obtain medicalevaluations so that all support options can beconsidered.
Reinforcement of AppropriateStudent Behavior
A critical component of the intervention planis the pattern of reinforcement for using theappropriate replacement behavior that the IEPteam devises. The team can use informationthat was collected during the functionalbehavioral assessment (i.e., baseline data) todetermine the frequency with which theproblem behavior occurred and wasreinforced. Using this information, the IEPteam can develop a plan so that the student isreinforced more often for the replacementbehavior than he or she was for the problembehavior. As a general rule, school personnelshould reinforce appropriate behavior at leasttwice as often as the problem behavior wasreinforced.
For example, data collected on Charlesindicate that, on average, he disturbsinstruction two times during each 55-minutemath class. This indicates that Charles is beingreinforced for his inappropriate behavior aboutevery 30 minutes, so his behavior interventionplan should call for a re-arrangement of hisinstructional environment so that Charles hasan opportunity to engage in and be positivelyreinforced for appropriate behavior at leastevery 15 minutes. It is important that the IEPteam carefully regulate the amount of time
between “reinforcers.” Charles should neitherget too much reinforcement, nor need to waittoo long for reinforcement. Finally, the teamshould make sure the academic expectationsare accurate for his skill level so he can beacademically successful, as well asbehaviorally successful.
When trying to determine the best reinforcer touse, knowledge of student preferences andstrengths is useful in developing a plan. Wemight ask a student what types of things he orshe likes (e.g., time on the computer, beingallowed to run errands), watch for and recordany preferred activities, or use an informalsurvey of reinforcement preferences (i.e.,forced-choice reinforcement menu (seeAppendix C)). It is important to be consistentin the frequency of the delivery of thereinforcer, but it is also good to vary the actualreinforcers routinely, so that the student doesnot tire or become bored with a particularreinforcer. The amount of reinforcement, inrelationship to the amount of effort required ofthe student to get it, is also an importantvariable for the IEP team to consider whendeveloping a behavioral intervention plan.
In some cases, it may be necessary to initiallyoffer a student “non-contingent” access to areinforcer (e.g., with “no strings attached”),especially if the reinforcer is something he orshe has never had before. Called “reinforcersampling,” this is one way to let the studentknow that it is reinforcing. For example, wemight allow a student to participate in a highlypreferred activity with a classmate (e.g., acomputer-based learning activity). If thestudent enjoys it, access to that activity wouldlater depend on the student engaging in thedesired appropriate behavior.
Sometimes, the desired response may call fortoo dramatic a change in the student’s behavior(i.e., a change the student is unable and/orunwilling to make all at once). If that is thecase, the IEP team will need to acceptsuccessive approximations or gradual changes
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toward the desired behavior. For example,John may not be able to handle the pressurethat stems from a highly complex academicassignment—especially when he has had toolittle sleep. A first step might be to teach Johnto ask politely to be temporarily excused froma particular activity (i.e., replacement behaviorthat achieves the same outcome as the problembehavior). However, the long-term plan wouldbe for the student to develop increased self-control, to master and complete complexacademic assignments, and to solicit peersupport (i.e., for desired behaviors). Attemptsalso should be made to encourage the family tofind ways for John to get more sleep.
A final consideration in using reinforcers is theprocess of fading or gradually replacingextrinsic rewards with more natural or intrinsicrewards on a realistic or natural time schedule.Of course, fading will only be a considerationonce the student has shown an increasedability and willingness to engage in theappropriate, desired behavior. The process offading may be made easier by pairing theextrinsic reward with an intrinsic reward. Forexample, when rewarding David with pointsfor completing a homework assignment, theparaprofessional also could say, “David,you’ve finished all your homework this week,and your class participation has increasedbecause you are better prepared. You must bevery proud of yourself for the hard work youhave done.”
Ways to Maintain Positive Changes inStudent Behavior
The success of any behavioral interventionplan rests on the willingness and ability of thestudent to continue to use the appropriatebehavior without excessive outside support(i.e., the intervention). The most basic way toassure maintenance of behavior change is to besure that interventions teach the student a setof skills. This will require IEP teams to includestrategies in the behavioral intervention plan toteach the student in such a way that promotes
the “maintenance” (i.e., lasting over time, evenwhen the extrinsic reinforcers are faded) and“generalization” (i.e., using the behavior inother appropriate settings) of replacementbehaviors. One strategy for doing this is torestructure the social environment to benefitfrom the power of peer relationships topromote positive behavior. These behaviorsare then maintained though the naturalconsequences of having and being withfriends. Indeed, there are numerous instancesin which students have been taught toencourage or reinforce appropriate behaviorand to ignore or walk away from negativeprovocations of their classmates.
Another way to promote long lasting behaviorchange is to use strategies based on cognitivemediation (i.e., thinking through a situationbefore acting on emotion) and self-management (i.e., using techniques to controlone’s own behavior, such as anger or anxiety).For example, students have been taught toapply various problem-solving strategies byengaging in “positive self-talk” (e.g., tellingthemselves, “I know how to get out of thisargument without having to use my fists”) or“self-cueing” (e.g., recognizing that her jaw isclenched, she is getting upset, and she needs toask to be excused). Students also are taught to:
♦ self-monitor—count the frequency orduration of their own behavior;
♦ self-evaluate—compare the change in theirbehavior to a certain standard to determinewhether they are making progress or not;and
♦ self-reinforce—give themselves rewardswhen their behavior has reached criteria.
For example, Gloria may be taught to countand record the number of times sheappropriately raises her hand and waits to becalled on during class discussion. She can thendetermine whether she has met the dailycriteria of at least three hand-raises. She thencan look at her record of hand-raises for the
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week and determine if she is making progresstoward her goal or not, and collect points touse at the class store later in the week.
Some interventions should be implementedindefinitely while others will eventually needto stop. For example, Bruce is learning to usesocial problem solving skills instead of gettinginto fights on the playground (an interventionthat we hope Bruce will use forever). He islearning to ask for adult support when he feelslike he might get into a fight and his team hasdecided that he can earn points for the classtoken economy when he seeks helpappropriately rather than fighting (anintervention that must end at some point).
Knowing that he cannot get points for the restof his life, the team has decided to use thetechnique of fading once Bruce has reachedcriterion. Bruce’s teachers will graduallydecrease the use of points or other tangiblerewards when he asks for help instead offighting. This could be done in several ways.First, his teacher could increase the amount oftime Bruce has to remain “fight free” in orderto receive a reward. For example he mayinitially receive rewards daily, but as hereaches criterion it could be increased to everyother day, then once a week, and so on.Another way to fade the intervention is for histeacher to award him fewer points until he isreceiving no points at all. For instance, Brucecould initially earn 50 points per day for notfighting. This could be reduced to 40, then 30,and so on until he earns no points at all. It isvery important to note that the socialreinforcement should continue and eventuallyreplace the tangible rewards completely. If thisprocess is gradual and Bruce is helped torealize the advantages of using appropriatesocial problems solving, remaining fight freewill become intrinsically rewarding to him.
The success of these strategies may depend onproviding the student with periodic “booster”training to review the instruction used in theoriginal intervention plan. Some students also
may need to receive “self-advocacy training”to teach them how to appropriately ask forpositive recognition or appropriately callattention to positive changes in their behavior.This is especially important for students whohave such bad reputations that adults and peersdo not recognize when their behaviors arechanging. Finally, school personnel cansupport changes in student performance byaccepting “just noticeable differences,” orincremental changes that reflect the fact thestudent is taking positive steps toward thedesired goal.
Special Considerations
IEP teams should consider two things whencreating a positive behavioral interventionplan. First, they should understand the use ofpunishment as an intervention into problembehavior. Second, they should considerdeveloping a crisis/emergency component ofthe plan if it seems warranted. Both arediscussed below.
Use of Punishment as an Intervention
Many professionals and professionalorganizations agree that it is usually ineffectiveand often unethical to use aversive techniquesto control student behavior (e.g., corporalpunishment). Punishments such as suspensionshould only be considered in extreme caseswhen the student’s behavior severelyendangers her or his safety or the safety ofothers. In addition, IEP teams should try everypossible positive intervention (for anappropriate length of time, remembering thatbehavior may get worse before it gets better)before considering punishment. If all optionsare found to be ineffective, and the student’sbehavior severely limits his or her learning orsocialization or that of others, then a moreaversive intervention might be necessary toreduce the behavior. It is important to considerall positive interventions before consideringpunishment as an option, because punishmentoften makes behavior worse. Further,punishment does not address the function of
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the behavior; therefore, generalization of thepunishment’s effect does not occur.Punishment may also engage the student (andpossibly the teacher) in a revenge-seekingcycle or serve to increase avoidance behaviors.Finally, it is important to remember that apunishment option is only considered apunishment if it serves to reduce the targetedbehavior.
When the decision has been made to introducepunishment as part of an intervention, the IEPteam should develop a plan to use positiveinterventions concurrently with punishmentand/or a timetable to return to using positiveinterventions as soon as possible. Use ofpunishment may necessitate the developmentof a crisis or emergency component to thebehavioral intervention plan, as well.
Crisis/Emergency Component of aBehavioral Intervention Plan
In some cases, it may be necessary for the IEPteam to develop a crisis/emergency plan toaddress a severe or dangerous situation. Theplan would be a component of the student’sbehavioral intervention plan. This componentwould still implement proactive and positiveinterventions to continue to teach the studentalternative skills, even in the midst of a crisisor emergency. A crisis can be defined as asituation that requires an immediate, intrusive,or restrictive intervention to: 1) protect thestudent or others from serious injury; 2)safeguard physical property; and/or 3) dealwith acute disturbance of the teaching/learningprocess.
We recommend that teams spell out theconditions under which a crisis/emergencyplan can be used. This plan also should includefrequent evaluations to limit the duration ofany plan that does not produce positivechanges in behavior and a schedule forphasing out the crisis/emergency plan. IEPteams also should carefully monitor thecrisis/emergency plan and make sure it is in
compliance with any district policies orprocedures regarding the use of behaviorreduction strategies. Crisis/emergency stepsare appropriate only when less intrusive orrestrictive interventions have beenunsuccessful. As with all components of thebehavior intervention plan, parental input andapproval should be obtained before setting upthe crisis/emergency plan (see Appendix D fora sample crisis/emergency plan).
If a crisis/emergency plan is introduced, stepsshould be taken to minimize and control theamount of time necessary to manage thebehavior. The crisis/emergency interventionsshould be replaced with less intrusive andintensive intervention options as soon aspossible. Parents, guardians, and schoolpersonnel should be notified regarding anyincident that requires the use of the emergencyplan. A thorough evaluation should be part ofthe plan so that the team can assess both theimpact and possible negative spill-over effectsof the emergency plan. Finally, following anincident, the team should write anemergency/crisis report that includes ways toprevent future occurrences of the behavior.
As IEP team members consider all of theseelements of a behavioral intervention plan (i.e.,strategies to address different functions ofbehavior, skill and performance deficits,interventions and supports, reinforcement, andspecial considerations) we remind you to referto the sample forms included in theAppendices.
8. Monitor Faithfulness ofImplementation of the Plan
t is good practice for the IEP team to includetwo evaluation procedures. One evaluation
plan should be designed to monitor thefaithfulness of the implementation of the plan.In other words, the team should determine away to monitor the consistency and accuracywith which the intervention plan isimplemented. This will be easier if the team
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precisely spells out the various components ofthe intervention plan, along with theindividuals responsible for implementing eachcomponent. A “self-check” or checklist canthen be created to correspond with eachcomponent. Another option is to developwritten scripts or lists that detail theresponsibilities of each individual participatingin implementation of the plan. The script mightspecify both verbal and non-verbal responsesorganized according to setting events,antecedent events, and consequent events. Ineither case, monitoring should occur aboutevery three to five days to assess thefaithfulness with which the plan isimplemented.
9. Evaluate Effectiveness of theBehavioral Intervention Plan
he second evaluation procedure thatshould be developed by the IEP team is
one that is sufficiently aligned with thefunction of the behavior to be used toaccurately measure changes in the behavior ofconcern, itself. For example, the IEP teamshould measure the behavior (baseline) prior tostarting the intervention. This is done throughthe direct observation stage of conducting afunctional behavioral assessment. The teamshould then continue to measure the behavior(e.g., direct classroom observation of Charles’disruptive acts) once the intervention has beenimplemented. These progress checks need notbe as detailed as the initial functionalbehavioral assessment observations, but shouldbe detailed enough to yield information thatthe IEP team can then use to begin to evaluatethe impact of the intervention plan. The teamdoes this by using the baseline information asa standard against which to judge subsequentchanges in student behavior, measured throughprogress checks. Team members may seepositive changes, negative changes, or nochanges at all. Data on student behavior shouldbe collected and analyzed about every two tothree days; more complex or intrusive
intervention plans may necessitate morefrequent measurement.
When a severe problem behavior is resistant tochange, complex, intrusive interventionpackages may be required. The morecomplicated the intervention plan, the morelikely that its impact will go beyond thebehaviors the IEP team has identified forintervention. That is, the plan may have aneffect on non-targeted behavior (e.g., it could“spill over” and reduce or eliminate otherinappropriate or appropriate behaviors). Forthis reason, it may be necessary to collectinformation on non-targeted behavior (e.g.,positive social interactions with classmates andadults; appropriate classroom behavior).Throughout this process, IEP teams mustdetermine when reassessment will take placeand specify the ultimate goal of the behaviorchange. Finally, it is important to rememberthat if a student already has a behavioralintervention plan, the IEP team may elect tosimply review the plan and modify it.
10. Modify the Behavioral InterventionPlan
he 1997 Amendments to the IDEA statethat a behavioral intervention plan should
be considered when developing the IEP if astudent’s behavior interferes with his or herlearning or the learning of others. (For specificrequirements, see the Federal Regulations—34CFR Parts 300 and 303.) To be meaningful,that plan must be reviewed at least annually;however, the plan may be reevaluatedwhenever any member of the student’s IEPteam feels that a review is necessary.Circumstances that may warrant such a reviewinclude:
♦ The student has reached his or herbehavioral goals and objectives and newgoals and objectives need to beestablished;
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♦ The “situation” has changed and theinterventions no longer address the currentneeds of the student;
♦ There is a change in placement; or♦ It is clear that the original behavioral
intervention plan is not producing positivechanges in the student’s behavior.
In the end, the process of functional behavioralassessment is complete only when the IEPteam produces positive behavioral changes instudent performance.
OBSTACLES TO EFFECTIVE
FUNCTIONAL BEHAVIORAL
ASSESSMENT AND BEHAVIORAL
INTERVENTION PLANS AND SUPPORTS
efore concluding, we would like to sharepossible obstacles to the development and
use of effective behavioral intervention plansand supports. One or more of these obstaclesmay sometimes require the attention of schoolpersonnel to enable the implementation of apositive behavioral intervention plan andsupports.
1. Too vague a definition of the behavior(s)of concern.
2. Incomplete measurement/data collectionregarding the behavior(s) of concern andthe interventions selected.
3. Incorrect interpretation of the functionalassessment data collected by the IEP teamor others.
4. Inappropriate intervention (e.g., too weakto deal with the complexity or magnitudeof the behavior problem; not aligned withthe assessment data).
5. Inconsistent or incorrect application of oneor more parts of the intervention plan.
6. Failure to adequately monitor theimplementation of the intervention plan orto adjust the intervention plan over time, asneeded, based on on-going monitoring and
evaluation, and to adequately evaluate theimpact of the intervention plan.
7. Inadequate system-wide support to avoidfuture episodes of the behavior problem(e.g., too many initiatives or competingbuilding-level priorities that may interferewith the time and commitment it takes todevelop and implement behavioralintervention plans).
8. The behavior is an issue of tolerancerather than being something that distractsthe student or others (e.g., a specific minorbehavior, such as doodling).
9. Teachers lack skills and support necessaryto teach behavioral skills.
10. Failure to consider environmental issues,cultural norms, or psychiatricissues/mental illness outside of theschool/classroom environment that areimpacting on the student’s behavior.
At a more basic level, IEP teams can befrustrated in attempts to conduct and interpreta functional behavioral assessment because ofstudent absences due to illness, suspension, orexpulsion; an inability to meet with key teammembers or parents; school holidays or schoolcancellation due to bad weather; and so on.
We encourage IEP teams and other schoolpersonnel to keep these factors in mind whengrappling with the sometimes time-consumingand often complex problem-solving process ofconducting a functional behavioral assessmentand developing a positive behavioralintervention plan and supports. Finally, IEPTeams should keep in mind that differences inbehavior may exist that relate to gender,ethnicity, language, or acculturation.
Throughout this series on functionalbehavioral assessment and positive behaviorintervention plans, we have emphasized thatIEP teams should develop multi-step programsthat capitalize on existing skills and the ideathat knowledge of the functions causing theoriginal misbehavior can shape more
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appropriate, alternative behavior. In that way,emphasis is on building new skills rather thanon simply eliminating student misbehavior.Again, it is important to understand that theproblem behavior may have “worked” verywell for the student for some time. For thisreason, IEP team members must exercisepatience in implementing behavioralintervention plans and supports.
CONCLUSION
cross the country, school personnel areworking to better understand the exact
conditions under which to implement thevarious provisions of the 1997 Amendments tothe IDEA. Educators and others are lookingfor ways to transform a process of provenclinical success into quality practices that canbe realistically and effectively applied inclassroom situations. More and more IEPteams are developing intervention plans thatare both effective and efficient in producingpositive behavior changes for students with(and without) disabilities. Many times, theseinterventions flow from either an informal orformal functional assessment of the behavior.At the same time, school personnel areexploring ways to promote long-termclassroom and building-level changes thatincrease the range of academic and behavioralsupports for students. In some cases, this
means changing both the structure and theculture of schools to accommodate aconceptual framework built upon positivestudent supports.
As we have discussed, the persons responsiblefor conducting the functional behavioralassessment may vary from district to district,team to team, and student to student. Some,but not all, behavioral assessment proceduresmay require persons with extensive priortraining and experience. Regardless of who isresponsible, we believe that schools shouldadopt a “best practices” approach to theprocess of functional behavioral assessment.That means school personnel should seek waysto address minor problems before they escalateand become major behavioral challenges. Incontrast to simply attempting to suppress theproblem behavior, positive behavioralintervention plans allow school personnel notonly to eliminate inappropriate behaviors, butalso to encourage appropriate, alternativebehaviors so that the student can benefit themost from classroom instruction. Schoolpersonnel can also address minor behaviorproblems before they become so persistent orsevere that formal action is required. In takingthis approach, schools can provide all studentswith the necessary academic and behavioralsupports to be successful in school andbeyond.
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ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ON FUNCTIONAL BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT AND
POSITIVE BEHAVIOR INTERVENTION PLANS
The following references served as the basis for this monograph and represent useful sources of additionalinformation on functional behavioral assessment and positive behavior intervention plans and supports.
Alberto, P.A., & Troutman, A.C. (1998). Applied behavior analysis for teachers (4th ed.). EnglewoodCliffs, NJ: Merrill/Prentice-Hall.
Bambara, L.M., & Knoster, T.P. (1995). Effective behavioral support. Harrisburg, PA: PennsylvaniaDepartment of Education.
Carr, E.G., & Durand, V.M. (1985). Reducing behavior problems through functional communicationtraining. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 18, 111-126.
Colvin, G., Sugai, G.M., & Kameenui, E. (1993). Reconceptualizing behavior management and school-wide discipline in general education. Education and Treatment of Children, 16, 361-381.
Conroy, M.A., Clark, D., Gable, R.A., & Fox, J. J. (1999). Building competency in the use of functionalbehavioral assessment. Preventing School Failure, 43, 140-144.
Conroy, M.A., Clark, D., Gable, R.A., & Fox, J.J. (1999). A look at IDEA 1997 discipline provisions:Implications for change in the roles and responsibilities of school personnel. Preventing SchoolFailure, 43, 64-70.
Donnellan, A.M., Mirenda, P.L, Mesaros, R.A., & Fassbender, L.L. (1984). Analyzing the communicativefunctions of aberrant behavior. Journal of The Association of Persons with Severe Handicaps, 9,201-212.
Dunlap, G., Kern, L., dePerczel, M., Clarke, S., Wilson, D., Childs, K.E., White, R., & Falk, G.D. (1993).Functional analysis of classroom variables for students with emotional and behavioral disorders.Behavioral Disorders, 18, 275-291.
Durand. V.M. (1990). Severe behavior problems: A functional communication training approach. NewYork: Guilford.
ERIC/OSEP Special Project. Positive behavioral support. (1999). Research Connections in SpecialEducation. ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education, 4, 1-8.
ERIC/OSEP Special Project. School-wide behavior management systems. (1997). Research Connections inSpecial Education. ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education, 1, 1-8.
Fox, J.J., Vaughn, K., Bush, M., Byous, M., Orso, M., & Smith, S. (1998). Translating the IEP intopractice: Ensuring positive educational outcomes for students with emotional and behavioraldisorders in the area of conduct and social skills. In L. M. Bullock & R. A. Gable (Eds.),Implementing the 1997 IDEA: New challenges and opportunities for serving students withemotional/behavioral disorders (pp. 7-15). Reston, VA: Council for Children with BehaviorDisorders.
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Gable, R.A. (1996). A critical analysis of functional assessment: Issues for researchers and practitioners.Behavioral Disorders, 22, 36-40.
Gable, R.A., Quinn, M.M., Rutherford, R.B., & Howell, K.W. (1998). Addressing problem behavior inschools: Functional behavioral assessment and behavioral intervention plans. Preventing SchoolFailure, 42, 106-119.
Gable, R.A., Quinn, M.M., Rutherford, R.B., Howell, K.W., & Hoffman, C.C. (1999). Addressing studentproblem behavior—Part II: Conducting a functional behavioral assessment (3rd ed.). Washington,DC: Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice, American Institutes for Research.
Gable, R.A., Sugai, G.M., Lewis, T.J., Nelson, J.R., Cheney, D., Safran, S.P., & Safran, J.S. (1998).Individual and systemic approaches to collaboration and consultation. Reston. VA: Council forChildren with Behavioral Disorders.
Gresham, F.M. (1985). Behavior disorders assessment: Conceptual, definitional, and practicalconsiderations. School Psychology Review, 14, 495-509.
Gresham, F.M. (1991). Whatever happened to functional analysis in behavioral consultation? Journal ofEducational Psychological Consultation, 2, 387-392.
Howell, K. W., & Nolet, V. (2000). Curriculum based evaluation for special and remedial education (3rd
ed.). Atlanta, GA: Wadsworth.
Iwata, B.A., Bollmer, T.R., & Zarcone, J.R. (1990). The experimental (functional) analysis of behaviordisorders: Methodology, applications, and limitations. In A. C. Repp & N. Singh (Eds.), Aversiveand nonaversive treatment: The great debate in developmental disabilities (pp. 301-330). DeKalb,IL: Sycamore Press.
Kerr, M.M. & Nelson, C.M. (1998). Strategies for managing behavior problems in the classroom (3rd ed.).New York: MacMillan.
Korinek, L., & Popp, P.A. (1997). Collaborative mainstream integration of social skills with academicinstruction. Preventing School Failure, 41, 148-152.
Knoster, T., & Llewellyn, G.C. (1997). Screening for an understanding of student problem behavior: Aninitial line of inquiry. Harrisburg, PA: Pennsylvania Department of Education, InstructionalSupport System of Pennsylvania.
Lawry, J.R., Storey, K., & Danko, C.D. (1993). Analyzing behavior problems in the classroom: A casestudy of functional analysis. Intervention in the School and Clinic, 29, 96-100.
Lewis, T.J., Scott, T.M., & Sugai, G.M. (1994). The problem behavior questionnaire: A teacher-basedinstrument to develop functional hypotheses of problem behavior in general education classrooms.Dianostique, 19, 103-115.
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Mathur, S.R., Quinn, M.M., & Rutherford, R.B. (1996). Teacher-mediated behavior managementstrategies for children with emotional/behavioral disorders. Reston, VA: Council for Children withBehavioral Disorders.
Mayer, G.R. (1995). Preventing antisocial behavior in schools. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 38,467-478.
Nelson, J.R., Roberts, M.L., & Smith. D.J. (1998). Conducting functional behavioral assessments: Apractical guide. Longmont, CO: Sopris West.
O’Neill, R.E., Horner. R.H., Albin. R.W., Sprague, J.R., Storey. K., & Newton. J.S. (1997). Functionalassessment and program development for problem behavior: A practical guide. (2nd ed.). PacificGrove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Quinn, M.M., Gable, R.A., Rutherford, R.B., Nelson, C.M., & Howell, K.W. (1998). Addressing studentproblem behavior: An IEP team’s introduction to functional behavioral assessment and behavioralintervention plans (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice,American Institutes for Research.
Quinn, M.M., Jannasch-Pennell, A., & Rutherford, R. B. (1995). Using peers as social skills trainingagents for students with antisocial behavior: A cooperative learning approach. Preventing SchoolFailure, 39, 26-31.
Reed, H., Thomas, E., Sprague, J.R., & Horner, R.H. (1997). Student guided functional assessmentinterview: An analysis of student and teacher agreement. Journal of Behavioral Education, 7, 33-49.
Rutherford, R.B., & Nelson, C.M. (1995). Management of violent and aggressive behavior in the schools.Focus on Exceptional Children, 27, 1-15.
Rutherford, R.B., Quinn, M.M., & Mathur, S.R. (1996). Effective strategies for teaching appropriatebehaviors to children with emotional/behavioral disorders. Reston, VA: Council for Children withBehavioral Disorders.
Sasso, G.M., Reimers, T.M., Cooper, L.J., Wacker, D., & Berg, W. (1992). Use of descriptive andexperimental analyses to identify the functional properties of aberrant behavior in school settings.Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 25, 809-821.
Schmid, R.E., & Evans, W.H. (1998). Curriculum and instruction practices for student withemotional/behavioral disorders. Reston, VA: Council for Children with Behavioral Disorders.
Scott, T.M., & Nelson, C.M. (1999). Functional behavioral assessment: Implications for training and staffdevelopment. Behavioral Disorders, 24, 249-252.
Shores, R.E., Gunter, P.L., & Jack, S.L. (1993). Classroom management strategies: Are they setting eventsfor coercion? Behavioral Disorders, 18, 92-102.
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Sugai, G., Lewis-Palmer, T., & Hagan, S. (1999). Using functional assessments to develop behaviorsupport plans. Preventing School Failure, 43, 6-13.
Sugai, G.M. & Tindal, G.A. (1993). Effective school consultation: An interactive approach. Pacific Grove.CA: Brooks/Cole.
Touchette, P.E., Macdonald, R.F., & Langer, S.N. (1985). A scatter plot for identifying stimulus control ofproblem behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 18, 343-351.
Umbreit, J. (1995). Functional assessment and intervention in a regular classroom setting for the disruptivebehavior of a student with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Behavioral Disorders, 20, 267-278.
Van Acker, R. (1998). Translating discipline requirements into practice through behavioral interventionplans: The use of functional behavioral assessment. In L. M. Bullock & R. A. Gable (Eds.),Implementing the new IDEA: New challenges and opportunities for serving students withemotional/behavioral disorders (pp. 29-41). Reston, VA: Council for Children with BehavioralDisorders.
Walker, H.M., Colvin, G., & Ramsey, E. (1995). Antisocial behavior in school: Strategies and bestpractices. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Wood, F.M. (1994). May I ask you why you are hitting yourself? Using oral self-reports in the functionalassessment of adolescents’ behavior disorders. Preventing School Failure, 38, 16-20.
Yell, M.L., & Shiner, J.G. (1997). The IDEA amendments of 1997: Implications for special and generaleducation teachers, administrators, and teacher trainers. Focus on Exceptional Children, 30, 1-20.
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APPENDIX A
FUNCTIONAL ASSESSMENT/BEHAVIORAL INTERVENTION CHECKLIST
IEP teams can use this checklist to guide them through the process of conducting a functionalbehavioral assessment and writing and implementing a positive behavioral intervention plan.
Student: _______________________________________ Date: __________________________Team leader: __________________________________ Grade: __________________________Behavior(s) of concern: ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Yes No1. Is the student behavior of concern clearly defined?2. Have replacement behaviors that serve the same function (or result in
the same outcome) for the student been identified, along with thecircumstances under which they should occur (e.g., when threatened bypeer in hallway)?
3. Are multiple sources of information available that have been collectedfrom various individuals (e.g., teachers, parents, classmates, student)?At least two separate indirect measures and multiple direct measures(e.g., ABC charts, scatterplots) that capture multiple occurrences/non-occurrences of the behavior (and its context) should be in agreement.
4. Has the team produced an acceptable convergent database?5. Is the hypothesis statement written according to the three-term
contingency (i.e., under x conditions, the student does y, in order toachieve z) so that an intervention plan can easily be produced?
6. Is the plan aligned with student needs and assessment results?7. Does the plan address all aspects of the social/environmental contexts in
which the behavior of concern has occurred?8. Is there a strategy to verify the accuracy of the hypothesis statement
(e.g., analogue assessment)?9. Does the plan address both short-term and long-term aspects of student
behavior (and its social/environmental context), including procedures toeliminate reliance on unacceptable behavior?
10. Does the plan include practical ways to monitor both its implementation(e.g., checklist, treatment scripts) and its effectiveness as a behavioralintervention plan?
11. Does the plan include ways to promote the maintenance andgeneralization of positive behavior changes in student behavior (e.g.,self-monitoring)?
12. Is the plan consistent with building-level systems of student behaviorchange and support?
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APPENDIX B
POSITIVE BEHAVIORAL INTERVENTION PLAN
PLANNING FORM
IEP teams can use this form to guide them through the process of developing the Positive BehavioralIntervention Plan.
Student _________________________________________ Age __________ Sex ___________
Teacher(s) _____________________________________________ Grade _________________
Case Manager __________________________________________ Date(s) ________________
Reason for intervention plan:
Participants (specify names):( ) student___________________________ ( ) special education administrator_______________( ) family member ____________________ ( ) general education administrator ______________( ) special educator____________________ ( ) school psychologist________________________( ) general educator ___________________ ( ) other agency personnel_____________________( ) peer(s) ___________________________ _______________________________________( ) other (specify) _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Fact Finding
1) General learning environment: Describe the student’s school class schedule, including anyspecial programs or services.
2) Problem behavior: Define the problem behavior(s) in observable, measurable, and countableterms (i.e., topography, event, duration, seriousness, and/or intensity). Include several examples ofthe behavior.
3) Setting events: Describe important things that are happening in the student’s life that may becausing the behavior(s) of concern.
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4) Review existing data: Summarize previously collected information (records review, interviews,observations, and test results) relevant to the behavior(s). Attach additional sheets if necessary.
Possible Explanations
5) Identify likely antecedents (precipitating events) to the behavior(s).
6) Identify likely consequences that may be maintaining the behavior(s).
7) Identify and describe any academic or environmental context(s) in which the problem behavior(s)does not occur.
Validation
8) Functional assessment: Do you already have enough information to believe that the possibleexplanations are sufficient to plan an intervention?
a) If yes, go to Step 9, if no, then what additional data collection is necessary?( ) Review of IEP goals and objectives( ) Review of medical records( ) Review of previous intervention plans( ) Review of incident reports( ) ABC (across time and situations)( ) Motivational analysis( ) Ecological analysis( ) Curricular analysis( ) Scatter plot( ) Parent questionnaire/interview( ) Student questionnaire/interview( ) Teacher questionnaire/interview (specify who) ______________________( ) Other (explain) _______________________________________________
b) Summarize data. Attach additional sheets if necessary.
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Planning
9) Formulate hypothesis statement: Using the table below, determine why the student engages inproblem behavior(s), whether the behavior(s) serves single or multiple functions, and what to doabout the behavior(s).
Internal External
Obtain Something
Avoid Something
10) Current level of performance: Describe problem behavior(s) in a way the team will recognizeonset and conclusion of behavior.
11) Describe replacement behavior(s) that are likely to serve the same function as the behavior(s)identified in Step 9.
12) Measurement procedures for problem behavior(s) and replacement behavior(s):
a) Describe how (e.g., permanent products, event recording, scatterplot), when, and wherestudent behavior(s) will be measured.
b) Summarize data by specifying which problem behavior(s) and replacement behavior(s) will betargets for intervention.
13) Behavioral intervention plan:
a) Specify goals and objectives (conditions, criteria for acceptable performance) for teaching thereplacement behavior(s).
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b) Specify instructional strategies that will be used to teach the replacement behavior(s).
c) Specify strategies that will be used to decrease problem behavior(s) and increase replacementbehavior(s).
d) Identify any changes in the physical environment needed to prevent problem behavior(s) andto promote desired (replacement) behavior(s), if necessary.
e) Specify extent to which intervention plan will be implemented in various settings; specifysettings and persons responsible for implementation of plan.
14) Evaluation plan and schedule: Describe the plan and timetable to evaluate effectiveness of theintervention plan.
a) Describe how, when, where, and how often the problem behavior(s) will be measured.
b) Specify persons and settings involved.
c) Specify a plan for crisis/emergency intervention, if necessary
d) Determine schedule to review/modify the intervention plan, as needed. Include dates andcriteria for changing/fading the plan.
15) Describe plan and timetable to monitor the degree to which the plan is being implemented.
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CASE STUDY 1
POSITIVE BEHAVIORAL INTERVENTION PLAN
PLANNING FORM
IEP teams can use this form to guide them through the process of developing the Positive BehavioralIntervention Plan.
Student __Thomas Jones__________________________ Age ___13_____ Sex ___M____
Teacher(s) __Ms. Gilbow / Team B______________________ Grade ____6th___________
Case Manager _Mrs. Brantley____________________________ Date(s) ___4/17/00_____
Reason for intervention plan:
Tom’s behavior often disrupts class. Yesterday he threw a dictionary across the room, knocked overhis desk, kicked it, and began yelling obscenities at the teacher and the other students in the class (LDresource room). The teacher had to call for help from his ED resource room teacher to calm him downand safely remove him from the classroom.
Participants (specify names):(x) student __Tom________________________ ( ) special education administrator_____________(x) family member_Mrs. Jones______________ (x) general education administrator_Mr. Scott____(x) special educator Ms. Gilbow_____________ ( ) school psychologist ______________________( ) general educator_______________________ ( ) other agency personnel ___________________( ) peer(s)_______________________________ ______________________________________( ) other (specify) ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Fact Finding
1) General learning environment: Describe the student’s school class schedule, including anyspecial programs or services.
Tom receives special education to provide support for his emotional difficulties and learning disability in tworesource rooms. These classes provide instruction in math, language arts, reading, social skills, and social studies. Heis in the regular classroom for specials, lunch, and science. He rides a special bus with a paraprofessional to school.
2) Problem behavior: Define the problem behavior(s) in observable, measurable, and countableterms (i.e., topography, event, duration, seriousness, and/or intensity). Include several examples ofthe behavior.
Thomas has Tourette’s Syndrome, a learning disability that manifests itself in reading and language arts, and anemotional disturbance. Symptoms of Tourette’s lead him to display distracting tics and vocalize curses during theusual course of the day. This sometimes causes his classmates to make uncomplimentary comments. His emotionaland learning disabilities often lead to frustrating academic and social situations. When he becomes frustrated heoften throws objects (books, book packs, pencils) turns over furniture (chairs or tables), and curses obscenities at theadults and other students present in the classroom.
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3) Setting events: Describe important things that are happening in the student’s life that may becausing the behavior(s) of concern.
Thomas recently started to be mainstreamed more often in the regular classroom. He has begun to take science (asarea of strength and interest) in the general education setting.
4) Review existing data: Summarize previously collected information (records review, interviews,observations, and test results) relevant to the behavior(s).
An examination of Tom’s medical records and interviews with his parents and teachers all reveal that due toTourette’s Syndrome he has uncontrollable tics that cause his head to jerk to the side. Often during these tics hecurses, a behavior that has never been observed in isolation.
A review of his IEP, test results, and interviews with his parents and teachers reveal that he has learning problemsthat keep him from realizing success in the mainstream classroom and causes him a lot of frustration. He also isfrustrated by the many rude comments made by his classmates regarding his tics. During unstructured time (recess,before school, between classes), it has been observed that other students tease him. His parents and teachers reportthat this really bothers Tom and makes it difficult for him to make friends. He spends most of his spare time with his4th grade sister who walks him to and from class in the mornings and afternoons.
Possible Explanations
5) Identify likely antecedents (precipitating events) to the behavior(s).
Academic frustrationSocial ridicule by peers
6) Identify likely consequences that may be maintaining the behavior(s).
When Tom acts out he is removed from the situation. We believe that this behavior allows him to escape a frustratingsituation.
7) Identify and describe any academic or environmental context(s) in which the problem behavior(s)does not occur.
This problem has never occurred in the resource room for students with emotional disturbance. Parents report that itrarely occurs at home and that Tom did not have the same problem in his 5th grade class. They also report that Tomwas asked not to return to the local YMCA because of his acting-out behavior.
Validation8) Functional assessment: Do you already have enough information to believe that the possible
explanations are sufficient to plan an intervention?a) If yes, go to Step 9, if no, then what additional data collection is necessary?
( )Review of IEP goals and objectives( )Review of medical records( ) Review of previous intervention plans( ) Review of incident reports( ) ABC (across time and situations)( ) Motivational analysis(x) Ecological analysis(x) Curricular analysis( ) Scatter plot( ) Parent questionnaire/interview(x) Student questionnaire/interview(x) Teacher questionnaire/interview (specify who) Mr. Elliott—5th grade teacher______(x) Other (explain) Talk with director of the YMCA_____________________________
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b) Summarize data. Attach additional sheets if necessary.
Tom does not seem to have problems in environments that are well supervised and where he is not expected toperform tasks that are more difficult than his skill level.
• The YMCA director reported that the other kids teased Tom and that Tom would just “explode.” He said that heknew the other kids antagonized Tom, but he was afraid someone would get hurt if Tom was permitted tocontinue to come to the Y. He told Tom that when his behavior was under control he was welcome to return.
• Mr. Elliott, his 5th grade teacher said that at the beginning of the school year he had his class study Tourette’sSyndrome and had guest speaker come in to discuss the effects of Tourette’s. Tom even led some of thediscussion. He felt that once the other students understood what was happening they were more comfortablewith the tics and soon they began to ignore them.
• Tom is about 2 years behind his grade-peers in reading and written language ability. He is intelligent and canunderstand grade level tasks that are presented orally. When he is permitted to respond orally rather than writingan answer, he performs on grade level. If he is asked to read aloud or silently or is asked to fill out worksheetswithout assistance he becomes frustrated or distracted and does not complete his work.
• Tom does better in structured environments where there is adult supervision. Adults in these environments seemto deter the teasing of his peers and provide him with individual help in academics. Ms. Gilbow, his ED resourceteacher, reports that he does well when given independent work on his grade level. She says that he does well instructured cooperative learning groups where he is permitted to respond orally and other team members do thewriting and reading aloud. She also reports that Tourette’s Syndrome was thoroughly discussed at the beginningof the school year and reviewed when new students are placed in her class.
Planning
9) Formulate hypothesis statement: Using the table below, determine why the student engages inproblem behavior(s), whether the behavior(s) serves single or multiple functions, and what to doabout the behavior(s).
Internal External
Obtain Something
Avoid SomethingExpectation of ridicule about his ticsand embarrassment associated withschool failure.
Avoiding ridicule by avoidingsocial situations in which peerstease him.
10) Current level of performance: Describe problem behavior(s) in a way the team will recognizeonset and conclusion of behavior.
Tom becomes noticeably frustrated and tics increase in response to peer taunting or difficult academic assignments.He hangs his head down low and focuses intently on one thing before a big outburst of aggressive behavior. Hebecomes nonverbal except for the obscenities associated with Tourette’s Syndrome.
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11) Describe replacement behavior(s) that are likely to serve the same function as the behavior(s)identified in Step 9.
Tom will approach the adult in charge of the setting when he notices himself getting agitated and ask to haveassistance—either academic help or counseling. This will allow him to escape the situation without usinginappropriate behavior.
12) Measurement procedures for problem behavior(s) and replacement behavior(s):
a) Describe how (e.g., permanent products, event recording, scatterplot), when, and wherestudent behavior(s) will be measured.
Using event recording, Tom will be taught to count the number of times he becomes frustrated and the number oftimes he has outbursts vs. how often he asks for help. He will be given a checklist to record this on.
b) Summarize data by specifying which problem behavior(s) and replacement behavior(s) will betargets for intervention.
Problem behavior: out of control anger—throws things, hits or kicks, uses unacceptable language, or makesthreatening remarks or actions.
Replacement behavior: appropriately deal with anger—1) he asks for help from an adult or peer when he feels angryand thinks he needs to leave a situation; 2) he will use self-talk and anger management skills to independently dealwith his anger.
13) Behavioral intervention plan:
a) Specify goals and objectives (conditions, criteria for acceptable performance) for teaching thereplacement behavior(s).
Working with the Ms. Gilbow, the ED resource room teacher, Tom will verbally identify and describe the physicalsigns that he experiences when he is becoming angry.
Tom will recognize when he is becoming angry and will seek the assistance of an adult rather than acting-out 100%of the time.
Tom will contact the director of the local YMCA and report his progress at controlling his temper, and discuss thetechnique that he uses to manage this. He will ask if he can return to the YMCA and use his skills with the adults thatsupervise after school activities there.
b) Specify instructional strategies that will be used to teach the replacement behavior(s).
The ED resource room teacher will model thinking aloud using a role-play situation in which she becomes angry.She will identify why she thinks she is angry and will discuss all the possible ways to deal with her anger. She willmodel choosing an option that helps her reduce her anger in acceptable ways.
Tom will role-play situations in which he has a history of becoming angry (e.g., on the recess field, in the classroom,in the hall during passing time) with the ED resource room teacher and other students. He will model his self-talkand will discuss ways of dealing with his anger in acceptable ways (e.g., enlist the help of an adult or trusted peer).He will choose a time when he usually encounters anger and frustration to practice this technique and will reportback to his teacher and the class the outcomes of this technique. If the technique was successful he will identify othersituations in which it could be used. If it is unsuccessful, he will work with his teacher and peers to identify reasonswhy it did not work and suggest modifications.
Tom will used the technique in other school and non-school settings.
B-9
c) Specify strategies that will be used to decrease problem behavior(s) and increase replacementbehavior(s).
The adults that work with Tom will be told the signs to look for that indicate that Tom is beginning to feelfrustration. They will approach him and ask him if he needs to talk. Anytime he asks them if he can speak with thecounselor or to them about the way he feels, they will comply immediately or send him to an environment with anadult who can talk with Tom if they are busy with other things.
d) Identify any changes in the physical environment needed to prevent problem behavior(s) andto promote desired (replacement) behavior(s), if necessary.
1. Tom will be given the opportunity to respond to academic questions verbally (either aloud or on a tape recorder).Tom will never be asked to read aloud in class unless he asks to. He will be given audio tapes with the writtenmaterials read aloud on them, or work in cooperative groups in which other students read the written materials aloud.
2. Tom’s classmates will be taught about Tourette’s syndrome and will be given the opportunity to ask questions ofexperts (including Tom, if he feels comfortable) about the syndrome.
e) Specify extent to which intervention plan will be implemented in various settings; specifysettings and persons responsible for implementation of plan.
This plan will first be implemented in the ED resource room and then in the LD resource room. Once Tom hasidentified the physical signs that he is becoming angry he will share them with his other teachers (Science) and hisparents. The intervention plan will then be implemented in those settings, as well. Once Tom has gone for 2 weekswithout having a behavior incident in which he loses control, he will contact the director of the YMCA (with adultsupport, if he feels it is necessary) to discuss the possibility of his return.
14) Evaluation plan and schedule: Describe the plan and timetable to evaluate effectiveness of theintervention plan.
a) Describe how, when, where, and how often the problem behavior(s) will be measured.
For the first 3 weeks, Tom and his ED resource room teacher will discuss and chart (percent of appropriate reactionsto his anger) his progress daily. They will compare it to the number of outbursts during the previous 2 weeks. If after3 weeks Tom’s behavior has not decreased by at least 50%, the team will meet again to discuss possible changes inthe intervention. If after 6 weeks Tom’s behavior has not decreased by at least 90%, the team will meet again todiscuss possible changes in the intervention. At 8 weeks Tom should have no incidents of outbursts at school.
b) Specify persons and settings involved.
Initially it will be the responsibility of the ED resource room teacher. The intervention will then be initiated in theLD resource room, Tom’s science class, and at home. Once Tom has had no outbursts for 2 weeks, the interventionwill be extended to the YMCA (with the director’s agreement).
c) Specify a plan for crisis/emergency intervention, if necessary
Should Tom have a behavior outburst the ED resource room teacher will be called in to help.
d) Determine schedule to review/modify the intervention plan, as needed. Include dates andcriteria for changing/fading the plan.
8 May 2000 Review/modify if the behavior has not reduced by 50%.29 May 2000 Review/modify if the behavior has not reduced by 99%.12 June 2000 Review/modify if the behavior has not reached 0.
B-10
15) Describe plan and timetable to monitor the degree to which the plan is being implemented.
Each Friday the ED resource room teacher will contact Tom’s other teachers and the recess supervisors to discussthe implementation of the plan. Any time Tom has a behavior outburst, the ED resource teacher will conduct an out-briefing with the adult in charge to discuss the situation and to determine whether the plan was followed as written.
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CASE STUDY 2
POSITIVE BEHAVIORAL INTERVENTION PLAN
PLANNING FORM
IEP teams can use this form to guide them through the process of developing the Positive BehavioralIntervention Plans.
Student ______Lis Butterfield_________________________ Age __14____ Sex _____F___
Teacher(s) ____Ms. Hamilton, Mr. Lorson & Miss Price________ Grade ____8th_________
Case Manager _____Mrs. Anderson_________________________ Date(s) __11/24/00_____
Reason for intervention plan:
Lis currently makes detrimental attribution statements during class. These statements are inconsistent withacademic and/or social success. Lis also fails to complete work in her math class.
Participants (specify names):(x) student ____Lis Butterfield_________ (x) special education administrator _Dr. Atkinson___(x) family member _Melissa (mother)___ (x) general education administrator Mrs. Kelley_____(x) special educator __Mr. Antil________ (x) school psychologist Dr. Nelson_______________(x) general educator Ms. Hamilton (math)_ (x) other agency personnel _Ms. Slentz (child welfare)(x) peer(s) _Lindy Crawford___________ ________________________________________( ) other (specify) ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Fact Finding
1) General learning environment: Describe Lis’s school class schedule, including any specialprograms or services.
Lis is in general education classes for most of the day. She shifts from class to class with the other students. While the problem behavior is generalized, it is particularly evident in Ms. Hamilton’s math class. Liz sees theresource special education teacher twice a week for 30 minutes. The special education teacher (Mr. Antil) alsoconsults with the math teacher several times a week.
2) Problem behavior: Define the problem behavior(s) in observable, measurable, and countableterms (i.e., topography, event, duration, seriousness, and/or intensity). Include severalexamples of the behavior.
Lis makes detrimental statements during math classes and has recently begun to make them in other classes aswell as out side of classes.
Definition of detrimental statements: Lis’ detrimental statements typically attribute failure to thingsLis can’t control/alter (e.g., low intelligence, task difficulty, mean teachers and other external causes).
B-12
In addition her statements frequently include negative wording that is permanent, pervasive and/orpersonal. Such statements include one of more of the following (note underlined wording):
Examples of inappropriate statements: • “I like to pick simple things to do so I know I’ll get a good grade.”
“SIMPLE THINGS”: is an external attribution to task difficulty.• "I am too dumb to do this problem."
“TOO DUMB”: is an internal/ personal attribution to an unalterable (general intelligence).• "I am no good at math and I never will be. "
“I NEVER WILL BE”: is a pervasive (all math) and permanent (never) attribution.
3) Setting events: Describe important things that are happening in the student’s life that may becausing the behavior(s) of concern.
The team is unaware of any events outside of school that may be contributing to the problem. Lis’ time inresource service was cut back in her IEP meeting last spring. At that time she was receiving 45 minutes of pull-out service a day with a particular emphasis on math. The service was cut back because her achievement hadbeen raised to the level of reasonable accommodation in general class settings. She will transfer to high schoolat the end of the year, but it seems unlikely that she is thinking about that at this time.
4) Review existing data: Summarize previously collected information (records review, interviews,observations, and test results) relevant to the behavior(s). Attach additional sheets if necessary.
After interval sampling across situations Lis was found to make the detrimental attribution errors aloud onlyduring classes and primarily during math instruction. Appropriate attributions were very rare.
A follow-up with continuous observation across three days showed that the median frequency of statementswithin the defined detrimental class was 7 for each math class. The student also made a median of two positivestatements. This was compared to a class median of .82 detrimental statements and 9.3 positive attributionstatements.
Possible Explanations
5) Identify likely antecedents (precipitating events) to the behavior(s).
• There has not been a planned intervention, but during the observations it was noted that the teacher eitherignores the behavior or makes comforting, but ill-advised statements such as “Don’t feel so bad; math ishard.” Such actions seem likely to maintain the behavior or increase its frequency.
• The behavior increases when work is independent.
6) Identify likely consequences that may be maintaining the behavior(s).
• In some cases other students will agree with Lis about the difficulty of the task. This may positivelyreinforce the behavior; however, these comments are infrequent.
• In most cases the comments are followed by Lis discontinuing work for awhile or even shoving theassignment aside. This seems to serve as a negative reinforcer for her.
• It has also been noted that Lis seems stressed up to the point of the statement and then seems more relaxed. It may be that she gets comfort by shifting the blame to external factors or to internal characteristics overwhich she has little control.
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7) Identify and describe any academic or environmental context(s) in which the problem behavior(s)does not occur.
The problem seldom occurs in the special education setting or when the work in her math class is focused onreview of material she has learned.
Validation
8) Functional assessment: Do you already have enough information to believe that the possibleexplanations are sufficient to plan an intervention?
a) If yes, go to Step 9, if no, then what additional data collection is necessary?
(x) Review of IEP goals and objectives( ) Review of medical records( ) Review of previous intervention plans(x) Review of incident reports( ) ABC (across time and situations)(x) Motivational analysis( ) Ecological analysis( ) Curricular analysis( ) Scatter plot(x) Parent questionnaire/interview( ) Student questionnaire/interview( ) Teacher questionnaire/interview (specify who) ______________________( ) Other (explain) _______________________________________________
b) Summarize data. Attach additional sheets if necessary.
• There are no objectives in the IEP that deal with failure to finish work or the occurrence of non-adaptive statements.
• Lis did not have any reports of inappropriate school behavior.
• Lis was asked to guess the thoughts of hypothetical students when they succeed or fail. Herexplanations almost always feel into the category of non-adaptive attributions such as task difficulty orlack of the ability (i.e., intelligence) required for Lis to do the work presented in the hypotheticalsituations.
These findings led Dr. Nelson to extend the motivation analysis by checking likely assumed causes for Lis’attribution pattern.
Assumed Causes of Behavior Assessment Format and Outcome
1) Lis is attempting to getattention/sympathy from others(an external interpersonal goal).
Observation disclosed that the behavior did not increase or decreaseaccording to the presence of others. Student said “yes” to questions suchas “If I make mistakes I should stop working because I’ve run intosomething I can’t do.” Therefore, Assumed Cause 1 rejected.
2) Lis is attempting to explainoutcomes to herself to make senseof them (an internal personalgoal).
Observation disclosed that the behavior did not increase or decreaseaccording to the presence of others. Student said “no” to questions suchas “When I am having trouble learning something it means I must workharder.” Therefore, Assumed Cause 2 tentatively accepted.
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• Lis’ mother (Melissa) reports that she has recently seen the behaviors occurring during homework thatis difficult for Lis.
Planning
9) Formulate hypothesis statement: Using the table below, determine why the student engages inproblem behavior(s), whether the behavior(s) serves single or multiple functions, and what to doabout the behavior(s).
Internal External
Obtain SomethingExplanations to herself that makesense of failures
Attention or comfort from peers.(Already judged to be unlikely—see Dr. Nelson’s conclusion in#8)
Avoid SomethingFeelings of frustration andconfusion which occur when sheencounters tasks that are hard forher to do.
10) Current level of performance: Describe problem behavior(s) in a way the team will recognizeonset and conclusion of behavior.Examples of inappropriate statements: • “I like to pick simple things to do so I know I’ll get a good grade.”
“SIMPLE THINGS”: is an external attribution to task difficulty.• “I am too dumb to do this problem.”
“TOO DUMB”: is an internal/ personal attribution to an unalterable (general intelligence).• “I am no good at math and I never will be.”
“I NEVER WILL BE”: pervasive (all math) and permanent (never) attribution.
11) Describe replacement behavior(s) that are likely to serve the same function as the behavior(s)identified in Step 9.• “I like to pick things I haven’t learned so I know I’ll get a chance to improve.”
“HAVEN’T LEARNED”: is an internal and alterable attribution to Lis’s own learning(which is alterable through instruction and effort)
• "I CAN DO THIS PROBLEM IF I WORK HARD AND LEARN WHAT I NEED TO KNOW.”“WORK HARD”: is an internal/ personal attribution to effort.
• "I am having trouble with division but I’ve had problems with some math before.”“DIVISION”: is task specific; it does not include all math. “PROBLEMS WITH SOMEMATH BEFORE”: shows recognition of the temporary nature of task difficulty (it changesas we learn the tasks).
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12) Measurement procedures for problem behavior(s) and replacement behavior(s):
a) Describe how (e.g., permanent products, event recording, scatterplot), when, and wherestudent behavior(s) will be measured.
Interval sampling of both appropriate and detrimental attribution statements made aloud during math classwill be recorded.
b) Summarize data by specifying which problem behavior(s) and replacement behavior(s) will betargets for intervention.
Problem behaviors:1) Detrimental attribution statements made aloud during math class (see examples above).2) Assigned work products not completed for math class.
Replacement behaviors:1) Appropriate attribution statements made aloud during math class (see examples above).2) Assigned work products completed for math class.
13) Behavioral intervention plan:
a) Specify goals and objectives (conditions, criteria for acceptable performance) for teaching thereplacement behavior(s).
Behavior change goal:To reduce the 7 detrimental attribution statements by ÷ 8.54 to the class median (.82 a day).To increase the 2 appropriate statements by Χ 4.65 correct attribution statements per day (to the classmedian of 9.3).
Proactive social skills goal:To teach Lis habits of attributing her successes and failures in ways that meet her need for a comfortingexplanation but do not impair her learning.
Objectives to help Lis meet the function in a positive way include:1) Lis can discriminate between appropriate and detrimental attribution statements and other
behaviors: criteria 100%.2) Lis can monitor her own behavior well enough to know when she is making appropriate
statements or detrimental statements: criteria 100%.3) Lis knows what behavior is expected her: criteria 100%.4) Lis knows the consequences of engaging in the target behavior: criteria 100%.5) Lis knows the consequences of engaging in the detrimental behavior: criteria 100%.6) Lis considers the consequences of engaging in the target behavior to be rewarding: criteria
100%.7) Lis considers the consequences of engaging in the detrimental behavior to be aversive: criteria
100%.
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b) Specify instructional strategies that will be used to teach the replacement behavior(s).
1) The special education teacher will train the math teacher in the use of an attribution correction process.This procedure will be used when Lis makes detrimental attribution statements.
2) The special education teacher will continue to see Lis twice a week but will shift from teachingremedial math to employing attribution retaining.
3) The special education teacher will also use the attribution correction technique whenever she isworking with Lis.
c) Specify strategies that will be used to decrease problem behavior(s) and increase replacementbehavior(s).
The plan is to decrease the detrimental states by teaching the incompatible skills listed above.
d) Identify any changes in the physical environment needed to prevent problem behavior(s) andto promote desired (replacement) behavior(s), if necessary.
None
e) Specify extent to which intervention plan will be implemented in various settings; specifysettings and persons responsible for implementation of plan.
See 13-b
14) Evaluation plan and schedule: Describe the plan and timetable to evaluate effectiveness of theintervention plan.
a) Describe how, when, where, and how often the problem behavior(s) will be measured.
• Both appropriate and inappropriate behaviors will be monitored on a variable schedule using theexamples of Lis’ own statements (as listed above) to clarify the behaviors to be recognized andcounted.
• The behaviors will be observed on a daily basis during the one-hour math class.
b) Specify persons and settings involved.
Mr. Antil and Ms. Hamilton
c) Specify a plan for crisis/emergency intervention, if necessary
Not needed
d) Determine schedule to review/modify the intervention plan, as needed. Include dates andcriteria for changing/fading the plan.
• Mr. Antil, Ms. Hamilton, Dr. Atkinson and Lis will review the plan every other week.
• The behaviors will be charted and compared to a growth criterion of sufficient magnitude to bring Listo the target levels by 3/15/01.
15) Describe plan and timetable to monitor the degree to which the plan is being implemented.
See # 14 above.
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APPENDIX C
FORCED-CHOICE REINFORCEMENT MENU
Name: ______________________________________________________
In order to identify possible classroom reinforcers, it is important to go directly to the source, namely,you the student. Below is a paragraph that provides instructions for completing a series of “controlledchoice” survey items about individual reinforcement preferences. Please read the following paragraphcarefully:
“Let’s suppose that you have worked hard on an assignment and you think that you have done asuper job on it. In thinking about a reward for your effort, which one of the two things belowwould you most like to happen? Please choose the one from each pair that you would like bestand mark and “X” in the blank that comes in front of it. Remember, mark only one blank for eachpair.”
1. _____ Teacher writes “100” on your paper. (A)_____ Be first to finish your work. (CM)
2. _____ A bag of chips. (CN)_____ Classmates ask you to be on their team. (P)
3. _____ Be free to do what you like. (I)_____ Teacher writes “100” on your paper. (A)
4. _____ Classmates ask you to be on their team. (P)_____ Be first to finish your work. (CM)
5. _____ Be free to do what you like. (I)_____ A bag of chips. (CN)
6. _____ Teacher writes “100” on your paper. (A)_____ Classmates ask you to be on their team. (P)
7. _____ Be first to finish your work. (CM)_____ Be free to do what you like. (I)
8. _____ A bag of chips. (CN)_____ Teacher writes “100” on your paper. (A)
9. _____ Classmates ask you to be on their team. (P)_____ Be free to do what you like. (I)
10. _____ Be first to finish your work. (CM)_____ A bag of chips. (CN)
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11. _____ Teacher writes “A” on your paper. (A)_____ Be the only one that can answer a question. (CM)
12. _____ A candy bar. (CN)_____ Friends ask you to sit with them. (P)
13. _____ Be free to go outside. (I)_____ Teacher writes “A” on your paper. (A)
14. _____ Friends ask you to sit with them. (P)_____ Be the only one that answers a question. (CM)
15. _____ Be free to go outside. (I)_____ A candy bar. (CN)
16. _____ Teacher writes “A” on your paper. (A)_____ Friends ask you to sit with them. (P)
17. _____ Be the only one that can answer a question. (CM)_____ Be free to go outside. (I)
18. _____ A candy bar. (CN)_____ Teacher writes “A” on your paper. (A)
19. _____ Friends ask you to sit with them. (P)_____ Be free to go outside. (I)
20. _____ Be the only on that can answer a question. (CM)_____ A candy bar. (CN)
21. _____ Teacher writes “Perfect” on your paper. (A)_____ Have only your paper shown to the class. (CM)
22. _____ A can of soda. (CN)_____ Classmates ask you to be class leader. (P)
23. _____ Be free to play outside. (I)_____ Teacher writes “Perfect” on your paper. (A)
24. _____ Classmates ask you to be class leader. (P)_____ Have only your paper shown to the class. (CM)
25. _____ Be free to play outside. (I)_____ A can of soda. (CN)
26. _____ Teacher writes “Perfect” on your paper. (A)_____ Classmates ask you to be class leader. (P)
C-3
27. _____ Have only your paper shown to the class. (CM)_____ Be free to play outside. (I)
28. _____ A can of soda. (CN)_____ Teacher writes “Perfect” on your paper. (A)
29. _____ Classmates ask you to be class leader. (P)_____ Be free to play outside. (I)
30. _____ Have only your paper shown to class. (CM)_____ A can of soda. (CN)
31. _____ Teacher writes “Excellent” on your paper. (A)_____ Have your paper put on the bulletin board. (CM)
32. _____ A pack of gum. (CN)_____ Friends ask you to work with them. (P)
33. _____ Be free to work on something you like. (I)_____ Teacher writes “Excellent” on your paper. (A)
34. _____ Friends ask you to work with them. (P)_____ Have your paper put on the bulletin board. (CM)
35. _____ Be free to work on something you like. (I)_____ A pack of gum. (CN)
36. _____ Teacher writes “Excellent” on your paper. (A)_____ Friends ask you to work with them. (P)
37. _____ Have your paper put on the bulletin board. (CM)_____ Be free to work in something you like. (I)
38. _____ A pack of gum. (CN)_____ Teacher writes “Excellent” on your paper. (A)
39. _____ Friends ask you to work with them. (P)_____ Be free to work on something you like. (I)
40. _____ Have your paper put on the bulletin board. (CM)_____ A pack of gum. (CN)
Other suggestions about classroom rewards:
Thank you for taking the time to complete this survey.
C-5
Reinforcement Inventory
SCORING KEY
__________ Adult Approval (A)
__________ Competitive Approval (CM)
__________ Peer Approval (P)
__________ Independent Rewards (I)
__________ Consumable Rewards (CN)
Modified by Gable, R. A. (1991) from:
Cartwright, C. A., & Cartwright, G. P. (1970). Determining the motivational systems of individualchildren. TEACHING Exceptional Children, 2:3, 143-149.
C-5
CASE STUDY 1
FORCED-CHOICE REINFORCEMENT MENU
Name: Thomas Jones (see Appendix B) __________________________
In order to identify possible classroom reinforcers, it is important to go directly to the source, namely,you the student. Below is a paragraph that provides instructions for completing a series of “controlledchoice” survey items about individual reinforcement preferences. Please read the following paragraphcarefully:
“Let’s suppose that you have worked hard on an assignment and you think that you have done asuper job on it. In thinking about a reward for your effort, which one of the two things belowwould you most like to happen? Please choose the one from each pair that you would like bestand mark and “X” in the blank that comes in front of it. Remember, mark only one blank for eachpair.”
1. __X__ Teacher writes “100” on your paper. (A)_____ Be first to finish your work. (CM)
2. _____ A bag of chips. (CN)__X__ Classmates ask you to be on their team. (P)
3. _____ Be free to do what you like. (I)__X__ Teacher writes “100” on your paper. (A)
4. __X__ Classmates ask you to be on their team. (P)_____ Be first to finish your work. (CM)
5. _____ Be free to do what you like. (I)__X__ A bag of chips. (CN)
6. _____ Teacher writes “100” on your paper. (A)__X__ Classmates ask you to be on their team. (P)
7. __X__ Be first to finish your work. (CM)_____ Be free to do what you like. (I)
8. _____ A bag of chips. (CN)__X__ Teacher writes “100” on your paper. (A)
9. __X__ Classmates ask you to be on their team. (P)_____ Be free to do what you like. (I)
10. _____ Be first to finish your work. (CM)__X__ A bag of chips. (CN)
C-6
11. __X__ Teacher writes “A” on your paper. (A)_____ Be the only one that can answer a question. (CM)
12. _____ A candy bar. (CN)__X__ Friends ask you to sit with them. (P)
13. _____ Be free to go outside. (I)__X__ Teacher writes “A” on your paper. (A)
14. __X__ Friends ask you to sit with them. (P)_____ Be the only one that answers a question. (CM)
15. _____ Be free to go outside. (I)__X__ A candy bar. (CN)
16. _____ Teacher writes “A” on your paper. (A)__X__ Friends ask you to sit with them. (P)
17. __X__ Be the only one that can answer a question. (CM)_____ Be free to go outside. (I)
18. _____ A candy bar. (CN)__X__ Teacher writes “A” on your paper. (A)
19. __X__ Friends ask you to sit with them. (P)_____ Be free to go outside. (I)
20. _____ Be the only on that can answer a question. (CM)__X__ A candy bar. (CN)
21. __X__ Teacher writes “Perfect” on your paper. (A)_____ Have only your paper shown to the class. (CM)
22. _____ A can of soda. (CN)__X__ Classmates ask you to be class leader. (P)
23. _____ Be free to play outside. (I)__X__ Teacher writes “Perfect” on your paper. (A)
24. __X__ Classmates ask you to be class leader. (P)_____ Have only your paper shown to the class. (CM)
25. _____ Be free to play outside. (I)__X__ A can of soda. (CN)
26. _____ Teacher writes “Perfect” on your paper. (A)__X__ Classmates ask you to be class leader. (P)
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27. __X__ Have only your paper shown to the class. (CM)_____ Be free to play outside. (I)
28. _____ A can of soda. (CN)__X__ Teacher writes “Perfect” on your paper. (A)
29. __X__ Classmates ask you to be class leader. (P)_____ Be free to play outside. (I)
30. _____ Have only your paper shown to class. (CM)__X__ A can of soda. (CN)
31. __X__ Teacher writes “Excellent” on your paper. (A)_____ Have your paper put on the bulletin board. (CM)
32. _____ A pack of gum. (CN)__X__ Friends ask you to work with them. (P)
33. _____ Be free to work on something you like. (I)__X__ Teacher writes “Excellent” on your paper. (A)
34. __X__ Friends ask you to work with them. (P)_____ Have your paper put on the bulletin board. (CM)
35. __X__ Be free to work on something you like. (I)_____ A pack of gum. (CN)
36. _____ Teacher writes “Excellent” on your paper. (A)__X__ Friends ask you to work with them. (P)
37. _____ Have your paper put on the bulletin board. (CM)__X__ Be free to work in something you like. (I)
38. _____ A pack of gum. (CN)__X__ Teacher writes “Excellent” on your paper. (A)
39. __X__ Friends ask you to work with them. (P)_____ Be free to work on something you like. (I)
40. _____ Have your paper put on the bulletin board. (CM)__X__ A pack of gum. (CN)
Other suggestions about classroom rewards:
Thank you for taking the time to complete this survey.
C-8
Reinforcement Inventory
SCORING KEY
__12______ Adult Approval (A)
__3_______ Competitive Approval (CM)
__16______ Peer Approval (P)
__2_______ Independent Rewards (I)
__7_______ Consumable Rewards (CN)
Modified by Gable, R. A. (1991) from:
Cartwright, C. A., & Cartwright, G. P. (1970). Determining the motivational systems of individualchildren. TEACHING Exceptional Children, 2:3, 143-149.
D-1
APPENDIX D
SAMPLE CRISIS/EMERGENCY PLAN
Student: ________________________________________ Date: _________________________
School: ___________________________________________ Grade: ______________________
Reason for crisis/emergency plan: _____________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
Persons responsible for developing the plan (indicate position): ______________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
Parental Approval
Indicate level of parent/guardian participation and approval of the plan. _______________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
Parent/guardian signature: ___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
1. Give a full description of the behavior that poses a risk of physical injury to the student or toothers, damage to physical property and/or serious disturbance of the teaching/learning processand for which a crisis/emergency plan is required, including both the frequency of occurrence andmagnitude of behavior.
D-2
2. Give a full description of previous interventions (including those in the student’s IEP or existingbehavioral intervention plan) that have been applied and have not been successful, includinglength of implementation.
3. Give a full description of the strategies or procedures included in the plan, the times, places, andsituations under which the plan may be introduces, person(s) responsible for its implementation,and any potential risks associated with the plan.
4. Give a full description of how, when, and where measurement procedures that will be used toevaluate the effectiveness of the plan, the criteria against which the plan will be judged, and thetimetable for its evaluation.
D-3
5. Give the timetable for review of the plan.
6. Give a description of the behavior that will be strengthened and/or taught to the student to replacethe behavior of concern, including steps to provide frequency opportunities for the student toengage in and be reinforced for the desired behavior.
7. Give a full description of the plan for withdrawing the crisis/emergency plan and the lessrestrictive and intrusive intervention that will replace it, including the time table for withdrawal ofthe crisis/emergency plan.
8. Give a full description of the steps that will be taken to eliminate future occurrences of thebehavior, including changes in the social/physical environment, teaching of replacement behavior,or both.
D-4
9. Indicate the person(s) responsible for notifying the parent/guardian when the crisis/emergencyplan has been introduced and the way in which that notification will be documented.
10. Indicate the person(s) responsible for the written report of the outcome of the crisis/emergencyplan.
D-5
CASE STUDY 1
SAMPLE SAMPLE CRISIS/EMERGENCY PLAN
Student: _Carl Stephens_______________________________ Date: __February, 24, 2001_______
School: __Hadley Jr. High School_______________________ Grade: _7th____________________
Reason for crisis/emergency plan: repeated verbal threats to physically harm a classmate in retaliation
for unknown acts (“getting in my face,” “putting me down”).________________________________
Persons responsible for developing the plan (indicate position): __Mr. Papadolious (Assistant _____
Principal); Ms. Hayes (school psychologist); Mr. Jordan (special education teacher); Ms. Lopez____
(school counselor)_________________________________________________________________
Parental Approval
Indicate level of parent/guardian participation and approval of the plan. Both Mr. and Mrs. S. were
involved in creating and approving this plan.____________________________________________
Parent/guardian signature: Mr. and Mrs Stephens____________________________
1. Give a full description of the behavior that poses a risk of physical injury to the student or toothers, damage to physical property and/or serious disturbance of the teaching/learning processand for which a crisis/emergency plan is required, including both the frequency of occurrence andmagnitude of behavior.
Carl repeatedly verbally threatened to “kick the s— out of Fred.” Verbal threats were very loud, laced withprofanity, and linked to some provocation; however, the actual provocation(s) was not apparent to the classroomteacher. This very intense verbal threat was the fifth time Carl stated that he was going to physically harm Fred.
2. Give a full description of previous interventions (including those in the student’s IEP or existingbehavioral intervention plan) that have been applied and have not been successful, includinglength of implementation.
The current IEP calls for social skills instruction, including group self-control.An office referral was written after the third verbal threat.A two-day in-school suspension was imposed following the fourth verbal threat.
D-6
3. Give a full description of the strategies or procedures included in the plan, the times, places, andsituations under which the plan may be introduces, person(s) responsible for its implementation,and any potential risks associated with the plan.
Reduce academic stressors by reducing length and complexity of selected class assignments and rearrangeseating arrangement to place Fred a distance from Carl and any common pathways.
Preemptive “pull-out” 1:1 instruction with a special education teacher in the school counselor’s office to address(a) “perceptual errors”—Carl’s misreading of the nonverbal behavior of classmates and (b) use of mnemonicsfor self-control (FAST) and “self-cueing,” for self-reinforcement of appropriate behavior. The teacher will usedirect instruction (cognitive modeling—how to “think aloud”), verbal rehearsal, and verbalfeedback/reinforcement. Sessions will be about 20 minutes and occur twice a day for 4-5 school days (acrossone week-end), depending on Carl’s cooperation and his ability to learn the strategy.
Next, small group instruction (two or three classmates, selected on the basis of appropriate behavior andacceptability to Carl) will take place in the classroom when other students are out of the room (at a computerlab) and consist of behavioral rehearsals of the self-control strategy (beginning with simply breaking eye contactand walking away) and use of verbal prompts and positive feedback from peers. Session will be about 20minutes and occur once a day for 3-4 days, depending on successfulness.
Follow-up will include periodic “behavioral probes” (after three weeks) including role play originalproblem/solutions; teachers will observe for other possible triggers.
4. Give a full description of how, when, and where measurement procedures that will be used toevaluate the effectiveness of the plan, the criteria against which the plan will be judged, and thetimetable for its evaluation.
Classroom teacher observation and narrative recording of problem behavior incidences, on a sheet with checklistcolumns for antecedent events, student responses, and consequences.
Carl will self-count the number of incidences and self-rate his use of self-prompts (self-talk) to use self-control.
Peers will count the number of incidences, rate Carl’s use of self-control, and their own verbal praise.
5. Give the timetable for review of the plan.
Two weeks.
6. Give a description of the behavior that will be strengthened and/or taught to the student to replacethe behavior of concern, including steps to provide frequency opportunities for the student toengage in and be reinforced for the desired behavior.
Carl will use cognitive strategies and role play to: (a) identify likely problem situations and physical signs ofstress/anger (sweating, trembling, flush feeling in the face); (b) cue for self-control; (c) self-count andreinforcement. Selected peers will be used to strengthen level of appropriate behavior through verbal promptsand reinforcement.
D-7
7. Give a full description of the plan for withdrawing the crisis/emergency plan and the lessrestrictive and intrusive intervention that will replace it, including the time table for withdrawal ofthe crisis/emergency plan.
Given the seriousness of the problem, the plan will be introduced immediately, beginning with the “pull-out”instruction, for at least 4-5 days, followed by at least 3-4 days for peer training sessions. The special educationteacher will judge Carl’s acceptance of instruction and ability to fully and accurately “mirror” teacher modelingof the strategy.
The special education teacher and other team members will observe Carl’s behavior (and that of his classmates)across classroom settings and meet formally in two weeks to discuss impact of plan and need for any changes. The team will convene immediately following any further serious behavior incidences.
8. Give a full description of the steps that will be taken to eliminate future occurrences of thebehavior, including changes in the social/physical environment, teaching of replacement behavior,or both.
Because of the seriousness of the problem, use of peer supports remain in place. Carl’s history teacher willincorporate instruction on the peaceful resolution of conflicts and the special education teacher will introduce aclass-wide conflict resolution program.
9. Indicate the person(s) responsible for notifying the parent/guardian when the crisis/emergencyplan has been introduced and the way in which that notification will be documented.
School counselor—Ms. Lopez
10. Indicate the person(s) responsible for the written report of the outcome of the crisis/emergencyplan.
Special education teacher—Mr. Jordan
OTHER AVAILABLE RESOURCES
The Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice has produced additional materials on improving services forchildren and youth with emotional and behavioral problems. Most of our products are free of charge and available bycontacting the Center, except where otherwise indicated. These and other related Center documents are also availableon our web site, and we encourage you to download them and make and distribute copies.
• Addressing Student Problem Behavior—Part I: An IEP Team’s Introduction to Functional BehavioralAssessment and Behavior Intervention Plans. Written with some of the country’s leading experts, this documentserves as a useful tool for educators to understand the requirements of IDEA ‘97 with regard to addressingbehavior problems and implement the fundamental principals and techniques of functional behavioralassessment and positive behavioral supports with students with behavior problems.
• Addressing Student Problem Behavior—Part II: conducting a Functional Behavioral Assessment. This secondmonograph in this series provides an in-depth discussion of the rationale for functional behavioral assessmentand instructions for how to conduct the process. Sample forms are provided.
The fourth document in this series—Addressing Student Problem Behavior—Part IV: A Trainer of TrainersGuide— is forthcoming.
• Functional Assessment and Behavioral Intervention Plans: Parts I & II are two-hour video workshops onfunctional behavioral assessment and behavioral intervention plans. Produced as a cooperative effort betweenthe Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice and Old Dominion University as part of ODU’s state-fundedtechnical assistance project, Part I covers the definitions and origins of functional behavioral assessment, what isinvolved in conducting a functional behavioral assessment and the criteria for determining when one is needed,and other relevant issues surrounding this technique. Part II builds on Part I to provide an in-depth discussion ofand instruction on how to conduct a functional behavioral assessment. Both are available from the Training andTechnical Assistance Center, Old Dominion University, 1401 West 49th Street, Norfolk, VA 23529-0146.
• The National Agenda for Achieving Better Results for Children and Youth with Serious Emotional Disturbance(SED). Prepared for the U.S. Department of Education, the National Agenda offers a blueprint for change andpresents seven strategic targets and cross-cutting themes for improving outcomes for children and youth withSED.
• Early Warning. Timely Response: A Guide to Safe Schools. This document was produced in collaboration withthe National Association of School Psychologists in response to the President’s call for the development of anearly warning guide to help “adults reach out to troubled children quickly and effectively.” This guide has beendistributed to every district in the nation to help them identify children in need of intervention into potentiallyviolent emotions and behaviors. It can be acquired through the U.S. Department of Education by calling toll-freel-877-4ED-PUBS or via the Center’s web site.
• Safeguarding Our Children: An Action Guide. This guide is intended to help school and other local and stateentities to implement the Early Warning, Timely Response: A Guide to Safe Schools. The information withinsupports and offers guidance to those working to implement the recommendations for creating safer and moreeffective schools outlined in the initial publication. It can be acquired through the U.S. Department of Educationby calling toll-free 1-877-4ED-PUBS or via the Center’s web site.
• Safe. Drug-Free, and Effective Schools for ALL Students: What Works! This report came out of a collaborativeeffort between the Office of Special Education Programs and the Safe and Drug-Free Schools Program, both ofthe U.S. Department of Education. It profiles six different approaches in three different communities or districtsto addressing schoolwide prevention and reduction of violent and aggressive behavior by all students. The reportis the result of a literature review and focus groups with students, families, administrators, teachers, andcommunity change agents from local agencies.
CENTER FOR EFFECTIVE COLLABORATION AND PRACTICE:Improving Services for Children and Youth with Emotional and Behavioral Problems
It is the mission of the Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice (CECP) to supportand promote a reoriented national preparedness to foster the development and adjustment ofchildren with or at risk of developing serious emotional disturbance. To achieve that goal, theCenter is dedicated to a policy of collaboration at Federal, state, and local levels that contributesto and facilitates the production, exchange, and use of knowledge about effective practices. Wehave strategically organized the Center to identify promising programs and practices, promote theexchange of useful and useable information, and facilitate collaboration among stakeholders andacross service system disciplines.
Note: This document was reviewed for consistency with the Individuals with DisabilitiesEducation Act (P.L. 105-17) by the U.S. Office of Special Education Programs.
This document was produced under contract number HS92017001 and grant numberH237T60005. The views expressed herein do not necessarily reflect the views of the U.S. Departmentof Education or any other Federal agency and should not be regarded as such. The Center for EffectiveCollaboration and Practice: Improving Services for Children and Youth with Emotional andBehavioral Problems is funded under a cooperative agreement with the Office of Special EducationPrograms, Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services, U.S. Department of Education,with additional support from the Child, Adolescent, and Family Branch, Center for Mental HealthServices, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Administration, of the U.S. Department of Health andHuman Services.
A- Appendix A1
ABC OBSERVATION FORM
Student Name: Observation Date:
Observer: Time:
Activity: Class Period:
Behavior:
ANTECEDENT BEHAVIOR CONSEQUENCE
A- Appendix A2
ABC OBSERVATION FORM
Student: Observer:
Date: Time: Activity:
Context of Incident:
Antecedent:
Behavior:
Consequence:
Comments/Other Observations:
B- Appendix B1
SCATTER PLOT ASSESSMENT
Student Name: Starting Date:
socially engaged low rates of social engagement not socially engaged
Observer:
Tim
e o
f d
ayF
ive
min
ute
inte
rval
s
5/1 5/2 5/3 5/4 5/5 5/8 5/9 5/10 5/11 5/12
9:00
9:05
9:10
9:15
9:20
9:25
9:30
9:35
9:40
9:45
9:50
9:55
10:00
B- Appendix B2
FUNCTIONAL BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT MATRIX
Observed Behaviors Tra
nsiti
on
Larg
e G
roup
Lec
ture
Sm
all G
roup
Inde
pend
ent W
ork
Pap
er-p
enci
l
Wor
kshe
et/ W
orkb
ook
Rea
d al
oud
Rea
d si
lent
ly
Inst
ruct
iona
l gam
e
Med
ia
Oth
er
Off-task
Out-of-seat
Talk-out
Non-compliant
Other
Code: = no behavior
= low rates of behavior
= persistent behavior
A-2
Functional Assessment Scatterplot
Student Setting Observer(s)
Activity Date 9/26
No. of Students Start Time End Time Total
ObservationInterval: 10 sec 15 sec 20 sec Time Sampling
Procedure:1. Continuous
Recording: 2. Non-Continuous
Recording (every min.):
3. Other:
Appropriate Responses Consequences of Inappropriate Responses Consequences of
Phase
AppropriateResponses
InappropriateResponses
Pee
r In
tera
ctio
n
Alo
ne
Adu
lt In
tera
ctio
n
Org
aniz
ed P
lay
Par
alle
l Pla
y
Tot
al
Pee
r In
tera
ctio
n
Alo
ne
Adu
lt In
tera
ctio
n
Org
aniz
ed P
lay
Par
alle
l Pla
y
Tot
al
Other
Total
Act
ivity
Comments:
A-4
Scatterplot for the Playground
Student: Observer:Setting: Time: Intervals:Code: A = Appropriate Behavior;
V = Verbal AggressionP= Physical Aggression
Interval 10/1 10/2 10/3 10/4 Total PercentageA V P A V P
123456789101112131415161718192021222324252627282930
DailyTotals
AVP
A-6
Classsroom Scatterplot
Student Teacher Observer(s)
Activity Date
No. of Students Start Time End Time Total .
ObservationInterval: 10 sec 15 sec 20 sec Time Sampling
Procedure:1. Continuous
Recording: 2. Non-Continuous
Recording (every min.):
3. Other:
Appropriate Responses Inappropriate Responses
Acad
Talk
Answ
erQ
ues
Ask
Que
s
Atte
n
Task
Parti
c
Read
Alou
d
Read
Sile
nt
Writ
e
Oth
erAp
pro.
Tota
l
Aggr
ess/
Disr
uptiv
e
Off
Task
Out
of
Seat
Non
Com
plia
nce
Talk
Out
Oth
erIn
appr
o.
Tota
lIn
appr
opro
.
Gra
ndTo
tal
Paper—Pencil
Listen-Lecture
Teacher-PupilDiscussion
Manipulatives
Inst. Games
WorksheetsWorkbook
Readers
Student-StudentMedia/Tech-Other
Transition
Other
Total
Phasebaseline
Inst
ruct
ion
al C
on
dit
ion
s
A-8
Functional Assessment Scatterplot
Student: Grade: School:
Date(s): Observer(s):
Behavior(s) of concern:
Setting:
DAY OF THE WEEKACTIVITY TIME
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday
TOTAL
Total
Functional Assessment Interview Form
Interviewer(s) Date(s)
Student(s)
Respondent(s) Title
1. Describe the behavior of concern.
2. How often does the behavior occur?
How long does it last?
How intense is the behavior?
3. What is happening when the behavior occurs?
4. When/where is the behavior most/least likely to occur?
5. With whom is the behavior most/least likely to occur?
C-3
6. What conditions are most likely to precipitate (“set-off”) the behavior?
7. How can you tell the behavior is about to start?
8. What usually happens after the behavior the behavior? Describe what happens according to adult(s),peers, and student responses.
9. What is the likely function (intent) of the behavior; that is, why do you think the student behaves this way?What does the student get or avoid?
10. What behavior(s) might serve the same function (see question 9) for the student that is appropriate withinthe social/environmental context?
11. What other information might contribute to creating an effective intervention plan (e.g., under whatconditions does the behavior not occur)?
12. Who should be involved in planning and implementing the intervention plan?
C-4
PROBLEM BEHAVIOR QUESTIONNAIRE
Respondent Information
Student _______________________ DOB _____________ Grade _______________ Sex: M F IEP: Y NTeacher _________________________________________ School ___________________________________________Telephone _______________________________________ Date ________________
STUDENT BEHAVIOR: Please briefly describe the problem behavior(s)
DIRECTIONS: Keeping in mind a typical episode of the problem behavior, circle the frequency at which each of thefollowing statements are true.
PERCENT OF THE TIME
Never 10% 25% 50% 75% 90% Always
16. Does the problem behavior occur and persist when youmake a request to perform a task? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
17. When the problem behavior occurs do you redirect thestudent to get back to task or follow rules? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
18. During a conflict with peers, if the student engages inthe problem behavior do peers leave the studentalone?
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
19. When the problem behavior occurs do peers verballyrespond or laugh at the student? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
20. Is the problem behavior more likely to occur following aconflict outside the classroom? (e.g., bus write up) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
21. Does the problem behavior occur to get your attentionwhen you are working with other students? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
22. Does the problem behavior occur in the presence ofspecific peers? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
23. Is the problem behavior more likely to continue to occurthroughout the day following an earlier episode? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
24. Does the problem behavior occur during specificacademic activities? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
25. Does the problem behavior stop when peers stopinteracting with the student? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
26. Does the behavior stop when peers are attending toother students? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
27. If the student engages in the problem behavior do youprovide one-on-one instruction to get student back on-task?
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
28. Will the student stop doing the problem behavior if youstop making requests or end an academic activity? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
29. If the student engages in the problem behavior, dopeers stop interacting with the student? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
30. Is the problem behavior more likely to occur followingunscheduled events or disruptions in classroomroutines?
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Source: Lewis, T.J., Scott, T.M., and Sugai, G. (1994). The problem behavior questionnaire: A teacher-based instrument to develop functionalhypotheses of problem behavior in general education settings. Diagnostique, 19, 103-115. Reprinted with permission.
E-3
PROBLEM BEHAVIOR QUESTIONNAIRE PROFILE
Student ____________________________________________________________ Grade_____________________________School ____________________________________________________________ Date _____________________________
DIRECTIONS: Circle the score given for each question from the scale below the corresponding question number (in bold).
PEERS ADULTS SETTING EVENTS
Escape Attention Escape Attention
3 10 14 4 7 11 1 9 13 2 6 12 5 8 15
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ANALYSIS OF POSSIBLE FUNCTION(S) OF STUDENT BEHAVIOR
Source: Lewis, T.J., Scott, T.M., and Sugai, G. (1994). The problem behavior questionnaire: A teacher-based instrument to develop functionalhypotheses of problem behavior in general education settings. Diagnostique, 19, 103-115. Reprinted with permission.
E-4
F-2
Data Triangulation Chart
Student Date(s)
Source 1 Source 2 Source 3
G-2
Problem Behavior Pathway
Student: Grade: School: Date:
Time: Setting:
Setting Events
öö
TriggeringAntecedents
öö
ProblemBehavior(s)
öö
MaintainingConsequences
G-4
MaintainingConsequence(s)
Triggering AntecedentsAccommodations
Setting EventsAccommodations
DesiredBehavior(s)
MaintainingConsequence(s)
TriggeringAntecedents
Setting Events
ProblemBehavior(s)
ReplacementBehavior(s)
COMPETING BEHAVIOR PATHWAY
Student: Grade: School: Date:
A-1
APPENDIX A
FUNCTIONAL ASSESSMENT/BEHAVIORAL INTERVENTION CHECKLIST
IEP teams can use this checklist to guide them through the process of conducting a functionalbehavioral assessment and writing and implementing a positive behavioral intervention plan.
Student: _______________________________________ Date: __________________________Team leader: __________________________________ Grade: __________________________Behavior(s) of concern: ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Yes No1. Is the student behavior of concern clearly defined?2. Have replacement behaviors that serve the same function (or result in
the same outcome) for the student been identified, along with thecircumstances under which they should occur (e.g., when threatened bypeer in hallway)?
3. Are multiple sources of information available that have been collectedfrom various individuals (e.g., teachers, parents, classmates, student)?At least two separate indirect measures and multiple direct measures(e.g., ABC charts, scatterplots) that capture multiple occurrences/non-occurrences of the behavior (and its context) should be in agreement.
4. Has the team produced an acceptable convergent database?5. Is the hypothesis statement written according to the three-term
contingency (i.e., under x conditions, the student does y, in order toachieve z) so that an intervention plan can easily be produced?
6. Is the plan aligned with student needs and assessment results?7. Does the plan address all aspects of the social/environmental contexts in
which the behavior of concern has occurred?8. Is there a strategy to verify the accuracy of the hypothesis statement
(e.g., analogue assessment)?9. Does the plan address both short-term and long-term aspects of student
behavior (and its social/environmental context), including procedures toeliminate reliance on unacceptable behavior?
10. Does the plan include practical ways to monitor both its implementation(e.g., checklist, treatment scripts) and its effectiveness as a behavioralintervention plan?
11. Does the plan include ways to promote the maintenance andgeneralization of positive behavior changes in student behavior (e.g.,self-monitoring)?
12. Is the plan consistent with building-level systems of student behaviorchange and support?
B-1
APPENDIX B
POSITIVE BEHAVIORAL INTERVENTION PLAN
PLANNING FORM
IEP teams can use this form to guide them through the process of developing the Positive BehavioralIntervention Plan.
Student _________________________________________ Age __________ Sex ___________
Teacher(s) _____________________________________________ Grade _________________
Case Manager __________________________________________ Date(s) ________________
Reason for intervention plan:
Participants (specify names):( ) student___________________________ ( ) special education administrator_______________( ) family member ____________________ ( ) general education administrator ______________( ) special educator____________________ ( ) school psychologist________________________( ) general educator ___________________ ( ) other agency personnel_____________________( ) peer(s) ___________________________ _______________________________________( ) other (specify) _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Fact Finding
1) General learning environment: Describe the student’s school class schedule, including anyspecial programs or services.
2) Problem behavior: Define the problem behavior(s) in observable, measurable, and countableterms (i.e., topography, event, duration, seriousness, and/or intensity). Include several examples ofthe behavior.
3) Setting events: Describe important things that are happening in the student’s life that may becausing the behavior(s) of concern.
B-2
4) Review existing data: Summarize previously collected information (records review, interviews,observations, and test results) relevant to the behavior(s). Attach additional sheets if necessary.
Possible Explanations
5) Identify likely antecedents (precipitating events) to the behavior(s).
6) Identify likely consequences that may be maintaining the behavior(s).
7) Identify and describe any academic or environmental context(s) in which the problem behavior(s)does not occur.
Validation
8) Functional assessment: Do you already have enough information to believe that the possibleexplanations are sufficient to plan an intervention?
a) If yes, go to Step 9, if no, then what additional data collection is necessary?( ) Review of IEP goals and objectives( ) Review of medical records( ) Review of previous intervention plans( ) Review of incident reports( ) ABC (across time and situations)( ) Motivational analysis( ) Ecological analysis( ) Curricular analysis( ) Scatter plot( ) Parent questionnaire/interview( ) Student questionnaire/interview( ) Teacher questionnaire/interview (specify who) ______________________( ) Other (explain) _______________________________________________
b) Summarize data. Attach additional sheets if necessary.
B-3
Planning
9) Formulate hypothesis statement: Using the table below, determine why the student engages inproblem behavior(s), whether the behavior(s) serves single or multiple functions, and what to doabout the behavior(s).
Internal External
Obtain Something
Avoid Something
10) Current level of performance: Describe problem behavior(s) in a way the team will recognizeonset and conclusion of behavior.
11) Describe replacement behavior(s) that are likely to serve the same function as the behavior(s)identified in Step 9.
12) Measurement procedures for problem behavior(s) and replacement behavior(s):
a) Describe how (e.g., permanent products, event recording, scatterplot), when, and wherestudent behavior(s) will be measured.
b) Summarize data by specifying which problem behavior(s) and replacement behavior(s) will betargets for intervention.
13) Behavioral intervention plan:
a) Specify goals and objectives (conditions, criteria for acceptable performance) for teaching thereplacement behavior(s).
B-4
b) Specify instructional strategies that will be used to teach the replacement behavior(s).
c) Specify strategies that will be used to decrease problem behavior(s) and increase replacementbehavior(s).
d) Identify any changes in the physical environment needed to prevent problem behavior(s) andto promote desired (replacement) behavior(s), if necessary.
e) Specify extent to which intervention plan will be implemented in various settings; specifysettings and persons responsible for implementation of plan.
14) Evaluation plan and schedule: Describe the plan and timetable to evaluate effectiveness of theintervention plan.
a) Describe how, when, where, and how often the problem behavior(s) will be measured.
b) Specify persons and settings involved.
c) Specify a plan for crisis/emergency intervention, if necessary
d) Determine schedule to review/modify the intervention plan, as needed. Include dates andcriteria for changing/fading the plan.
15) Describe plan and timetable to monitor the degree to which the plan is being implemented.
C-1
APPENDIX C
FORCED-CHOICE REINFORCEMENT MENU
Name: ______________________________________________________
In order to identify possible classroom reinforcers, it is important to go directly to the source, namely,you the student. Below is a paragraph that provides instructions for completing a series of “controlledchoice” survey items about individual reinforcement preferences. Please read the following paragraphcarefully:
“Let’s suppose that you have worked hard on an assignment and you think that you have done asuper job on it. In thinking about a reward for your effort, which one of the two things belowwould you most like to happen? Please choose the one from each pair that you would like bestand mark and “X” in the blank that comes in front of it. Remember, mark only one blank for eachpair.”
1. _____ Teacher writes “100” on your paper. (A)_____ Be first to finish your work. (CM)
2. _____ A bag of chips. (CN)_____ Classmates ask you to be on their team. (P)
3. _____ Be free to do what you like. (I)_____ Teacher writes “100” on your paper. (A)
4. _____ Classmates ask you to be on their team. (P)_____ Be first to finish your work. (CM)
5. _____ Be free to do what you like. (I)_____ A bag of chips. (CN)
6. _____ Teacher writes “100” on your paper. (A)_____ Classmates ask you to be on their team. (P)
7. _____ Be first to finish your work. (CM)_____ Be free to do what you like. (I)
8. _____ A bag of chips. (CN)_____ Teacher writes “100” on your paper. (A)
9. _____ Classmates ask you to be on their team. (P)_____ Be free to do what you like. (I)
10. _____ Be first to finish your work. (CM)_____ A bag of chips. (CN)
C-2
11. _____ Teacher writes “A” on your paper. (A)_____ Be the only one that can answer a question. (CM)
12. _____ A candy bar. (CN)_____ Friends ask you to sit with them. (P)
13. _____ Be free to go outside. (I)_____ Teacher writes “A” on your paper. (A)
14. _____ Friends ask you to sit with them. (P)_____ Be the only one that answers a question. (CM)
15. _____ Be free to go outside. (I)_____ A candy bar. (CN)
16. _____ Teacher writes “A” on your paper. (A)_____ Friends ask you to sit with them. (P)
17. _____ Be the only one that can answer a question. (CM)_____ Be free to go outside. (I)
18. _____ A candy bar. (CN)_____ Teacher writes “A” on your paper. (A)
19. _____ Friends ask you to sit with them. (P)_____ Be free to go outside. (I)
20. _____ Be the only on that can answer a question. (CM)_____ A candy bar. (CN)
21. _____ Teacher writes “Perfect” on your paper. (A)_____ Have only your paper shown to the class. (CM)
22. _____ A can of soda. (CN)_____ Classmates ask you to be class leader. (P)
23. _____ Be free to play outside. (I)_____ Teacher writes “Perfect” on your paper. (A)
24. _____ Classmates ask you to be class leader. (P)_____ Have only your paper shown to the class. (CM)
25. _____ Be free to play outside. (I)_____ A can of soda. (CN)
26. _____ Teacher writes “Perfect” on your paper. (A)_____ Classmates ask you to be class leader. (P)
C-3
27. _____ Have only your paper shown to the class. (CM)_____ Be free to play outside. (I)
28. _____ A can of soda. (CN)_____ Teacher writes “Perfect” on your paper. (A)
29. _____ Classmates ask you to be class leader. (P)_____ Be free to play outside. (I)
30. _____ Have only your paper shown to class. (CM)_____ A can of soda. (CN)
31. _____ Teacher writes “Excellent” on your paper. (A)_____ Have your paper put on the bulletin board. (CM)
32. _____ A pack of gum. (CN)_____ Friends ask you to work with them. (P)
33. _____ Be free to work on something you like. (I)_____ Teacher writes “Excellent” on your paper. (A)
34. _____ Friends ask you to work with them. (P)_____ Have your paper put on the bulletin board. (CM)
35. _____ Be free to work on something you like. (I)_____ A pack of gum. (CN)
36. _____ Teacher writes “Excellent” on your paper. (A)_____ Friends ask you to work with them. (P)
37. _____ Have your paper put on the bulletin board. (CM)_____ Be free to work in something you like. (I)
38. _____ A pack of gum. (CN)_____ Teacher writes “Excellent” on your paper. (A)
39. _____ Friends ask you to work with them. (P)_____ Be free to work on something you like. (I)
40. _____ Have your paper put on the bulletin board. (CM)_____ A pack of gum. (CN)
Other suggestions about classroom rewards:
Thank you for taking the time to complete this survey.
C-5
Reinforcement Inventory
SCORING KEY
__________ Adult Approval (A)
__________ Competitive Approval (CM)
__________ Peer Approval (P)
__________ Independent Rewards (I)
__________ Consumable Rewards (CN)
Modified by Gable, R. A. (1991) from:
Cartwright, C. A., & Cartwright, G. P. (1970). Determining the motivational systems of individualchildren. TEACHING Exceptional Children, 2:3, 143-149.
D-1
APPENDIX D
SAMPLE CRISIS/EMERGENCY PLAN
Student: ________________________________________ Date: _________________________
School: ___________________________________________ Grade: ______________________
Reason for crisis/emergency plan: _____________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
Persons responsible for developing the plan (indicate position): ______________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
Parental Approval
Indicate level of parent/guardian participation and approval of the plan. _______________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
Parent/guardian signature: ___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
1. Give a full description of the behavior that poses a risk of physical injury to the student or toothers, damage to physical property and/or serious disturbance of the teaching/learning processand for which a crisis/emergency plan is required, including both the frequency of occurrence andmagnitude of behavior.
D-2
2. Give a full description of previous interventions (including those in the student’s IEP or existingbehavioral intervention plan) that have been applied and have not been successful, includinglength of implementation.
3. Give a full description of the strategies or procedures included in the plan, the times, places, andsituations under which the plan may be introduces, person(s) responsible for its implementation,and any potential risks associated with the plan.
4. Give a full description of how, when, and where measurement procedures that will be used toevaluate the effectiveness of the plan, the criteria against which the plan will be judged, and thetimetable for its evaluation.
D-3
5. Give the timetable for review of the plan.
6. Give a description of the behavior that will be strengthened and/or taught to the student to replacethe behavior of concern, including steps to provide frequency opportunities for the student toengage in and be reinforced for the desired behavior.
7. Give a full description of the plan for withdrawing the crisis/emergency plan and the lessrestrictive and intrusive intervention that will replace it, including the time table for withdrawal ofthe crisis/emergency plan.
8. Give a full description of the steps that will be taken to eliminate future occurrences of thebehavior, including changes in the social/physical environment, teaching of replacement behavior,or both.
D-4
9. Indicate the person(s) responsible for notifying the parent/guardian when the crisis/emergencyplan has been introduced and the way in which that notification will be documented.
10. Indicate the person(s) responsible for the written report of the outcome of the crisis/emergencyplan.