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Training Methodology. Part 2: Planning and Administration. An Annotated Bibliography.Public Health Service (DHEW), Washington, D.C. Health Services and Mental Health Administration.

Pub Date May 69Note-128p.; Public Health Service Publication No. 1862, Part ILAvailable from-Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office. Washington, D.C. 204021(0-334 -246, $1.00).

EDRS Price Mr -$0.75 HC Not Available from EDRSDescriptors -*Annotated Bibliographies, Courses. *Educational Administration. *Educational Planning,

Instructional Design, Learning Theories, *TrainingInstructional design. course planning. and training program administration are

the main aspects treated ih this annotated bibliography. Most articles included werepublished between January 1960 and March 1968. The 447 abstracts appear underthe main headings of: learning theory applied to instruction. planning. coursemanagement. and program administration. A subject index is included. (pt)

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This annotated bibliography is the second of four indicating current thought ontraining methodology. Content for the four publications was selected from over 6,000items. Most were published from January 1960 to March 1968. A few earlier items arealso included because of their significance. Some useful material had to be omittedbecause of budgetary limitations related both to search and final printing; the sheer scopeof the field precluded complete coverage of the literature. Certain annotations wereborrowed from other publications (details are explained on the Credits page).

In the expectation that these bibliographies will be updated, the projectadministrators (listed in the Introduction) welcome comments and suggestions withrespect to additions, deletions, classification system, indexing, and technical ortypographical errors.

p. 2 Reference #7:

p. 4 Reference #15:

p. 6 Reference #21:

p. 7 Reference #25:

p. 11 Reference #43:

p. 12 Reference #/:8:


p. 53 Referencefollowing #214:


ERRATA SHEET

Training MethodologyPart II: Planning and Administration

communication, not commuication

pp. 177-197, not 179-199

pp. 45-49, not 16-30

author: LINDGREN, not LUNDGREN

September 1959, not 'j 1957

pp. 1267-1286, not 1297-1286

vol. 33:5, not 35:5

Add at end of summary: (Located too late for indexing)

THOMAS H. JERDEE, not THOMAS A. JERDEE

p. 56 1st entry, MODLIN: pp. 139-159, not 139-160











p.107 Reference #442:

second author: DAMRIN, not DAMARIN

delete comma after PHILIP R.

pp.329-335, not pp. 3-9

second author: HARRIS A. TAYLOR, not TAYLOR BROWNELL

WIGDERSON, not WIDGERSON

pp. 26-44, not 26-30

vol. 38:6, not 8:6

pp. 267-285, not 267-286

March 1967, not 1966

The description is not that of the article by Wayne J. Foreman.Another article in the same periodical issue was described andthe Foreman entry mistakenly recorded. The entry for this refer-

ence should be: NORDLIE, DAVID A. The competent trainer; moreneeded than "face validity." Training and development ournal

21:5, May 1967. pp. 51-54.

Ithaca, N. Y., not Ithica

TRAINING METHODOLOGY

Part II: Planning and Administration

An Annotated Bibliography

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFAREPUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE

HEALTH SERVICES AND MENTAL HEALTH ADMINISTRATIONNATIONAL COMMUNICABLE DISEASE CENTER NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF MENTAL HEALTHATLANTA, GEORGIA 30333

CHEVY CHASE, MARYLAND 20203

Yr.

Public Health Service Publication No. 1862, Part II

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

WASHINGTON : 1969

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing OfficeWashington, D.C. 20402 - Price $1

INTRODUCTION

This bibliography pertains to aspects of instructional design, course planning, andtraining program administration. It is the second of a group of four on trainingmethodology. References on all four are arranged in classified order, annotated, andindexed. Additional information about concepts emphasized in this publication may belocated by reference to indexes of other publications in the group. (In some referencescoverage of a particular concept was secondary or even peripheral to the major topic, butits inclusion was noted in the indexing to emphasize relationships.)

Other titles in the group are:

Training MethodologyPart I. Background Theory and Research

Training MethodologyPart III: Instructional Methods and Techniques

Training MethodologyPart IV: Audiovisual Theory, Aids, and Equip-ment

In a related group of classified, annotated, and indexed bibliographies on mentalhealth inservice training, training concepts are highlighted in annotations and indexing.The group consists of three publications:

Annotated Bibliography on Inservice Training for Key Professionals inCommunity Mental Health

Annotated Bibliography on Inservice Training for Allied Professionalsin Community MentalHealth

Annotated Bibliography on Lnervice Training in Mental Health forStaff in ResidentialInstitutions

These seven publications were developed as a joint effort of the National Instituteof Mental Health and the National Communicable Disease Center of the Health. Servicesand Mental Health Administration, Public Health Service, U.S. Department of Health,Education, and Welfare. The project was administered by the National Institute ofMentalHealth's Community Mental Health Centers Staffing Branch of the Division of MentalHealth Service Programs; the Continuing Education Branch of its Division of Manpowerand Training; and the Training Methods Development Section of the NationalCommunicable Disease Center's Training Program.

iii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Due to the nature of this series of publications, the amount of coordination andcooperation required for its development, and the range of skills employed in getting itpublished, the following persons should be recognized: Miss Patricia Rogers, TechnicalInformation Specialist (Education), Training Methods Development Section, TrainingProgram, National Communicable Disease Centercompiler and project supervisor; Dr.Ross Grumet, Psychiatrist, Region IV Mental Health Servicetechnical reviewer; Mr.

Alfred R. Kinney, Jr., Chief, Training Methods Development Section, Training Program,National Communicable Disease Centeradvisor; Mrs. Anne W. Morgan, Health Educator,Region IV Office of Comprehensive Health Planningtechnical reviewer; Dr. Robert D.Quinn, Staff Psychologist, Community Mental Health Centers Staffing Branch, Divisionof Mental Health Service Programs, National Institute of Mental HealthNIMHcoordinator; Dr. Dorothy Schroeder, Professor of Social Work, University of Michiganconsultant; Mrs. Betty S. Segal, Evaluation Specialist, Training Methods DevelopmentSection, Training Program, National Communicable Disease Centertechnical reviewer;Miss Marguerite Termini, Associate Professor of Psychiatric Nursing, University ofDelawareconsultant; Dr. Thomas G. Webster, Chief, Continuing Education Branch,Division of Manpower and Training, National Institute of Mental Healthadviser. Originalannotations and abstracts were written by seven graduate students and technical assistantsemployed especially for the project. These individuals were: Miss Connie Benson, MissMary Lavinia Campbell, Miss Rosemary Franklin, Miss Sharon Grilz, Miss Gale Lawrence,Mr. Garrett McAinsh, and Mr. Stephen Von Allmen.

iv

CREDITS

Permission to reprint abstracts and annotations from the following sources is gratefullyacknowledged:

(ASTD): "Training Research Abstracts," edited by Gerald H. Whitlock. INTraining and Development Journal, published by the American Societyfor Training and Development, January 1966 to date. Separatelypublished by the Society before Jaimary 1966.

(ASIV): Abstracts for Social Workers. Albany, N.Y.: National Association ofSocial Workers. Quarterly.

(ERIC 1): ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult Education. Evening College Education:Basic Information Sources/1967. Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University,November 1967. 23 pp.

(ERIC 2): ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult Education. Management DevelopmentNo. 1: Current Information Sources. Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse Univer-sity, November 1967. 11 pp.

(ERIC 3):

(ERIC 4):

ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult Education. Methods and Techniques ofAdult Training, No. 1: Current Information Sources. Syracuse, N.Y.:Syracuse University, December 1967. 15 pp.

ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult Education. Training of Adult EducationPersonnel, No. 1: Current Informatien Sources. Syracuse, N.Y.: Syra-cuse University, December 1967. 22 pp.

(HumRRO): Smith, Robert G., Jr. An Annotated Bibliography on the Design ofInstructional Systems (Technical Report 67-5). Alexandria, Va.: TheGeorge Washington University, Human Resources Research Office, May1967. 132 pp.

(USCSC 1): U.S. Civil Service Commission Library. Personnel Literature. Washing-ton, D.C.: The Library. Monthly.

(USCSC 2): U.S. Civil Service Commission Library. Bibliography of Bibliographies inPersonnel Administration (Personnel Bibliography Series Number 9).Washington, D.C.: The Library, n.d. 62 pp.

(USCSC 3): U.S. Civil Service Commission Library. Planning, Administration, andEvaluation of Executive Development Programs (Personnel BibliographySeries Number 4). Washington, D.C.: The Library, June 1961. 64 pp.

(USCSC 4): U.S. Civil Service Commission Library. Planning, Organizing andEvaluating Training Programs (Personnel Bibliography Series Number18). Washington, D.C.: The Library, January 1966. 87 pp.

CONTENTS

LEARNING THEORY APPLIED TO INSTRUCTION 1

PLANNINGLESSON PLANNING, COURSE DESIGN, CURRICULUM

DEVELOPMENT :3PROGRAMMING INSTRUCTION 21DETERMINING NEEDSGENERAL 25DETERMINING NEEDS -JOB AND TASK ANALYSIS 29DETERMINING NEEDSOTHER SPECIFIC METHODS 32OBJECTIVESDEVELOPMENT AND USE 34SELECTING METHODS 38SELECTING MEDIA 40EVALUATIONTESTS AND MEASUREMENT (GENERAL) 42EVALUATION PROCESS 45EVALUATIONSPECIFIC PROGRAMS 54EVALUATIONSPECIFIC METHODS

Simulation in Evaluation 58Observations 58Ratings 59Pre- and Post-Testing 60Critical Incidents 61

EVALUATIONSPECIFIC DEVICES 64

COURSE MANAGEMENTGROUPING FOR INSTRUCTION 66INDIVIDUALIZING INSTRUCTION 68CLASSROOM CLIMATE, TECHNIQUES, DEVICES 70INSTRUCTOR ROLE 73

PROGRAM ADMINISTRATIONTRAINING PROGRAMFUNCTIONS, ORGANIZATION,

ADMINISTRATION 82TRAINING DIRECTORROLE AND TRAINING 92INSTRUCTORSSELECTION AND TRAINING 95RESEARCH 101

GENERAL SOURCES 106

INDEX (by reference numbers) 109

vii

LEARNING THEORY APPLIED TO INSTRUCTION

ADAMS, JACK D. Part trainers. IN Finch, Glen (ed.).Educational and training media: a symposium(Publ. no. 789). Washington, D.C.: NationalResearch Council, 1960. pp. 129-149.

The effective design and use of part trainers is inan applied aspect of the area of psychology we know aspart-whole transfer of training. Part-whole training hasreceived only a moderate amount of attention, themotivations of researchers in this area being of twotraditional kinds: (1) basic, pure research aimed atunderstanding how component skills fit together in thecomplex whole skill, and (2) applied science. Examina-tion of research literature suggests that these two havenot produced very much; our knowledge in this area isoften controversial. This paper surveys the issues andfindings to see what tentative generalizations are possi-ble. Data and several figures give explanations andconclusions about cockpit procedures trainers. Listed aresome tentative principles for part trainers: (1) theyshould be used whenever part-training, plus the addedintegrative whole-task practice required to learn theinteraction among the parts, costs less than whole-taskpractice to achieve a criterion of proficiency; (2) theycan be used unequivocally for response sequences whichdo not have to be performed in a concurrent, time-shared relationship with the responses in the whole task;(3) they may be effective for the maintenance ofproficiency in procedural response sequences which areperformed concurrently with continuous responses; and(4) they, being so much simpler than the whole task, areless difficult and yield measures of response proficiencywhich are spuriously high. (1)

BASS, BERNARD M. and JAMES A. VAUGHAN. Thepsychology of learning for managers. Chicago:American Foundation for Management Research,1965. 109 pp.

This book attempts to summarize the mostrelevant findings from the behavioral sciences concerningthe processes of learning and teaching in relation tomanagement development. Contents are: Part One(1) Basic Principles of Learning and Perception;(2) Complex Problem Solving and Transfer of Training;(3) Motivation and the Learning Process; (4) Conditionsof Learning; Part Two(1) Basic Educational Issues(What Is To Be Taught? How Is the Content To BeTaught and By Whom? How Is Training To Be

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Evaluated?); (2) Recent Training Developments (Meth-ods and Techniques); (3) A Design for a Viable Labora-tory for Managers. References and a bibliography areincluded. (2)

BASS, BERNARD M. and JAMES A. VAUGHAN.Training in industry, the management of learning(Behavioral Science in Industry series). Belmont,Calif.: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1966.164 pp.

The principles of learning behavior derivedthrough laboratory study can be extended to explainmuch of the complex learning required in industrialtraining programs. A review of the basic principles ofhuman learning introduces four basic concepts--drive,stimulus, response, and reinforcerand discusses classicaland instrumental conditioning and higher forms oflearning. The strategy of training involves three steps(1) statements of the content of the training program,characteristics of the learner and his environment, theoverall organizational climate, and the relation of train-ing to company goals; (2) decisions about how and bywhom the content will be taught including discussion ofboth current industrial training techniques and promis-ing innovations and the extent to which they conform tothe principles of learning; and (3) administration andevaluation of the training program. Training needs andthe effectiveness of training programs must be assessedcontinuously in a carefully designed and executedresearch program. (ERIC 3) (3)

BELLOWS, ROGER. The management of learning, PartsI and II. Personnel administration 23:1, January-February 1960. pp. 21-28. 23:2, March-April1960. pp. 4-10.

Part I, Theory and Practice, summarizes theheritage of learning theory, research, and practice in aconvenient and understandable form for both the trainerand the learner. Part II, Efficiency and Economy, breaksdown the management of learning into seven parts:motivate, get set to learn, reduce frustration, knowresults of learning, use present knowledge and skill,reduce forgetting, and expect to use results of learning.The article discusses each part and shows how itcontributes to the overall management of learning.(USCSC 3, edited) (4)

BRUNER, JEROME S. The process of education.Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,1961.97 pp.

The Woods Hole Conference, where physicists,biologists, mathematicians, historians, educators, andpsychologists came together to consider anew the natureof the learning process, its relevance to education, andpoints at which current curricular efforts have raisednew questions about current conceptions of learning andteaching, was the basis of this report. It is essentially aconsensual summary of that conference. The questionswere: What shall be taught, when, and how?; What kindsof research and inquiry might further the growing effortin the design of curricula?; What are the implications ofemphasizing the structure of a subject, be it mathematicsor history, emphasizing it in a way that seeks to give astudent as quickly as possible a sense of the fundamentalideas of discipline? Chapter titles are: Introduction; TheImportance of Structure; Readiness for Learning; Intui-tive and Analytic Thinking; Motives for Learning; andAids to Teaching. An index is included. (5)

BRUNER, JEROME S. Toward a theory of instruction.Cambridge, Mass.: The Belknap Press of HarvardUniversity Press, 1966. 176 pp.

This is a collection of essays written by theauthor during the decade preceding this publication.Though technical concerns underlie much of the discus-sion, the practical needs and problems of education formthe primary rationale of the essays. The essay titles are:Patterns of Growth; Education as Social Invention;Notes on a Theory of Instruction; Man: A Course ofStudy (description of the structure of a course in socialstudies); Teaching a Native Language; The Will to Learn;On Coping and Defending; A Retrospect on Making andJudging. An index is included. (6)

CARPENTER, C. R. Boundaries of learning theories andmediators of learning. AV commuication review10:6, November-December 1962. pp. 295-306.

The relationship between learning theory andcommunication theory has significance for understand-ing and using new educational media correctly. Tengeneral principles can be derived from research: (1) stim-ulus materials which have the greatest similarity to thestimulus situation of the learned performance (criterion)will be the most effective; (2) the effects of stimulationdepend heavily both on relevant previous learning andon activated motivation of the subjects for response;(3) for effective learning responses to occur, the amountof information, its complexity, and the rate of presenta-tion should be gauged and produced to fall within thesensory-perceptual and comprehension spans of thelearner; (4) stimulation to more than one sensory modal-

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ity may increase learning by perceptual extension andreinforcement, provided the materials are organized tohave cognative cohesion or continuitywhere theseconditions do not obtain, interferences may occurbetween combined stimulus channels and modes ofstimuli; (5) repetition of stimuli and responses shouldhave systematic variations; (6) mediated stimulus materi-als which are authentic, correct, and subject to valida-tion by the learner increase the possibilities for signif-icant learning and for their retention and reinforcementin real life situations; (7) correct responses to stimulusmaterials should be reinforced immediately; (8) carefullysequenced and tested materials presented in limited stepsare most effective; (9) learning will be most effectivewhen stimulus materials attract and sustain the attentionof the learner, have personal interest for him, andprovide inherent reinforcement of learning responses;and (10) principles derived from direct instruction byteachers are equally applicable in the use of instructionalmaterials with new media. (7)

CASSELS, LOUIS. Eight steps to better training: youcan benefit from new findings on the ways inwhich adults learn. Nation's business 49:3, March1961. pp. 40-41, 90, 92-93.

Important facts that educational research hasbrought to light about the way in which adults learn arepresented, along with practical suggestions on how toapply them in training programs in business. The eightsteps to better training are discussed under theseheadings: (1) adults must want to learn; (2) adults willlearn only what they feel a need to learn; (3) adults learnby doing; (4) adult learning centers on problems, and theproblems must be realistic; (5) experience affects adultlearning; (6) adults learn best in an informal environ-ment; (7) a variety of methods should be used inteaching adults; and (8) adults want guidance, notgrades. (8)

CLARK, JAMES V. Education for the use of behavioralscience. Los Angeles: University of California,1962. 91 pp.

Knowledge is not practice and vice versa. Theteacher must assist the student to accomplish a fruitfulinterchange between knowledge and practice. Chaptersare: Education for Practice; Today's Student and WhatHe Is Being Asked to Do; The Students in theClassroom: Forces Which Constrain:and Facilitate Learn-ing; The Instructor in the Classroom: Forces WhichConstrain and Facilitate Learning; Faculty Competenceand Experience; A Mix of Courses for the Utilization ofKnowledge; Research on Techniques for DevelopingManagerial Effectiveness; and On the Theory and Prac-tice of Education for Practice. (9)

CRONBACH, LEE J. Educational psychology. 2ndedition. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World,1963. 706 pp.

The principles of educational psychology arepresented in this text designed for teachers and prospec-tive teachers. Fourteen case descriptions, 141 illustra-tions, and 45 tables supplement textual material. Con-tents are: Part One, Psychology and School Problems(1) How Psychology Contributes to Education; (2) WhatTeachers Are Trying to Accomplish; (3) An Introductionto the Learning Process; Part Two, Readiness and ItsDevelopment (4) The Stream of Development; (5) Dif-ferences in Pupil Characteristics: Illustrative Cases;(6) Assessing Readiness: Personality and Motivation;(7) Assessing Readiness; Abilities; (8) The Interpretationand Application of Ability Tests; Part Three, AcquiringSkills, Ideas vend Attitudes(9) Skills; (10) IntellectualDevelopment as a Transfer of Learning; (11) ImprovingUnderstanding and Thinking; (12) CommunicatingKnowledge; (13) Identification and the Learning ofAttitudes; Part Four, Planning, Motivation, and Evalua-tion(14) Purposes and Aspirations; (15) The Teacher asa Classroom Leader; (16) Judging Performance; PartFive, Emotional Learning(17) Healthy Adjustment toDifficulties; (18) Character Development. A bibliog-raphy and author and subject indexes are included. (10)

CURRICULUM RESEARCH INSTITUTE. Theories ofinstruction (Papers from the ASCD Ninth Curric-ulum Research Institute, San Francisco, Califor-nia, December 1-4, 1963; Washington, D.C.,February 29-March 3, 1964). Edited by James B.Macdonald and Robert R. Leeper. Washington,D.C.: Association for Supervision and Curricu-lum Development, 1965. 118 pp.

The Curriculum Research Institute is co-sponsored annually by the ASCD and the NationalInstitute of Mental Health. "The six papers and theintroductory and concluding statements included in thispublication are indeed basic and significant additions tothe literature on theories of instruction. . . Thesepapers reveal a high degree of maturity on the part ofsome of our leading scholars in the field of curriculumand instruction. I foresee great advancement in ourunderstanding of the nature and character of instructionas a result of the efforts of these contributors" (from theForeword, by Galen Saylor, President, 1965.66, ASCD).Papers presented are: Educational Models for Instruction

Introduction, by James B. Macdonald (distinctions aremade between teaching, learning, instructional systems,and curriculum systems); Two Examplars of TeachingMethod, by Harry S. .Broudy (two teaching styles arecompared: rhetorical instruction and the dialecticalinstruction of Socrates); On the Transmission of Infor-mation to Human Receivers, by Robert M. W. Travers(implications of research on human information process-

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ing for instruction, particularly the audiovisual aspects,are discussed); A Model of Instruction Based on Infor-mation System Concepts, by David G. Ryans (flowcharts of the proposed model of instruction as inter-related information processing systems are presented anddiscussed); A Model of Teaching as Problem Solving, byN. A. Fattu; Instruction as Influence Toward Rule-Governed Behavior, by Elizabeth Steiner Maccia; TheLanguage of the Classroom, Meanings Communicated inHigh School Teaching, by Arno A. Bellack; Theories ofInstruction for What? A Projection, by Walcott H.Beatty (implications of instructional approaches empha-sizing shaping and choice-makingthe Rogers-Skinnerdebateare compared). References accompany eachpaper. (1,1)

DePHILLIPS, FRANK A., WILLIAM M. BERLINERand JAMES J. CRIBBIN. Principles of learningand trainingmore than telling and showing. INTHEIR Management of training programs. Home-wood, Ill.: Richard D. Irwin, 1960. pp. 67-99.

This chapter is concerned with five problems:(1) the definition and nature of learning; (2) the fourtypes of learning; (3) modern learning theories; (4) themethods that three different theorists might use insolving the same instructional problem; (5) the learningprinciples that most psychologists find acceptable. Thefollowing topics are discussed in this connection: Learn-ing and the Trainer; Four Basic Kinds of Learning(Sensori-Motor Learning, Conceptual Learning, Associa-tional Learning, Attitudinal Learning); Myths aboutLearning; Learning Theories and Training; Some ModernLearning Theories; Three Solutions to the Same Problem(Behaviorism, Gestalt or Field Theories, Connectionism);Some Important Learning Principles. (12)

DETERLINE, WILLIAM A. Learning theory, teaching,and instructional technology. AV communica-tion review 13:4, Winter 1965. pp. 405-411.

Learning theory as a body of knowledge hascontributed relatively little to the world of education.The interface between learning theory and instructionhas developed in a middle ground called "behavioraltechnology." The behavioral technologist can oftensystematically and reliably produce changes in behaviorby using techniques for which the learning theorist asyet has no conceptual structure. Instructional technol-ogy is the application of behavioral technology to thesystematic production of specified behaviors for instruc-tional purposes. Programmed instruction has been thegreat spur to instructional technology. The pro-grammer's involvement with behavioral objectives andbehavioral analysis, with empirically determined size ofpresentation steps, with controlled student activity, with

continuous confirmation or correction, and, wherefeasible, with self-pacing and adaptive sequencing, is aninvolvement with instructional interactions. Intuitionshould be replaced by technological rigor and reliableand predictable procedures. The trend in educationaltechnology is toward multimedia instructional systemswhich are designed to realize the potentialities not onlyof programmed instruction, but also of the visualprojector, the audio storage device, television, demon-strations, lectures, laboratory exercises, independentstudy, and textbooks. (13)

ERICKSEN, STANFORD C. Pitfalls and bridges be-tween learning theory and the teaching technol-ogies. Journal of medical education 39:3, March1964. pp. 298-303.,

Two pitfalls the teacher must avoid are (1) lack-ing a philosophical and theoretical frame of reference toguide teaching and (2) becoming overly enamored with aparticular teaching technique. Principles of learningderived from experimental psychology provide the broadcoverage necessary to understand the adaptive inter-action between behavior and the environment. Totransfer laboratory findings to the classroom requiresactive cooperation between subject-matter specialist(teacher) and research specialist. The learning psychol-ogist's basic formulation is: learning = f (variables). Theuniverse of variables is infinite and can be subdividedinto environment variables, task variables, and organismvariables or individual differences in learners. Experi-ments indicate the latter are by far the more importantand that "a more powerful instructional impact willresult when we release and give greater freedom to theindividual difference variables, such as a student's valueorientation, his memory, and the degree of meaningful-ness he can attach to informational stimulilectures,books, films, slides, demonstrations, and the like." Thesestudent-linked factors are bridges opening up newresources for improving the basic quality of the educa-tional process. A pitfall to be avoided is excessiveinvolvement in research on task and environmentalvariables having secondary importance for learning:curricular changes, class size, informational input media,and teacher training. These are easy to manipulate andseem to attract a disproportionate amount of attention.A seminar series on learning theory for medical schoolfaculty is outlined and discussed and the relationshipbetween learning theory and practice is illustrated bydiscussion of characteristic features of programmedinstruction and closed-circuit television in terms of howthey utilize learning principles. Eleven references arecited. [Located too late for indexing.]

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EURICH, ALVIN C. The psychological basis for moreefficient teaching and learning. IN Traxler,Arthur (ed.). Improving the efficiency and qual-ity of learning (Report of the twenty-sixtheducational conference, New York City, October26-27, 1961, held under the auspices of theEducational Records Bureau and the AmericanCouncil on Education). Washington, D.C.: Amer-ican Council on Education, 1962. pp. 13-20.

Despite our traditional preoccupation with teach-ers and teaching, excellence in teaching has not beensufficiently rewarded, nor appreciably enhanced bymethodological expertise, nor even been found to beeffectively measurable. This preoccupation has beenmisdirected, however, since the central concern ofeducation is the learner and what he does in order tolearn. The aim of American education is to develop theindividual's capacity to the utmost; American psychol-ogy has made a major contribution toward this end bypromoting a fuller understanding of student differencesand what this means in the learning process. We nowhave the capacity by means of this understandingcoupled with the use of new techniques and devices(television, teaching teams, programmed learning, lan-guage laboratories, high-quality motion pictures, andflexible arrangements of instructional resources, person-nel, and curricula), to adjust teaching to each student'sneeds. The use of these devices and techniques hasdemonstrated some basic psychological principles ofteaching and learning, of which six of the mostpromising are formulated and discussed: (1) everything astudent learns he must learn for himself; (2) regardless ofhow a teacher paces his instruction, each student willlearn at his own rate; (3) students learn more when eachstep learned is immediately reinforced; (4) full ratherthan partial mastery of each step makes total learningmore meaningful; (5) anything can be taught to anystudent at any age in an intellectually honest form, aprinciple emphasized by Jerome Bruner; and (6) whengiven the responsibility for his own learning, the studentis more highly motivated and learns and retains more.

(14)

FITTS, PAUL M. Factors in complex skill training. INGlaser, Robert (ed.). Training research and edu-cation. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press,1962. pp. 179-199.

Skilled performance exhibits three character-istics: (1) spatial-temporal patterning; (2) continuousinteraction of response processes with input and feed-back processes; (3) learning. Specific task requirementschange rapidly as a result of technological change. Thekinds of skills that appear to be increasing in importanceare ones in which the individual must keep track ofmany separate sources of information (stimuli), collatethese separate inputs, and sort out effects produced by

his own earlier actions from the effects produced byoutside agents. Overpractice, training in subroutines, andthe elimination of artificial limits to performance havespecial implications for training in complex skills.Overpractice produces a beneficial increase in resistanceto stress, fatigue, and interference, and is especiallyimportant in tasks so designed that individuals areunable to use habit patterns that have been establishedby lifelong experience. Separation of a complex taskinto subroutines, and overpractice in these subroutinesmakes it easier for the subject to learn additional newaspects of a complex task. Conditions of a task whichrestrict the opportunity for further improvement shouldbe removed to permit the subject to continue learningand improving his performance. (15)

FOLEY, JOHN D., JR. The learning process. IN Craig,Robert L. and Lester R. Bittel (eds.). Trainingand development handbook. New York:McGraw-Hill, 1967. pp. 34-54.

The chapter presents a behavioral scientist'spoint of view about training. It emphasizes the psychol-ogy of learning and a systematic approach to training.There are two main parts: (1) Nature of the LearningProcess (Conditions for Learning, Factors AffectingLearning); and (2) Implications for Training (Deter-mining Training Needs, Determining Training Content,Selecting Training Methods and Media, Evaluation ofTraining). "An effective training regimen, including themedia used, must perform five basic functions: (1) stim-ulus generation; (2) stimulus presentation; (3) responseacceptance; (4) response comparison; and (5) feedbackpresentation. When these five functions are adequatelyperformed, the conditions required for learning to occurcan be met.. The exact way these functions are per-formed depends partly upon the level of proficiency ofthe trainees. What stimulus to present, responses torequire, and feedback to give are determined by thetraining objectives. Training objectives for various seg-ments of training are established by applying economicconsiderations to the total training problem . .. [which]is identified by first determining the behavioral require-ments of the job or task by means of careful analysis.From these requirements are subtracted the capabilitiesalready possessed by the trainees before they entertraining. The effectiveness of the training is evaluatedusing the achievement test concept, taking necessarysteps to promote the validity and reliability of themeasures" (from chapter summary). A brief bibliog-raphy is included. (16)

GAGNE, ROBERT M. The conditions of learning. NewYork: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1965. 308 pp.

Learning is a change in human disposition orcapability which can be retained and which is not simply

5

ascribable to the process of growth. There are a numberof generalizations about the conditions of learning thatare useful in designing better education. There are eightdistinguishable classes of performance change (learning)that may be described as the conditions of learning:( 1) sign al learning; (2) stimulus-response learning;(3) chaining; (4) verbal association; (5) multiple discrim-ination learning; (6) concept learning; (7) principle learn-ing; and (8) problem-solving. The question that shouldbe asked when designing instruction is, "What kind ofcapability is to be learned?" The book includes a sectionon each of the eight classes of learning. There are alsochapters entitled: Learning and the Content of Instruc-tion (Some Lthning Structures, Learning and Instruc-tional Sequences); The Motivation and Control ofLearning (Motivation for Learning, The External Eventsof Instruction, The Conditions of Transfer); LearningDecisions in Education (The Educational System, Deci-sions That Affect Planning for Learning, DecisionsConcerning Instruction, Priority in Educational Deci-sions); and Resources for Learning (The InstructionalSituation, Media for Instruction, Modes of Instruction).

(17)

GAGNE, ROBERT M. Resources for learning. IN HISThe conditions of learning. New York: Holt,Rinehart & Winston, 1965. pp. 267-296.

The functions that the components of theinstructional situation must perform are described:(1) presenting the stimulus, (2) directing attention andother learner activities, (3) providing a model for termi-nal performance, (4) furnishing external prompts,(5) guiding the direction of thinking, (6) inducing trans-fer of knowledge, (7) assessing learning attainments, and(8) providing feedback. Also discussed is which of thesefunctions each of the following components or instruc-tional media is able to perform: objects for instruction,demonstration, oral communication by the teacher,printed language media, pictures, motion pictures andtelevision, teaching machines; and the arrangement ofthe different media into the following instructionalmodes: the tutoring session, the lecture, the recitationclass, the discussion class, the laboratory, and home-work. It is stressed that the instruction designer shouldnot restrict himself to the conventional modes ofinstruction but should explore novel forms of mediacombination and organization in order to match therequirements of the conditions of learning with theavailable media and their characteristics. There are 12references. (18)

GLASER, ROBERT. Psychological bases for instruc-tional design. AV communication review 14:4,Winter 1966. pp. 433-449.

The framework in which the psychologist-instructional designer could translate the ever-expandingscientific knowledge of teaching and learning intoeducational practice is discussed. Four distinct processesare involved and are analyzed and described in detail.The findings of prominent authorities in the field of thepsychology of learning are used in support of thediscussion. The processes are identified and discussed asfollows: (1) analyzing the characteristics of subjectmatter competence (the rational and empirical analysisof subject-matter tasks); (2) diagnosing preinstructionalbehavior (investigating the relationships between indi-vidual difference variables and learning variables andconstructing teaching systems for the accommodation ofeducation to individual differences); (3) carrying out theinstructional process (conditions influencing instruction:sequencing, stimulus and response factors, amount ofpractice, response contingencieserrors and correction,response contingencieseffective reinforce rs); and(4) measuring learning outcomes. References are in-cluded. (19)

GLASER, ROBERT (ed.). Psychology and instructionaltechnology. IN HIS Training research and educestion. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press,1962. pp. 1-30.

The purpose of an educational system is to createconditions that will cause new or modified studentbehavior, so training and education should be based onresearch findings in psychological science. Training andeducation are two aspects of the teaching process. Thetraining component refers to teaching students toperform similar or uniform behavior; the educationalcomponent refers to developing individual differences."Instructional process" includes general operations withwhich both training and education are concerned.Components of the instructional process are (1) instruc-tional goals; (2) entering behavior; (3) instructional pro-cedures; (4) performance assessment; and (5) researchand development logistics. Instructional proceduresshould include attention to the guidance of learning,readiness, reinforcement, interference and transfer, prac-tice and review, and motivation. (20)

GUTHERIE, JOHN T. Expository instruction versus adiscovery method. Journal of educationalpsychology, vol. 58,1967. pp. 16-30.

The idea that discovery learning facilitates trans-fer was tested. Methods of instruction were compared onthe basis of several criteria of retention and transfer. Itwas hypothesized that instruction with rules and exam-

6

ples would facilitate retention but not transfer, and thattraining with only examples would facilitate transfer,but not retention. Seventy-two subjects were taught asymbol-deciphering task using one of four instructionmethods: Rule-Example, Example-Rule, Example, andNo Training. The conclusion based on results was thatthe discovery method appears to facilitate transfer butnot retention; expository instruction facilitates reten-tion, but impedes remote transfer. (21)

HOLDING, D. H. Principles of training. London: Perga-mon Press, 1965.156 pp.

Training has two limitations: (1) no codifiedsystem of principles of training, and (2) no training forthe trainer. A new approach to educational psychologyis needed to direct into educational thought not merelylaboratory findings but analytical insight into percep-tual, operational, and communicative processes. Theconditions for applying psychological findings aredemonstrated. An awareness of experimental findingsmust be paralleled by competence in analyzing tasks todetermine how and where particular principles may beapplied. By considering a wide sample of experimentaldata, this book reveals the extent of the problem ofanalysis. An experimental finding represents a particular,limited truth which has more substance than mereopinion. It is a statement whose terms have preciseempirical meaning, because it has been demonstrated indefined physical conditions. (22)

HUNERYAGER, S. G. The psychological basis of effec-tive training. Training directors journal 18:6,June 1964. pp. 3-7.

The article stresses the psychological basis oftraining and reviews psychological conditions for effec-tive training such as training group concept, importanceof organizational environment, and need for ego-involve-ment of the trainees. It emphasizes the fundamental roleof the trainer as a controlling factor. (USCSC 4, edited)

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LANYON, RICHARD I. and MILTON M. SCHWARTZ.Psychological learning theory: application toadult education. Adult education 17:1, Autumn1966. pp. 12-18.

The purpose of the article is to examine tradi-tional learning theory and research with a view towarddelineating those laws and principles which have poten-tial relevance for education and to summarize some ofthe work that has been done in applying these principles.There are four major sections, In the first section, someof the major thinking and research of scholars in thefield of animal learning is reviewed, and its applicability

to human learning is discussed. Major findings in humanverbal learning research are examined in the secondsection. The third section summarizes the existingapplications of these principles to education. Additionalapplications of the principles to regular classroomsituations are discussed in the final section. Referencesare included. (24)

LUNDGREN, HENRY. CLAY. Educational psychologyin the classroom. New York: John Wiley & Sons1956. 574 pp.

Educational psychology is psychology applied tothe teaching-learning situation; it attempts to help thestudent apply both the understanding and the method ofpsychology to problems encountered in teaching-learning situations. This book is aimed at helpingstudents know and understand themselves better both aspersons and as teachers and to encourage them to adopta "scientific point of view" with regard to the data intheir professional lives. Finally, it is to aid the readers ingaining a better understanding of their roles as teacher-psychologists, or artists and scientists in the field ofhuman relations so that the inevitable, frustratingexperience of the classroom will not lead to cynicism,apathy, and discouragement but to study, understand-ing, learning, professional growth, and an increasedinterest in the psychological problems of education.Chapters include: (1) Introduction to EducationalPsychology; (2) Why Learners Behave as They Do;(3) The Growth and Maturity of the Learner; (4) TheLearner and His Family; (5) The Learner in His Group;(6) Emotional Health and Problem Behavior; (7) PopularBeliefs About Learning; (8) Psychological Concepts ofthe Learning Process; (9) Intellectual and Non-Intellectual Factors in the Learning Process; (10) Teach-er-Centered Approaches to the Learning Situation;(11) Learner-Centered Approaches to the Learning Situ-ation; (12) Discipline and the Learning Situation;(13) Learning Through Group Methods; (14) Evaluationof Learning: The Teacher Role; (15) Evaluation ofLearning: Standardized Testing; (16) Learners Who NeedSpecial Help; (17) Guidance ServicesIndividualizedHelp for the Learner; and (18) The Psychology of Beinga Teacher. (25)

MAGER, ROBERT F. Developing attitude toward learn-ing. Palo Alto, Calif.: Fearon Publishers, 1968.104 pp.

"One of the important goals of teaching is toprepare the student to use the skills and knowledge hehas learned and to prepare him to learn more about thesubjects he has been taught. One way of reaching thisgoal is to send the student away from the learning

7

experience with a tendency to approach, rather thanavoid, the subject of study. . . . This book is designed tohelp you achieve this objective." In Part I, Where Am IGoing?, chapters 1, 2, and 3 discuss and illustrate howfavorable attitudes, approach tendencies, and the inclina-tion to use that which is learned are related and howachievement of objectives involves influencing the ten-dency approach. Part II, How Shall I Get There?,contains chapters entitled: (4) Recognizing Approach;(5) Sources of Influences; (6) Conditions and Conse-quences; (7) Positives and Aversives (examples of aver-sivespain, fear and anxiety, frustration, humiliationand embarrassment, boredom, physical discomfortandpositives are cited); (8) Modeling (learning by imitation).Part III, How Will I Know I've Arrived?, containschapters (9) Evaluating Results, and (10), ImprovingResults. Selected references on behavior modificationand contingency management, from which the proce-dures described are derived, are appended, as well asadditional references on procedures for measuring ap-proach tendency or attitude. (26)

McGHEE, WILLIAM. Are we using what we knOw abouttraining?learning theory and training. Personnelpsychology 11:1, Spring 1958. pp. 1-12.

Several general statements and their implicationsfor industrial training are discussed. The statements are(1) the learner has a goal or goals; (2) e learner makesa response; (3) the learner's responses ar ited by hispast responses and abilities, his interpretation of the goalsituation, and the feedback from his responses; and(4) the learner has achieved his goal, that is, he haslearned. (HumRRO, edited) (27)

McGEHEE, WILLIAM and PAUL W. THAYER. Learn-ing and industrial training, Parts i and II. INTHEIR Training in business and industry. NewYork: Joln Wiley & Sons, 1961. pp. 126-183.

In two succeeding chapters the authors discussthe importance of learning theory and the principles oflearning for industrial training. In Part I the followingtopics are discussed: Learning Theory and IndustrialTraining: The Nature of Learning (Learning and Perfor-mance); Motivation (Learning and Goal Orientation,Motivation Defined, Conflict of Motives, Reinforcementin Terms of the Perceptions of the Individual, Gettingthe Trainee to Recognize the Need for Training, Devel-opment of Intrinsic Task Interests); Practice and theConditions of Practice. Topics discussed in Part II are:Conditions of Practice (Massed vs. Spaced Practice,Knowledge of Results, Reward and Punishment, Wholevs. Part Learning, Meaningfulness, Guidance); IndividualDifferences; The Nature of Materials to be Learned

(Problem Solving, Attitudes); The Learning and TransferProblem (Definitional or Real?, Identical Elements,Concepts, Overlearning); The Need for Systematic Re-search in the Psychology of Learning in Industrial andBusiness Situations; A Way of Thinking about Learningand Industrial Training. (28)

MILLER GEORGE E. (ed.), HAROLD P. GRASER,STEPHEN ABRAHAMSON, ROBERT S. HAR-NACK, IRA S. COHEN and ADELLE LAND.Teaching and learning in medical school. Cam-bridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1962.304 pp.

The book is an outgrowth of five years ofoperation of the Project in Medical Education at theUniversity of Buffalo. (Nearly 100 medical facultymembers representing most of the major basic andclinical disciplines and a score of medical schoolsparticipated in activities of the project.) It is intended asa source book for those who want to know more aboutways in which contemporary concepts of teaching andlearning might be put to use in a medical school. Thematerial is divided into four major sections: (I) TheMedical Student (The Problem of Selection; The Studentand the School);. II) The Process of Learning (Back-ground and Theory; The Student Learns; The TeacherTeaches); (III) The Tools of Instruction (The Problemsof Instruction; The Objectives of Medical Education;Basic Techniques of Instruction; More Techniques ofInstruction; Materials of Instruction; Improving theProgram of Instruction); and (IV) The Evaluation ofLearning (The Problems of Evaluation; Techniques forMeasuring Knowledge; Techniques for Measuring Perfor-mance; Techniques for Measuring Attitudes; OtherMeasuring Techniques; Grades and Grading). Suggestedreadings and an index are included. (29)

MILLER, HARRY L. Some crucial conditions forlearning. IN HIS Teaching and learning in adulteducation. New York: Macmillan, 1964. pp.33-54.

The specific art of inducing change in humans isdiscussed in this chapter. Cognitive behavior, as opposedto skills of physical action, is concentrated on, and isdefined as the individual's response to the flow ofinformation coming to him through his senses, how heselects from the flow those items to which he paysattention, how he applies meaning to it, and how hemanipulates it. The following six conditions for learningare postulated and described: (1) the student must beadequately motivated to change behavior; (2) the stu-dent must be aware of the inadequacy of his presentbehavior; (3) the student must have a clear picture of thebehavior which he is required to adopt; (4) the studentmust have opportunities to practice the appropriate

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behavior; (5) the student must get reinforcement of thecorrect behavior; and (6) the student must have availablea sequence of appropriate materials. (30)

MOSEL, JAMES N. How to feed back performanceresults to trainees. Training directors journal12:2, February 1958. pp. 37-46.

As knowledge of performance increases, learningincreases in both rate and level. The process of personneltraining involves "input" (showing, telling, explaining),"output" (the trainee's response), and "feedback" (let-ting the trainee know about his performance). Knowl-edge of expected performance helps a trainee to learn intwo ways: it tells him what he should learn; it motivateshim to continue learning, particularly in the later stagesof practice. Knowledge of performance must be suppliedwith care at both extremes of the proficiency range.There can be little effect when proficiency is near themaximum possible, and increased knowledge of poorperformance can decrease motivation. Knowledge ofperformance is effective only if the trainee is givenspecific nonredundant information as to what to do aswell as what not to do. The correct response should beclearly communicated by demonstration as soon aspossible after the trainee's own performance so he canmake a comparison. The manner in which feedback isgiven is important, because it can affect the trainee'sconcept of himself. Research suggests that praise andreproof as feedback can be ranked (in decreasing orderof effectiveness) in this way: public praise, privatepraise, private reproof, public reproof (31)

MOSEL, JAMES N. The learning process. Journal ofmedical education 39:5, May 1964. pp. 485-496.

The basic problem of applying the large numberof principles or laws of learning that have emerged frompsychological experiments to the actual teaching situa-tion in medical education is discussed. The majorproblem is seen in the fact that one must deal withhuman behavior in larger, more global chunks than theprinciples allow. Accordingly, a new approach to thecontrol of complex learning in practical situations hasbeen developed. It is called the "psychotechnology oflearning" in contrast to the "psychology of learning." Itis concerned not with the basic underlying processes oflearning, but rather with the engineering or control oflearning so that it may better serve human ends. Anexamination of a set of "operations rules" found to beuseful in medical instruction is offered. The rules arementioned in rough chronological and logical order oftheir application under the following headings: Specifi-cation of What Must Be LearnedDiscriminate Between"Kernels" and "Transformations"; Componential Analy-sis; Sequential Analysis; Memory and Organization;

Passive Exposure vs. Active Involvement; Supply pro-grammed Feedback. A brief bibliography is included.

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MURSELL, JAMES L. Successful teaching; its psycho-logical principles. 2nd edition. New York:McGraw-Hill, 1954. 338 pp.

Teaching is the organization of meaningful learn-ing. It involves six principles discussed in specificsections and interrelated throughout the book: context,focalization, socialization, individualization, sequence,and evaluation. Chapters and selected selections are:(1) Successful Teaching: Its Meaning (the criterion, thesituation and its challenge); (2) Successful Teaching: ItsProblems (teaching as organization; three applicationshome study, class size, teacher leadership; the attempt toimprove teaching); (3) Successful TeachingIts Orienta-tion: Controlling Approach (meaningful learning, what ismeaningful learning, why teaching must emphasizemeaning); (4) Successful Teaching- -Its Orientation: Spe-cific Emphases (the pattern of meaningful learning,learning is purposive, learning as exploration and study,achievement as understanding, good learning transfers);(5) The Principle of Context and the Organization ofLearning; (6) The Principle of Context and the Appraisalof Teaching (hierarchy of applications, the six levels,administrative implications); (7) The Principle of Focusand the Organization of Learning; (8) The Principle ofFocalization and the Appraisal of Teaching; (9) ThePrinciple of Socialization and the Organization ofLearning; (10) The Principle of Socialization and theAppraisal of Teaching; (11) The Principle of Individual-ization and the Organization of Learning; (12) ThePrinciple of Individualization and the Appraisal ofTeaching; (13) The Principle of Sequence and theOrganization of Learning; (14) The Principle of Se-quence and the Appraisal of Teaching; (15) The Princi-ple of Evaluation and the Organization of Learning;(16) The Principle of Evaluation and the Appraisal ofTeaching; (17) Synthesis and Application of the Princi-ples of Teaching (the interrelationship of principles; theanalysis of proposal, methods, and described situations,the observation of teaching; lesson planning; thinkingand motivation). There is an index. (33)

NAYLOR, JAMES C. Parameters affecting the relativeefficiency of part and whole training methods: areview of the literature. . . . (Technical report:NAVTRADEVCEN 950-1). Port Washington,N.Y.: U.S. Department of the Navy, NavalTraining Device Center, 1962. 34 pp.

The report reviews research on learning methodsdependent on training by components of a task and bythe entire task. It identifies principles most useful fortraining and presents conclusions concerning the types

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of methods which seem to be applicable. (USCSC4, edited) (34)

PROCTOR, JOHN H. and WILLIAM M. THORNTON.The learning process. IN THEIR Training: ahandbook for line managers. New York: Ameri-can Management Association, 1961. pp. 43-55.

Training programs can generally be grouped intothree broad categories: developing manual skills, trans-mitting information or knowledge, and modifying atti-tudes. The goal in industrial training is to bring eachtrainee up to or beyond an accepted standard ofperformance with a minimum expenditure of money.The measure of any training program, therefore, is theamount of change for the better that takes place as aresult of training and the amount of learning that occursin relation to established standards. The learning processis discussed in this chapter under the headings: TheNature of Learning; Principles of Effective Learning;Capacity to Learn; Transfer of Training; Motivation andLearning; Group Dynamics; Knowledge of Results;Systematic Learning; Scheduling Training Sessions; Ma-terial to Be Learned; Memory and Forgetting. (35)

SIEGEL, LAWRENCE (ed.). Instruction: some contem-porary viewpoints. San Francisco: Chandler Pub-lishing Company, 1967. 376 pp.

Designed to serve both reference and text objec-tives, the book is addressed to those who are profes-sionally concerned with learning in formal instructionalsettings, and to graduate students in certain areas ofpsychology and education. The purpose of the book isto present a sample of contemporary theoretical formu-lations of formal education each written by the personresponsible for that formulation. Contents are: Part I,Introduction(1) Ar. Overview of Historical Formula-tions, by J. M. Hedegard; (2) An Overview of Contempo-rary Formulations, by Lawrence Siegel; Part II, Formula-tions Emphasizing Teacher Behavior(3) The Facilita-tion of Significant Learning, by C. R. Rogers; (4) Cogni-tive Models of Learning and Instruction, by A. D.Woodruff; (5) Teacher Behavior in the Classroom Con-text, by B. J. Biddle and R. S. Adams; Part III, Formula-tions Emphasizing Learner Behavior (6) The ZigzagCurve of Learning, by S. C. Ericksen; (7) A BehavioristicAnalysis of Instruction, by J. C. Jahnke; (8) A Cognitive-Structure Theory of School Learning, by D. P. Ausubel;Part IV, Integrative Formulations(9) The InstructionalGestalt, by Lawrence Siegel and Lila Corkland Siegel;(10) Instruction and the Conditions of Learning, byR. M. Gagne; Part V, Summation(11) Integration andReactions, by Lawrence Siegel. References and an indexare included. (36)

SILVERMAN, ROBERT E. Theories and models andtheir utility. Educational technology 7:19, Octo-ber 15, 1967. pp. 1-7.

The purpose of the article is to contribute to thediscussion of the relation between theories of learningand systematic views of teaching in two ways: (1) byclarifying the distinction between theories of learningand theories of teaching, and (2) by recommending theuse of models rather than theories at this stage in thedevelopment of educational technology. Theories oflearning are concerned with the "how" of learning;theories of teaching, using theory in the formal sense, donot exist in any number. A theory of teaching mayderive its concepts and its methodological approachfrom a theory of learning. The best way to proceed indeveloping a theory of teaching is to begin with what isknown about learning in the laboratory and in theclassroom by adopting a model derived from a theory oflearning and/or from systematic approaches to the studyof learning in the laboratory. The relationship betweenthe laboratory and the classroom may be improved bythe use of models or modes of representation. Types ofmodels are discussed. References are included. (37)

SKINNER, B. F. The science of learning and the art ofteaching. Harvard educational review, vol. 24,Spring 1954. pp. 86-97.

The most serious shortcoming of current class-room methods is the relative infrequency of reinforce-ment. Through new techniques, however, reinforcementcan be manipulated with considerable precision. Aninexpensive mechanical device solves most of the. princi-pal problems in the teaching of mathematics. This smallbox has a window on top; through this window can beseen a question or problem printed on paper tape. A newproblem moves into the window when a right answer isproduced. The important features of this device areimmediate reinforcementfor the right answer; manipu-lation of the device provides enough reinforcement tokeep an average pupil at work for a suitable period; ateacher can supervise an entire class that is working withsuch devices, yet each child can progress at his own rate;after an absence, a pupil can pick up where he left off;gifted children, advancing rapidly, can be given specialsets of problems to take them into interesting bypaths.There are objections to the device: the child is treated asan animal; mechanized instruction causes technologicalunemployment; and costs prohibit mechanizing ourschools. But the mechanical device does give a genuinecompetence in basic skills; mechanized instruction doesnot nece ;sully shorten the time during which a teacheris :n contact with the pupil, and it eliminates theteacher's more tiresome labors. If these mechanizedteaching devices prove effective, our economy shouldafford them. (38)

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SKINNER, B. F. The technology of teaching. NewYork: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1968. 271 pp.

Eleven essays, seven of which either appeared inother publications or were presented at various confer-ences, embody the author's most recent thinking on thesubject. Chapter titles are: (1) The Etymology of Teach-ing; (2) The Science of Learning and the Art ofTeaching; (3) Teaching Machines; (4) The Technology ofTeaching; (5) Why Teachers Fail; (6) Teaching Thinking;(7) The Motivation of the Student; (8) The CreativeStudent; (9) Discipline, Ethical Behavior, and Self-Control; (10) A Review of Teaching; and (11) TheBehavior of the Establishment. An index is included.

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STATON, THOMAS F. Applying the principles oflearning. IN HIS How to instruct successfully:modern teaching methods in adult education.New York: McGraw-Hill, 1960. pp. 19-41.

The application of certain educational andpsychological principles to the personnel training pro-gram is explained, and ways are suggested in which theinstructor can apply these principles by means ofspecific techniques. Six principle steps necessary in everyinstructional activity are: (1) motivation of the trainee;(2) maintaining complete attention; (3) prompting men-tal activity (thinking); (4) getting a clear picture of thematerial to be learned; (5) developing comprehension ofthe significance, implications, and the practical applica-tion of the material being presented; (6) repetition ofthe five preceding steps until learning has taken place.Suggested readings are cited. (40)

SYMONDS, PERCIVAL M. What education has to learnfrom psychology. 3rd edition. New York:Columbia University Teachers College, TeachersCollege Press, 1965. 121 pp.

"Too many teachers are unaware of the psycho-logical outcomes of their methods and consequently areunable to adapt to the very special demands of theindividual child. But the master teacher meets newsituations intelligently and creatively. It is my belief thatpsychology is part of the essential equipment of a masterteacher. This series of articles is presented in hope thatthey will help many teachers to understand some of theprinciples of psychology that have an educationalapplication which will lead to the ultimate improvementof educational practices" (from author's Foreword). Thenine articles in this monograph are reprinted fromTeachers' College Record from February 1955, October1955, April 1956, March 1957, November 1957, Octo-ber 1958, October 1959, November 1959, and March1960. The titles indicate topics: (I) Motivation; (II) Re-

ward; (III) Punishment; (IV) Learning Is Reacting;(V) Whole Versus Part Learning; (VI) Emotion andLearning; (VII) Transfer and Formal Discipline;(VIII) Individual Differences; (IX) Origins of Personal-ity. (41)

TRAVERS, ROBERT M. W. A study of the relationshipof psychological research to educational practice.IN Glaser, Robert (ed.). Training research andeducation. Pittsburgh: University of PittsburghPress, 1962. pp. 525-558.

A historical survey of the relationship of scien-tific research to educational practice suggests that theimpact of scientific knowledge on training and educa-tional procedure can be maximized if (1) behavioralscientists concentrate on the development of trainingequipment and devices which do not require majorchanges in the habit structure of teachers; and if (2)systematic work is undertaken to apply research findingsto changing teacher behavior. Behavioral scientists mustplay an increasing role in the training of the educator. Alarge-scale programmatic research effort is required toprovide the body of knowledge needed to effecteducational change, and the responsible organizationneeds to have stability over a period of years in order forit to become productive. Considerable work must bedone to apply research knowledge to the solution ofpractical problems. Within education at a grass rootslevel two ideas need to be emphasized: (1) very little isknown about teaching processes, and what is being donenow is probably very inefficient compared to themethods that will ultimately be evolved; and (2) researchis a difficult enterprise which requires cooperation ofexperts and support at the professional level. (42)

TYLER, RALPH W. Conditions for effective learning.NEA journal 48:6, May 1957. pp. 47-49.

The following conditions for effective learningare described: (1) motivating the learner, (2) the learnerfinds his previous ways of reacting unsatisfactory,(3) guiding the learner's activities when the behavior isnot simply acquired, (4) providing materials for thestudent to use in his efforts to learn, (5) providing timeto carry on the desired behavior, (6) the learner getssatisfaction from his behavior, (7) sequential practice,(8) encouraging pupils to keep setting their sights higherand higher, (9) helping the learner get some means ofjudging his own performance. (43)

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VERNER, COOLIE and THURMAN WHITE (eds.). Adultlearning ((Adult education theory and method).Washington, D.C.: Adult Education Associationof the U.S.A., April 1965.43 pp.

Aspects of adult learning are explored in fiveessays by four authors: (1) in Adult Learning, by IrvingLorge, an introductory overview of adult learning ispresented, distinguishing between the different kinds oflearning, examining the role of the teacher in the adultlearning process, discussing the difference between learn-ing performance and learning ability, presenting implica-tions for teaching, pointing up difficulties presented bynegative adult attitudes, and discussing the concept ofsatisfaction and reward in learning; (2) in Developing aTheory of Adult Learning, by Gale Jensen, objectives areposited and pursued: to identify and elaborate a set ofprinciples which the adult educator can follow in buildinga functional theory of adult learning, and to identify anddescribe the kind of content or socio-psychologicalphenomenon to which such a theory must refer; (3) inGuideposts for Adult Instruction, by Gale Jensen, threeobjectives are pursued: to present an account of the basicdynamics of socio-psychological forces present in allformal adult instructional situations, to provide anidentification and definition of the socio-psychologicalinteractions which take place between adults duringformal instruction and which determine the kind oflearning that will result, and to present a set of principlesfor guiding or managing these socio-psychological inter-actions in ways which maximize the probabilities ofachieving stipulated instructional objectives; (4) in TheTeaching Learning Transaction, by Leland P. Bradford,the following seven areas are examined to develop aneffective teaching-learning theory: what the learner bringsto the transaction (in addition to ignorance and ability),what the teacher (helper) brings to the transaction (inaddition to subject knowledge), the setting inlearning and change take place, the interaction process,the conditions necessary for learning and change, themaintenance of change and utilization of learning in thelife of the learner, the establishment of the processes ofcontinued learning; (5) in Mind and Emotion in AdultEducation, by Max Birnbaum, two objectives are pursued:to state what appears to be the rationale for each of thepositions, and to attempt to harmonize the two positionswherever possible. The role of cognition, the role ofemotion and the irrational, the problem of values and/orattitudes, the role of the individual and the group, and therole of the teacher are discussed. (44)

WARREN, VIRGINIA B. (ed.). How do adults learn? INHER A treasury of techniques for teaching adults.Washington, D.C.: National Association for PublicSchool Adult Education, 1964. pp. 1-4.

Specific practical suggestions are given for apply-ing knowledge derived from research and theory to the

teaching of adults. Applications of learning laws (effect,primacy, exercise, disuse, intensity) are suggested, waysto control blocks to learning (boredom, confusion,irritation, and fear) are noted, and suggestions forapplying good human relations practices are offered. (45)

WHITESELL, WILLIAM E. and JOSEPH T. PEITRUS.Training and learning process. Personnel 42:4,July-August 1965. pp. 45-50.

The article summarizes the prerequisites of aneffective training program, identifies the principal stepsinvolved in the learning process, and considers theimplications of these steps for training. (USCSC 4,edited) (46)

WHITMORE, P. G. A rational analysis of the process ofinstruction. IRE transactions on education E -4:4,December 1961. pp. 135-144.

Instruction is a process for controlling studentbehavior to insure student learning, rather than a processfor merely presenting information to students to learn inwhatever way they can. Learning consists of behavioralchanges that follow behavior. Thus, a program ofinstruction that will effectively control student learningmust be based on an adequate description of thebehaviors required of the student at specified points inthe program. The preceding definitions of instructionand learning are applied to the problems of: (1) identify-ing what is to be learned, (2) determining the sequence

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for presenting instructional materials, and (3) designinginstructional situations for accomplishing the desiredlearning. Evaluation is discussed in terms of: (1) deter-mining the effectiveness of the instruction for accom-plishing the desired learning, and (2) determining theeffectiveness of the behaviors learned for producingadequate job performance. (47)

WOLFLE, DAEL. Training. IN Stevens, S. S. (ed.).Handbook of experimental psychology. NewYork: John Wiley & Sons, 1951. pp. 1297-1286.

The psychology of training is the applied psy-chology of learning. Six principles concerned withvariables that can be manipulated under practical train-ing conditions are: (1) knowledge of results; (2) avoid-ance of habit interference; (3) variety of practice materi-als; (4) methods used in training; (5) knowledge ofprinciples involved; (6) effectiveness of guidance. Threeproblems in administering a training program that can beanswered by psychological techniques are: determina-tion of (1) what should be taught (by means of a jobanalysis that describes the task in terms of its psycho-logical components); (2) what teaching aids can beusefully employed (audiovisual aids and synthetic train-ers); (3) how long formal training should continue(based on a learning curve and performance records).Training research has two values: (1) it can increase theeffectiveness of specific training programs; and (2) it cancontribute quantitative information on the limits of eachprinciple, its optimal conditions of application, and thenature of its interaction with others. (48)

LESSON PLANNING, COURSE DESIGN, CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

COREY, STEPHEN M. The nature of instruction. INLange, Phil C. (ed.). Programmed instruction(The sixty-sixth yearbook of the National So-ciety for the Study of Education, Part II).Chicago: The National Society for the Study ofEducation, 1967. pp. 5-27.

This chapter attempts to clarify the concepts ofinstruction used generally throughout the yearbook. Inthis concept, instruction is differentiated from teachingas a generic term and from curricular and administrativeplanning as related to general activities. The major part isa description of the various operations that must beengaged in to provide instruction as here conceived:determination of objectives, analysis of instructionalobjectives, identifying the characteristics of the popula-tion to be instructed, evaluating evidence of the successof instruction, constructing the instructional environ-ment, sequencing the units of instruction, and continu-ing instruction. The relationship between an instruc-tional program and programmed instruction is brieflynoted. The chapter concludes with a description of somegenerally agreed-upon characteristics of programmedinstruction and a comment on the history of itsdevelopment in the United States. (49)

ECKSTRAND, GORDON A. Current status of thetechnology of training (AMRL-TR-64-86).Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio: Air ForceSystems Command, Aerospace Medical ResearchLaboratories, Behavioral Sciences Laboratory,September 1964. 29 pp. (Also parer read atmeeting of American Psychological Association,Los Angeles, September 1964.)

"This report presents a brief overview of thecurrent status of the technology of training. Theprocesses involved in designing a training system arearbitrarily analyzed into the following three areas:(1) determining training requirements, (2) developingthe training environment, and (3) measuring the resultsof training. In each of these areas, an attempt is made tosummarize and evaluate the adequacy of our technology.In a final section of the report, certain areas of researchwhich appear to be especially promising are discussed"(report abstract)task classification, individualization oftraining, personnel system factors, and equipment de-sign. The systems approach, objectives, media, pro-

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grammed learning, and criterion-referenced measures arediscussed in the report. There is a 49-item bibliography.

(50)

ENELOW, ALLEN J. and LETA McKINNEY ADLER.Organization of postgraduate courses in psychia-try. Archives of general psychiatry, vol. 12, May1965. pp. 433-437.

Four important elements in organizing and ad-ministering postgraduate courses to achieve the twogoals of increasing participation of practicing physiciansin courses and of giving participating physicians themaximum amount of useful information are discussed:(1) clearly defined teaching objectives; (2) carefully de-signed course methods to suit levels of participants (livepresentations and discussions, observing interviewsthrough one-way vision rooms or by closed-circuittelevision, interview practice with student critiques,student observation of a demonstration psychotherapyby `he instructor in a one-way vision room, andsupervised clinic experience); (3) careful attention to thetraining of instructors and to maintaining their motiva-tion; and (4) close cooperation with the medical com-munity. Recommendations regarding the location of thetraining, the selection of program director, adequatetime and budget, and feedback of results of evaluativeresearch conclude the article. Ten references are cited.[Located too late for indexing.]

ERAUT, MICHAEL R. An instructional systems ap-proach to course development. AV communica-tion review 15:1, Spring 1967. pp. 92-101.

A course is considered an instructional systemhaving as components the learners, the instructor(s), thematerial(s), the machine(s), and the technicians. Theinput is the learners' initial knowledge, and the output isthe learners' final knowledge. The purpose of coursedevelopment is to design validated instruction that isguaranteed to convert any input meeting the inputspecifications to an output that meets the instructionalsystem's output specifications. The output will normallybe defined in terms of the standards of performancerequired for certain jobs or in terms of the entryrequirements of the course that will follow. A validatedinstructional system may have to be revised several timesbefore it finally meets the output specifications. The

instructional system may be divided into several subsys-tems, each with its own input and output specifications,so that decisions about media and teaching techniquescan be made at the subsystem level. When this is done,each subsystem is revised until it meets its outputspecifications; however, further revision may be requiredwhen the subsystems are recombined into the totalsystem. Developing a course as an instructional systemwith subsystems and with specifications as to input andoutput has the advantages of letting the developer knowwhen to stop revising and of letting the potential userknow what to expect from students who complete thecourse; it makes it possible to prevent unpreparedstudents from entering the course, to prevent studentswho already .meet the terminal objectives from entering,and to provide individualized instruction by directingstudents only to those parts or subsystems they aredeficient in. Seven references are included. (51)

GILBERT, THOMAS F. Mathetics: the technology ofeducation. Journal of mathetics 1:1, January1962. pp. 7-73.

B. F. Skinner's system of behavior analysis (rein-forcement theory) is of sufficient maturity to serve as afoundation for a true technology of education. "Math-etics" is the systematic application of reinforcementtheory (including motivation and stimulus control) tothe analysis and reconstruction of those complex behav-ior repertories usually known as "subject-matter mas-tery," "knowledge," and "skill." Mathetics producesteaching materials that exceed the efficiency of lessonsproduced by any other method, including the bestavailable programmed materials. The stages in themathetics production process are: (1) prescription: adescription of the behaviors that constitute mastery insome subject matter domain (synthetic repertory);(2) development of the domain theory: an extraction ofthe essential elements of the subject matter to bedescribed in behavioral terms (analytic repertory);(3) characterization: an analysis of the behavior prop-erties of the prescribed repertories and a description ofthe generalizations to be taught (plan of the lesson);(4) exercise design: a basic model with exercises ar-ranged in a sequence consistent with a lesson plandeveloped from the characterization. This article is thefirst full explanation of the general structure of math-etics. It offers lengthy and specific descriptions of allfour stages in the production process and includes aglossary of special terminology. (52)

GILPIN, JOHN. Design and evaluation of instructionalsystems. AV communication review 10:2, March-April 1962. pp. 75-84.

Programmed learning has not progressed as ex-pected, because there have been few studies of it,

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because many of the existing studies have been poorlydesigned, and because the data from the remainingstudies have not been mutually comparable. This articleis concerned with solutions to the problem of researchfailing to provide mutually comparable data. Needed are,first, a general method of experimental attack that willdeal directly and equally effectively with all educationalmethods; second, a meaningful, agreed-upon commondenominator dependent variable; and third, baselinevalues of the dependent variable in standard situations.Since the characteristic that all instructional methodshave in common is their intent to produce some effect inthe students they are aimed at, a first step in construct-ing a more powerful methodological framework wouldbe to adopt an ends-centered (objectives) approach. Thisapproach requires that the goals of the instructional taskbe specified clearly so that both instructional materialsand comprehensive and valid tests can be prepared fromthem. The purpose of testing should be to ascertain notwhich students have learned better than others, butwhich students learned what was specified. Not onlymust the goals of the instructional task be defined, butthe relevant capabilities and incapabilities of the targetstudent group must also be specified. With thesespecifications in hand, different approaches to meetingthe goals can be developed and tested. Even so, thereis no basis on which to compare two approaches, orsystems, if both produce successful students. What isneeded is a dependent variable that comprehends with-in one measure the most important features of systemperformance and that behaves as a continuous variable.One such variable is "time to complete instruction";another is "cost of instruction." These are also thevariables that are of prime interest once an instruc-tional system is turning out successful students. Forresearch purposes, it is suggested that time-to-criteriabe adopted as the dependent variable. For commercialpurposes, the cost per successful student will be amore relevant variable for comparing different instruc-tional systems. If research based on the approachsuggested and using these dependent variables is con-ducted and published, then baseline data on thesevariables will gradually accumulate. Then the identifica-tion of the important variables in instructional systemswill become possible. (53)

HERBERT, JOHN. A system for analyzing lessons. NewYork: Columbia University, Teachers CollegePress, 1967. 131 pp.

Proposed is a system for describing teaching-by-giving-lessons as distinguished from other ways ofteaching. Teaching-by-giving-lessons is defined as aninstructional relationship between students and a teacherwho controls all of the six essential components of alesson: media, grouping and location, lesson form,subject matter, subject-matter form, and influence tech-niques. All the components are defined and discussed,

and one, lesson form, is examined at great length interms of ideal form and of actual form as discovered bycharting real lessons. The charting system is describedand illustrated using the transcription of a lesson.Possible uses of lesson analysis are discussed in a finalchapter. A selected bibliography and an index areincluded. (54)

HOEHN, ARTHUR J. The development of trainingprograms for first enlistment personnel in elec-tronics maintenance MOS's, II. How to analyzeperformance objectives to determine trainingcontent (Job Train II). Alexandria, Va.: TheGeorge Washington University, Human ResourcesResearch Office, January 1960. 78 pp.

Training content is defined as "the concepts,skills, information, etc. which the trainees will be taughtto enable them to meet specified training standards intheir MOS [military occupational specialty] ." Assump-tions, concepts, and principles related to the analysis ofperformance requirements are presented, and proceduresfor applying these to the derivation of training contentare described. Examples from the MOS of Field CarrierEquipment Repairman are used to illustrate the proce-dures. (55)

KNOWLES, MALCOLM S. Program planning for adultsas learners. Adult leadership 15:8, February1967. pp. 267-268, 278-279.

The principles and criteria to be applied to aparticular conference (before which the paper wasoriginally read) as an adult educational activity aredescribed, these same principles and criteria beingdesigned to apply more broadly to any program that hasas its purpose the growth and development of adults.The discussion of program planning is premised on theproposition that there is a unique technology of adulteducation which in turn is based on certain assumptionsabout the unique characteristics of adults as learners.These characteristics are described, and their implica-tions for the technology of adult education are sug-gested. Headings in this section are: (1) Self-Concept:Four Implications; (2) Accumulated Experience: ThreeImplications; (3) Readiness to Learn: Two Implications;(4) Time Perspective: Three Implications. The programplanning process is outlined under the following sevenheadings: (1) The Creation of a Structure for MutualPlanning; (2) The Establishment of a Climate Conduciveto Adult Learning; (3) The Self-Diagnosis of Needs forLearning; (4) The Formulation of Objectives; (5) TheDevelopment of a General Design; (6) The Selection andExecution of Techniques and Materials; (7) The Planningof Evaluation. A discussion of future developments inadult program planning concludes the article. (56)

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KRUG, EDWARD A. Curriculum planning. Revisededition. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1957.336 pp.

The rationale, techniques, and procedures ofcurriculum planning are presented, and planning prac-tices and problems involved in making them an effectiveprocess are dealt with. Curriculum planning is defined as"the orderly study of and improvement of schooling inthe light of objectives." The activities of curriculumplanning are divided into five main groups: (1) identify-ing and stating educational objectives; (2) developing theall-school program; (3) teaching and learning; (4) provid-ing curriculum guides; and (5) providing instructionalaids and materials. The book is divided into 11 chapters:I, What It Means to Work on Curriculum (IdentifiableAspects of Curriculum Planning; Participants in Curricu-lum Planning; Summary); II, Preparing Statements onEducational Objectives (Ways of Getting Started; Waysof Stating Objectives; Summary); III, The Basis ofEducational Objectives (Psychological Problems andIssues; Social Problems and Issues; Philosophical Prob-lems and Issues; Summary); IV, The All-School Program(General Education in the All-School Program; Sug-gested Areas of General Objectives; Illustrative Questionson School Practices as Related to General Objectives;The Classroom Studies; Extra-Class Activities; Guidance;Work Experience; School and Community Service Pro-jects; The School in Community; Summary); V, Curricu-lum Issues in Selected Instructional Fields (English;Mathematics; Social Studies; The Natural Sciences;Summary); VI, Teaching and Learning (The Problems ofDefining Good Teaching; A Proposed Inventory of Skillsin Teaching; Summary); VII, Curriculum Guides (In-structional FieldsCore, Common Learnings, or GeneralEducation Programs; Special Area Problems, Topics, orThemes; Other Phases of the School Program; WhoPrepares Curriculum Guides; Summary); VIII, ResourceUnits as Aids to Teacher Planning (Definition andNature of Resource Units; Structure and Content ofResource Units; Use of Resource Units; The Making ofResource Units; Summary); IX, Research Activities inCurriculum Planning (Nature and ScopeSurveys, CaseStudies, Evaluation, Experimental Studies; Summary);X, Curriculum Planning in Local Schools and SchoolSystems; XI, The Role of Curriculum Planning in Educa-tion: A Summary. (57)

LYNTON, ROLF P. and UDAI PAREEK. Designing theprogram. IN THEIR Training for development.Homewood, Ill.: Richard D. Irwin, Inc. and theDorsey Press, 1967. pp. 175-206.

The following are outlined as the five steps indesigning a training program: (1) choosing a strategy orcombination of strategies; (2) breaking down generaltraining objectives into their knowledge, understanding,and skill components; matching these components with

appropriate training methods, developing a list of eventsand specifying for each event its general and specificobjectives, content, training methods, time, evaluationmethods, review time, and person(s) responsible for theevent; (3) determining roughly the total time and facili-ties required for the entire program by estimating thetime and facilities required for meeting each objectiveand combining the subtotals; (4) deciding on the dif-ferent packages in which the training could be offeredand asking the organization to select one; (5) workingdetailed training events into training sequences andfinally into the total program package. The outline ofthe program sequences and themes is discussed in termsof (1) phasing the program to accord with the learningprocess, (2) relating the program to prevailing expecta-tions, (3) building the training group, (4) incorporatingthe grand themes of training for development, and(5) striving for consistency in training. Composing thedetailed syllabus is discussed in terms of the need for(1) alternating stimulation and reflection, (2) alternatingpersonal involvement and safe distance, (3) alternatingtalking about something and practicing it, and (4) alter-nating individual events and group events. Three finalaspects of training design are discussed. These are:building-in flexibility, evaluating the progress of trainingduring the program, and developing training schedulesand timetables. (58)

LYNTON, ROLF P. and UDAI PAREEK. Trainingstrategy. IN THEIR Training for development.Homewood, Ill.: Richard D. Irwin, Inc. and theDorsey Press, 1967. pp. 28-54.

Four areas of consideration in planning fortraining are specified. Under external strategies, theestablishment of training goals and the definition oftraining specifications are discussed. Under internalstrategies, the organization of the training inputs isdiscussed and the improvement of the training institu-tion is touched on. (59)

MAGER, ROBERT F. On the sequencing of instruc-tional content. Psychological reports, vol. 9,1961. pp. 405-413.

There are several rationales for sequencing in-structional material. Sequencing can be accomplished by(1) using some sort of chronological order; (2) ordering"natural units"; (3) carrying the learner from the generalto the specific; (4) carrying the learner from the specificto the general; or (5) using one of several other possibleschemes. Whatever sequencing criterion is used, it mustbe logical and meaningful to the learner. The purpose ofthe experiment reported was to determine whether alearner-generated sequence would be similar to aninstructor-generated sequence and whether or not therewas any commonality among sequences generated by

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independent learners. Results indicate considerable com-monality among independently generated content se-quences. The learner-generated sequence bears littleresemblance to that used by most instructors. Whereasthe learner would proceed from a simple whole to amore complex whole, traditional sequences proceedfrom the part to the whole (from components tosystems). Implications are that (1) the content sequencemost meaningful to the learner is different from thesequence suggested by the instructor; (2) the learner'smotivation increases as a function of the amount ofcontrol, or apparent control, he is allowed to exerciseover the learning experience; and (3) if an adult learneris provided with behaviorally stated objectives and withcontrol over his learning, he will reach the objectives bydovetailing what he needs to know with what he alreadyknows. (60)

MAGER, ROBERT F. and KENNETH M. BEACH, JR.Developing vocational instruction. Palo Alto,Calif.: Fearon Publishers, 1967. 83 pp.

The steps involved in preparing instruction thatcan be demonstrated to facilitate learning are described.The procedure of systematic course development out-lined is not specific to subject matter or vocation, and itapplies to many academic as well as vocational andtechnical areas. After the Foreword by James D. Finn,the Preface by I. K. Davis, and the Introduction by theauthors, chapter titles are: (1) Strategy of InstructionalDevelopment; (2) Job Description; (3) Task Analysis;(4) Target Population; (5) Course Objectives; (6) CoursePrerequisites; (7) Measuring Instruments; (8) Types ofPerformance; (9) Selection of Instructional Procedures;(10) Sequencing Instructional Units; (11) Lesson PlanDevelopment; (12) Improving Course Efficiency;(13) Improving Course Effectiveness; and (14) Sourcesof Instructional Materials. The last chapter was preparedby Desmond Wedberg and contains a comparison ofcoverage by four leading audiovisual textbooks; lists ofpublications on instructional techniques and procedures,instructional media, and programmed instruction;sources of vocational-technical instructional materials(various catalogs, indexes, guides, and lists organized bymedia); and periodicals and journals which emphasizeinstructional technology. Sample worksheets are in-cluded for illustration. (61)

MURSELL, JAMES L. The principle of sequence . . INHIS Successful teaching: its psychological princi-ples. 2nd edition. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1954.pp. 209-243.

Learning, an experience that brings deeper in-sight and understanding or more certain control, shouldbe organized around a central idea in a challenging andconcrete setting that will enhance group morale and

accommodate to individual contributions. Learning is achange from the crude to the discriminating, theconcrete to the symbolic, the proximate control to theremote control. A sequence of learning must be mean-ingful, sequence is destroyed if information is notavailable as needed; learning is continuous, depending onpurpose and emergence of meaning; assimilation ratherthan retention is to be encouraged. Preliminary prepara-tion alone cannot produce suitable sequences becausemental growth is not marked by definite stages. Se-quence can, however, be approximated in the context ofblocks (accumulations) of knowledge or skill; in thecontext of the requirements, prerequisites, and logicalconsiderations that link the blocks; and in the context ofrelationship clarifiers such as introductions, previews,pretests, periodic reviews, and rearrangement of order asdetermined by trainee readiness. (62)

POPHAM, W. JAMES and EVA L. BAKER. Perceivedpurpose (filmstrip-tape program). Los Angeles:Vimcet Assdciates, 1967. Color 37 frames, 31minutes.

The program is directed at teachers or prospec-tive teachers and is meant to enable them to designinstructional activities that would help the learnerperceive the purpose underlying whatever he is studying.Four techniques are described: induction, deduction,exhortation, and extrinsic rewards. The three specificobjectives of the program are: (1) when instructed toprepare a one-period lesson plan, the learner will includea greater number of "perceived purpose-type" activitiesafter viewing the program than he included beforeexposure to the program; (2) given written descriptionsof teachers engaging in various activities, the learner willbe able to distinguish between teachers who are and arenot promoting perceived purpose, and, if so, which ofthe four techniques is being used; and (3) given a generaltopic and class description, the learner will be able towrite correct examples of each of the four perceivedpurpose procedures described in the program. Theaccompanying instructor's manual includes reports ofvalidation studies on the program and related quizquestions and answers which may be used as pre- andpost-tests. (63)

POPHAM, W. JAMES and EVA L. BAKER. Systematicinstructional decision making (filmstrip-tape pro-gram). Los Angeles: Vimcet Associates, 1967.Color, 27 frames, 20 minutes.

The program describes a general instructionalmodel that can be used by teachers in deciding (1) whichinstructional activities to include in a teaching sequenceand (2) whether the instructional sequence was effective.Differences between the "teacher-artist" and "teacher-technician" conception of instruction are examined. The

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program is designed as an initial overview of a series ofinstructional programs for pre- and in-service teachereducation and industrial and military instructor train-ing when that series is used in an integrated trainingsequence. The accompanying instructor's manual in-cludes a report on validation studies and appropriatequiz questions which may be used as pre- and post-tests. (64)

ROEBUCK, MARTYN. The application of programmedlearning techniques to the organization ofcourses, with particular reference to courses onprogrammed learning. IN Unwin, Derick andJohn Leedham (eds.). Aspects of educationaltechnology. London: Metheun & Company, Ltd.,1967. pp. 411-425.

Systems analysis, critical path analysis, and pro-gramming require a precise definition of objectives andan analysis of prerequisites. Courses should be dealt within the same way. To design an instructional situation,you must define the objectives, analyze the objectives todetermine the necessary learning structures, and decideon the conditions for motivation. All courses should bedeveloped empirically through application of program-med learning techniques. The general objectives of acourse in programmed learning are that the studentbecome able to prepare a programmed sequence, eval-uate a program's actual or probable effectiveness, andassess the usefulness of available machines, programs,and techniques. A full-time programmed learning courselasting one week is outlined. (65)

ROSE, HOMER C. Preparing courses of study and lessonplans. IN HIS The instructor and his job.American Technical Society, 1961. pp. 165-188.(Also in Rose, Homer C. The development andsupervision of training programs. Chicago: Amer-ican Technical Society, 1964.

A practical, illustrated guide to the title subjectsis presented. The following topics are discussed: Namingthe Course; Stating the Course's Objectives; Determiningthe Course's Specific Content; Arranging Units in OrderThey Will Be Taught; Purpose, Selection, and Use ofTextbooks; Using Projects in Course of Study; Planningthe Lessons; Typical Lesson Plan Elements; SampleLesson Plans; Other Activities to Consider in Planning aCourse of Study (field trips, special lectures and demon-strations, outside reading, semi-social activities). (66)

SCHOOL HEALTH EDUCATION STUDY. CURRIC-ULUM DEVELOPMENT PROJECT. Health edu-cation: a conceptual approach to curriculumdesign (Grades: kindergarten through twelve). St.Paul, Minn.: 3M Education Press, 1967. 141 pp.

The project reported consisted of five essentialsteps: (1) a nationwide survey to determine the state ofthe field; (2) a statement of priorities, educationaloutcomes defined as behavioral objectives; (3) the devel-opment of three key concepts to serve as a framework,which are in turn broken down into ten concepts thatserve as organizing elements for 31 subconcepts orsubstantive points; (4) the designing of instructionalmaterials at four levels: lower elementary, upper elemen-tary, junior high, and senior high; and (5) built-in plansfor evaluation. The book is illustrated by pictorial andgraphic material. Selected references (190) and resourcesare included. (67)

SILVERN, LEONARD C. Fundamentals of teachingmachine and programmed learning systems:course one. Los Angeles: Education and TrainingConsultants, 1964. 629 pp.

This programmed course teaches programmedlearning and teaching machine technology. It deals withsystems and uses systems techniques in the instructionprocess. An Administrative Factors Guide provides thetraining director with detailed data concerning thiscourse. Its chapter titles are: History and Philosophy ofthe Course, Course Development and Validation, Anal-ysis of Tryout Data, and Factors Which Will Contributeto Course Success. A bibliography is included. Volume Iof the Programmed Text contains units on: (1) Funda-mentals of the Course, (2) Concepts of Human Perfor-mance, (3) Basic Analysis, (4) Job Analysis, (5) Perfor-mance Standards, (6) Course Outlining, and (7) LessonPlanning. Volume II continues with units on: (8) Learn-ing Psychology, (9) Producing the Lesson, (10) Eval-uating Transfer to Real-Life Situations, and (11) Eval-uating Yourself in This Course. A programmed work-book includes a series of self-tests. This course is the firstof nine planned courses which constitute the Program-mer's Kit. The learner who satisfactorily completes thisfirst course will be knowledgeable, though not a master,of the field of programmed learning. (68)

SILVERN, LEONARD C. Textbook in methods ofinstruction. Culver City, Calif.: Hughes AircraftCompany, 1957. 400 pp.

This illustrated text is designed specifically foruse by engineering instructors as a guide to instructionaltechniques and to writing techniques for preparingcurriculum materials. It is intended to enable theengineering instructor to organize and communicate his

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technical know-how about complex electronic systemsto trainees in electronics courses at any level, and toenable him to evaluate accurately the results of hisinstruction. There are five chapters: (1) Basic Analysis(Logical and Psychological, Order and Organization,Analysis or Synthesis?, Techniques in Analyzing, Tech-niques in Synthesizing); (2) Vocational-Technical AdultTraining (Principles of Training, Principles of Instruc-tion, Work Experience, Adult Learning); (3) CurriculumDevelopment (Formulating the Training Package, Train-ing Objectives, Developing Course Outlines, PreparingLesson Plans, Designing Learner's Material, DesigningLaboratory Problems); (4) Training Devices (Training orLearning Devices?, Classroom Training Devices, Labora-tory Training Devices, Simulators, Integrating TrainingDevices); and (5) Evaluating Training (Principles ofTesting, Entrance Testing, Achievement Testing, Design-ing Written, Tests, Designing Oral Tests, DesigningPerformance Tests). An index is included. (69)

SMITH, ROBERT G., JR. An annotated bibliography onthe design of instructional systems. Alexandria,Va.: The George Washington University, HumanResources Research Office, 1967. 132 pp.

Presented as a supplement to The Design ofInstructional Systems (November 1966), this bibliog-raphy contains 449 annotated entries. They are arrangedunder seven major headings: (1) SystemsGeneral;(2) Training Systems; (3) Presentation of Knowledge;(4) Practice of Knowledge; (5) Practice of Performance;(6) Management of Students; and (7) Additional Mate-rial. An author index and "key-word-in-context" indexare included. (70)

SMITH, ROBERT G., JR. The design of instructionalsystems (Technical report 66-18). Alexandria,Va.: The George Washington University, HumanResources Research Office, November 1966. 85pp.

Prepared for the Department of the Army, thisreport presents a general account of one facet of thetechnology for developing effective training, that ofdesigning instructional systems. The material is based ona survey of available literature, and drawn particularlyfrom Human Resources Research Office experience andmethodology in training research. The major sections ofthe report deal with (1) the instructional system as aconcept, (2) the research evidence bearing on the majorsystem functions, and (3) methods for designing andevaluating the system in terms of cost and effectiveness.Chapter and section headings further indicate contents:(1) What an Instructional System. Is (A Model of anInstructional System; Instructional System Design);(2) The Practice of Performance (Practice of the Task;Knowledge of Results; Transfer of Training; Effective

Practice; Training Devices; The Role of the Instructor);(3) The Practice of Knowledge (Analysis of Knowledge;Factors Affecting Practice of Knowledge; Meaningful-ness; Techniques for Practicing KnowledgeBasic Pat-terns . . Self-Instructional Techniques, ClassroomFeedback Methods, Student-Coach Method, The Instruc-tor); (4) The Presentation of Knowledge (The Role ofPresentation; General Guidelines for Design of Presenta-tions; Training Films; Instructional Television; TrainingAids; Tape Recordings; Written Materials; The LiveInstructor; Other Factors); (5) Management of Students(The StudentAptitudes, Motivation, Previous Experi-ence, General Implications; Reinforcement; Adjustmentfor Individual DifferencesAbility Grouping; Recycling;Fixed Overall Length, Variable Time; Continuous Pro-gress; Student-Controlled Learning; The Management ofReinforcement; Sequence of Instruction; Assuring ClassAttendance); (6) Automation of Instruction (Automa-tion and the Instructional System; Programmed Instruc-tion and Automated Instruction; The Computer andInstructional Systems); Part II, A Guide to the Designand Evaluation of Instructional Systems(7) The Gen-eral System Plan (Constraints; The Sequence of Objec-tives; Management of Students; Quality Control; TheNature of the General System Plan); (8) Design of theLesson (Identification of System Functions; Selection ofSystem Methods and Components; Lesson Specification;Preliminary Test of the Lesson; The Lesson Plan);(9) Evaluation of the System (Measuring the Effective-ness of the System; Common System Faults; Cost andEffectiveness). There is a selected bibliography organizedby relevance to specific chapters. An appendix containsa checklist for evaluating training. Illustrations include amodel of an instructional system and sample lessonfunction charts for simple and complex tasks. (71)

STATON, THOMAS F. Planning for instruction. IN HISHow to instruct successfully: modern teachingmethods in adult education. New York:McGraw-Hill, 1960. pp. 42-64.

The design of a course of instruction tailored toachieve a particular purpose is demonstrated, withemphasis on the production of an integrated course ofinstruction instead of a miscellaneous collection oflessons. The topics discussed are: planning a unit-orientedcourse; developing a unit of instruction; choosing aninstructional method; and planning the component partsof a unit. Sample course, unit, and lesson plans areincluded, and further readings are suggested. (72)

TYLER, RALPH W. Basic principles of curriculum andinstruction. Chicago: The University of ChicagoPress, Syllabus Division, 1950. 83 pp.

The following four questions which must beanswered in developing any plan of instruction are

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identified: What educational purposes should the schoolseek to attain?, What educational experiences can beprovided that are likely to attain these purposes?, Howcan these educational experiences be effectively organ-ized?, and How can we determine whether thesepurposes are being attained? Procedures for answeringthe questions are presented, with a major division of thebook devoted to each question. (73)

U. S. AIR UNIVERSITY. ACADEMIC INSTRUCTORAND ALLIED OFFICER SCHOOL. Lesson plan-ning. IN ITS Principles and techniques of instruc-tion. Maxwell Air Force Base, Ala.: Air Univer-sity, 1966. pp. 105-113.

The primary purpose of the lesson plan is toinsure that the instructor considers every factor thatmight influence the effectiveness of a lesson as he plansthat lesson. The lesson plan also helps keep a constantcheck on the activities he plans for himself as well asthose he plans for the students. A guide to lessonplanning is presented according to the following steps:(1) Establishing the Lesson Objective; (2) Formulatingthe Desired Learning Outcomes; (3) Researching theTopic; (4) Organizing the Lesson; (5) Selecting Instruc-tional Methods; and (6) Preparing the Lesson Plan. Abibliography is included. (74)

U. S. CIVIL SERVICE COMMISSION. How to buildcourse content. IN Training the supervisor: aguide on how to set up and conduct a super-visory training program, by L. David Korb.Washington: U.S. Govt. Print. Office, 1956. pp.40-64.

An agency supervisory training program servestwo purposes: it guides and assists elements of an agencyin training supervisors, and it acts as a base of informa-tion and instruction, offering unity of purpose andaction throughout the agency. Such a program seeks outor reviews the agency's purpose, establishes recognitionfor the need of training by collecting information onpersonnel inadequacies and breaking them down into"need units," classifies these needs and matches themwith training objectives. It gathers content and assemblesthe units of instruction into a course; it records purpose,training aids, content, sequence, method, references, andsupplies. Information can often be found in establishedprograms, books, and manuals, and from instruction inother courses, research findings, supervisors, subjectmatter specialists, training personnel, officials of theorganization, job analyses of activities of successfulsupervisors, the survey of the needs, and the trainerhimself. Supervisory training usually includes duties andresponsibilities of specific supervisory functions; knowl-edge of the work supervised; job instruction; workmethods; human relations skills; job relations; employee

training; management skills; communications; work im-provement; self-development; safety and health; person-nel managementincluding performance ratings, wages,grievances, incentive awards; and information about theparent organizationmission, policies, and regulations.The depth and amount of information taught at asession should be keyed to the learner's capacities. Plansshould be flexible enough to conform to the trainees'needs as disclosed by their attitudes and performance.

(75)

U. S. CIVIL SERVICE COMMISSION LIBRARY.Planning and developing training programs; anannotated bibliography. Public personnel review16:2, April 1955. pp. 109-111.

References are selected on the basis of(1) general availability, (2) pertinence to the publicservice generally, and (3) recency of material. (USCSC 2,edited) (76)

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY. Supervisor'sguide to job instruction (Civilian Personnelpamphlet no. 42-A). Washington, D.C.: Depart-ment of the Army, August 1963. 25 pp.

This guide is designed to present a systematicplan which may be followed by the supervisor in doinghis training job. Skills training is defined as teachingemployees to perform the job efficiently, safely, andeconomically. It involves both performance and knowl-edge. Specific aspects of determining needs, planning tomeet needs, and followup or evaluation are discussed.Chapter and section headings are: (I) Introduction (Pur-pose of Guide, Definition of Training, Objectives ofSkills Training, The Training Cycle); (II) Determiningthe Need for Skills Training (Obvious Needs, Selecting aProblem, Defining the Problem, Analyzing the Problem,Training Timetable, Planning to Meet Future Needs,Organization Expansion, Changes in Assignments,Changes in Equipment, Mobilization Readiness);(III) Planning and Administering the Skills Training(Determining Training Content; Selection and Develop-ment of Material; Training MethodsHow Adults Learn,

20

Factors in Selection of Appropriate Methods, TheFour-Step Method, Understudies, Rotation, Lecture,Demonstration; Selection of Instructors; Training In-structors; Scheduling Training; Physical Facilities; Ad-ministering Program); and (IV) Evaluating and Reporting(Purpose of Evaluation; Planning the Evaluation; Evalua-tion in Terms of Production; Evaluation in Terms ofEmployee Performance; Evaluation of Training ProgramElements; Using the Evaluation; Recording and Report-ing Training). Examples of a training time table, acheddist for planning an instruction unit, an instructorevaluation form, a training attendance and rating record,and a certificate of training completion are included.

URANECK, WILLIAM 0. Creative problem-solving forplanning training. Training directors journal18:7, July 1964. pp. 37-39.

The article presents basic rules for developing acreative approach to planning and administering trainingprograms in eleven steps. These steps include use of atraining committee versed in group ideation;consideration of needs, goals, and evaluation techniques;and the need to report to management. (USCSC 4,edited) (78)

WARREN, VIRGINIA B. (ed.). How to plan an adulteducation course. IN HER A treasury of tech-niques for teaching adults. Washington, D.C.:National Association for Public School AdultEducation, 1964. pp. 10-14.

Basic considerations for planning courses, respon-sibilities of teacher and students in planning, specificways to involve students in planning an activity, and theneed for varying techniques during class according toclass needs are discussed. A sample of a completedcourse planning chart is presented with informationarranged under the following headings: understandingsto be gained, problems to be solved, activities to beexperienced, skills to be acquired, resources to beconsulted. (79)

PROGRAMMING INSTRUCTION

BRETHOWER, DALE M., DAVID G. MARKLE,GEARY A. RUMMLER, ALBERT W. SCHRA-DER and DONALD E. P. SMITH. Programmedlearning: a practicum. Ann Arbor, Mich.: AnnArbor Publishers, 1964. 237 pp.

This programmed course in programmed learningfor industrial trainers and educators enables students todevelop programs that will reduce training costs andimprove job performance. The programs - 1 those whohave used the course are judged by experienced editorsto be superior to the majority of currently publishedprograms in relevance of behavioral objectives to neededskills and relevance of examples and student responses toprogram objectives. The text includes sections entitled:(1) Examples, (2) Overview, (3) Subject Matter Analysis,(4) Frame Construction, and (5) Testing and Revision.Appendix A gives the answers for problems in the text;Appendix B is a summary. (80)

ESPICH, JAMES E. and BILL WILLIAMS. Developingprogrammed instructional materials: a handbookfor program writers. Palo Alto, Calif.: FearonPublishers, 1967. 138 pp.

The book is designed as an introduction for theprogram writer to the varieties of professional tech-niques and procedures available to him in the creation ofprograms and is intended to be basic reading for schooladministrators, teachers, and others involved in theevaluation of programmed instructional materials. Partand chapter titles indicate organization of content: PartOne, Preparation(1) Behavioral Psychology; (2) TheFeasibility Study; (3) Analysis of Materials; (4) Diagram-ming the Material; Part Two, Construction Techniques(5) The Discrimination Frame Sequence; (6) The Con-structed Response Frame Sequence; (7) The BranchingFrame Sequence Technique; (8) Retrogressive Chaining;(9) BABOON Frames; (10) Adjunct Programming;(11) Adjustive Devices; Part Three, Editing and Testing(12) The Program Edit; (13) Testing; (14) Test Analysis.An appendix contains program construction rules and anindex. (81)

21

FRY, EDWARD B. Teaching machines and programmedinstruction: an introduction. New York: Mc-Graw-Hill, 1963. 244 pp.

The book is intended primarily for those whohave had little background in the subject, but is designedas well for use in graduate education courses dealingwith the teaching process, learning problems, or audio-visual education, and also courses in applied psychologydealing with training situations or more theoreticalcourses or seminars dealing with the factors involved inparticular learning tasks. Following an initial chapterpresenting a general introduction to programmed in-struction are parts and chapters entitled: Part I, BasicConsiderations in Programmed Instruction(2) TeachingMachines; (3) Principles of Programming; (4) Program-ming Techniques; (5) Educational Objectives and Pro-gramming; (6) Programming and Student Differences;(7) The Use of Programmed Learning; Part II, Construc-tion and Evaluation of Programs(8) Preliminary Con-siderations; (9) Presentation Variables; (10) The Individ-ual Frame; (11) The Response; (12) Rewards; (13) Rate,Branching, and Practice; (14) Judging Program Quality.A bibliography is included. (82)

HORN, ROBERT E. Developmental testing: trying outprogrammed instructional materials with individ-ual students. Ann Arbor, Mich.: The Center forProgrammed Learning for Business, 1964. 35 pp.,panel book and tape.

This program of self-instruction fer programmer-trainees has been designed to be used as a part of acourse in programming or instructional systems design.It is assumed that the person taking the program has hadsome exposure to the use of programs and to the writingof sequences. The program is comprised of the framebook, the panel book, and an audio-tape recording. Theframe book includes chapters entitled: (1) Pre-Test onDevelopmental Testing; (2) Watching a DevelopmentalTest Taking Place; (3) Checklist for the First TryoutSession; (4) Encouraging Students to Make Comments;(5) When to Interrupt; (6) How to Intervene in theTryout Process; (7) The Problem of Inadvertent Teach-ing; (8) Post-Tryout Interview; (9) Making Notes ofStudent Comments; (10) Some Personal Observations bythe Author; (11) Development Testing Exercises; and(12) Post-Test on Developmental Testing. (83)

LYSAUGHT, JEROME P. and CLARENCE M. WIL-LIAMS. A guide to programmed instruction.New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1963. 180 pp.

Chapter titles indicate contents: (1) Origins andFundamentals of Programming; (2) Selecting a Unit to BeProgrammed; (3) Assumptions about Learners; (4) Ap-propriate Objectives; (5) Selection of a Paradigm;(6) Constructing the Paradigm; (7) Editing and Review;(8) Evaluation; (9) Applications and Implications. Aselected bibliography and index are included. (84)

MARKLE, SUSAN MEYER. Good frames and bad: agrammar of frame writing. New York: JohnWiley & Sons, 1964. 278 pp.

Upon completion of this program, the studentwill be able to (1) describe the principles upon whichlinear and intrinsic programming are based and todescribe methods for combining techniques drawn fromeach; (2) analyze frames and identify their potentialfunction depending upon their structure; (3) use theterminology of programming correctly in describingprograms and frames; and (4) "transfer," i.e., givenadequate subject matter knowledge, facility in communi-cation, experience with appropriate students, and guid-ance in the statement of objectives, the student will beable to produce the first draft of a satisfactory programin his own field. Fifteen rules for good frames arediscussed. An appendix offers comments on the branch-ing technique. A bibliography is included. (85)

MARKLE, SUSAN MEYER. Individualizing program-med instruction: the programmer. Teachers col-lege record 66:3, December 1964. pp. 219-228.

Programmed instruction shares some advantagesof a private tutor: both adjust to a student's learningrate and guide him efficiently and comfortably. But thestandard linear program and the multiple-choice formatare sometimes inadequate because, as a program evolvesthrough testing on slow students, it becomes slow, easy,and loses its challenge. The answer is multiple trackingreview and practice for those who need them, and directpaths through the program for those who do not. Thisbranching technique allows for individual differences.

(86)

MARKLE, SUSAN MEYER, LEWIS D. EIGEN and P.KENNETH KOMOSKI. A programmed primeron programming. 2nd edition. New York: TheCenter for Programmed Instruction, 1961. 2vols., 27 pp. + 40 pp.

The following chapters are included in thiselementary programmed text on the theory and practice

22

of programmed instruction: Volume I(1) Principles onWhich Programmed Instruction Is Based; (2) Techniquesfor Insuring Correct Responses; (3) Programming asExperimental Teaching; (4) Branching; (5) Uses and De-vices; Volume II(1) Utilizing the Student's Repertoire:Formal and Thematic Prompts; (2) Introducing a NewResponse into the Student's Repertoire; (3) The Designof Sequences: Sequence as a Prompt; (4) Developmentof Concepts; (5) Review. (87)

MELCHING, WILLIAM H., ROBERT G. SMITH, JR.,JESSE C. RUPE and JOHN A. COX. A hand-book for programmers of automated instruction(Procedural guide). Fort Bliss, Tex.: HumRRODivision No. 5 (Air Defense), September 1963.

This handbook is a textbook and reference fordeveloping programmed instruction courses and treats, indetail, all of the activities necessary to produce effectiveprograms. It is organized to parallel the sequence ofactivities a programmer should follow when preparing aprogram. Emphasis is placed on derivation and prepara-tion of instructional objectives essential to the prepara-tion of an effective program. (HumRRO) (88)

PIPE, PETER. Practical programming. New York: Holt,Rinehart & Winston, 1966. 70 pp.

A practical guide to the preparation and writingof programs is presented. The book is designed for useby the beginner and requires no previous knowledge ofthe theory and practice of programming. -Though back-ground information is. presented, broad statementsabout the applications of programmed instructions, themechanics of frame writing, and reports on studies arenot included. Chapter titles describe the contents:(1) Introduction; (2) Programming Today (Character-istics of Programmed Instruction, History of Pro-grammed Instruction, Linear Programming, BranchingProgramming, Two Spurious Issues); (3) Preparation(Step 1: Selecting Your Topic; Step 2: Writing aGeneral Statement; Step 3: Defining Your Objective inBehavioral Terms; Step 4: Defining Prerequisite Skills inBehavioral Terms; Step 5: Writing a Criterion Test; Step6: Developing a List, of Contents, Final Caution);(4) Writing the Program (The Five Phases of a Program,Student Responses, Format, Linear Programs, BranchingPrograms); (5) Testing and Revising; (6) Editorial Quali-ties. An index is included. (89)

Recommendations for reporting the effectiveness ofprogrammed instructional materials (Prepared bythe Joint Committee on Programmed Instructionand Teaching Machines). Washington, D.C.:National Education Association, Division ofAudiovisual Instructional Service, 1966. 35 pp.

The material is presented in four sections.Recommendations for Reporting the Effectiveness ofProgrammed Instruction Materials (reprinted from AVCommunication Review 14:1, Spring 1966) is intendedfor prospective users of programmed instruction, dealswith the selection and effective use of instructionalprograms, and provides guidance for publishing programsand for reporting data on program effectiveness. Rec-ommendations are offered concerning information onthe effects that a given program can be shown toproduce, regardless of how these effects may relate tothe user's purposes. Supplement I (to above title,reprinted from AV Communication Review 14:2, Sum-mer 1966) offers suggestions for information to beincluded in a program manual for teachers and otherusers who require information about program character-istics. Supplement II (to above title, reprinted from AVCommunication Review 14:2, Summer 1966) containsrecommendations intended to serve as a guide for thosewho are preparing technical documentation in supportof statements about the outcomes that a program canproduce. Criteria for Assessing Programmed Instruc-tional Materials (reprinted from Audiovisual Instruction8:2, February 1963) is addressed to the nontechnicalreader interested in the purchase of programs, sum-marizes some basic aspects of the nature of the currentstatus of programmed instruction, and offers sug-gestions and cautions concerning the aszessment ofprograms. (90)

ROCKLYN, E. H., J. R. 0. SULLIVAN and R. ZEMKE.Olivetti programming: a useful programmingvariation. Training and development journal22:1, January 1968. pp. 4044, 46.

Olivetti programming, a method for ensuring thelearning of prose material, consists of supplementing aprose text with a special programmed text designed toproduce learning behaviors common to effective pro-grammed instruction and adjunct programming. It isespecially useful in covering detailed technical contentof high concept diversity. It differs from regular pro-grammed instruction in that two sources of material areintermittently used by the student. Any person withgeneral training experience can do an acceptable job ofproducing an Olivetti program on his first attempt byfollowing the series of steps listed in this article.Testing is suggested if time and circumstances permit.Objective test results reported here indicated that, onthe average, about 80 percent of the material in theoriginal text has been learned. (91)

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ROWNTREE, DEREK. Basically branching. London:Macdonald & Company, 1966. 209 pp.

Linear programs of instruction are based on theoperant conditioning theory of learning. Branchingprograms are based on traditional tutorial methods. Asample sequence of a branching program illustrates howmaterial presented to the student depends entirely on hisresponse to the questions. Following an explanation ofwhat the branching program basically is and how itworks is an investigation of its underlying psychologicalrationale and a discussion of the question of selectingand training programmers. A second section concernsitself with program planning: subject matter, audience,goals, and the achievement of goals. The third and finalsection is a guide to the actual writing of the programwith specific recommendations on style and the execu-tion of the text from first to final draft. Selected readinglists are furnished at the end of some chapters. The bookis indexed. (92)

TABER, JULIAN I., ROBERT GLASER and HAL-MUTH H. SCHAEFER. Program development.IN THEIR Learning and programmed instruc-tion. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1965. pp.139-150.

Certain problems involved in the actual produc-tion of a program are considered: the selection and useof students in program tryout; the training of program-ming personnel; the steps in developing the first draft ofa program; problems in editing and revision; and thecontents of a program manual to accompany the finalpublished program. Some current practices in produc-tion methods are also indicated. (93)

THOMAS, C. A., I. K. DAVIES, D. OPENSHAW andJ. B. BIRD. Programmed learning in perspective:a guide to program writing. Chicago: EducationalMethods, 1963. 183 pp.

The book concentrates on linear programming.The authors have developed from the Ruleg system asystematic procedure for writing linear programs, muchof which holds also for programs of a more sophisticatedstructure. The book has four main sections with twentychapters: Section I, Education Today and Yesterday(1) The Problems of the Educationist, (2) The TeachingSituation; Section II, Programmed Learning and Teach-ing Machines(3) Programmed Learning, (4) Linear,Branched, and Adaptive Programming, (5) TeachingMachines, (6) Teachers and Teaching Machines; SectionIII, The Construction and Writing of Programs(7) TheBenefits of Programming, (8) First Steps in Program-ming, (9) Collection and Organization of Material,(10) Construction of the Matrix, (11) Interpretation ofthe Matrix, (12) The Flow Diagram, (13) The Writing of

Frames; Section IV, Programs in Perspective(14) Stagesin Writing a Program on Elementary ElectricityOhm'sLaw, (15) Program on Elementary Electricity, (16) Anal-ysis of the Individual Frames in the Programs onElementary Electricity, (17) Stages in Writing a Programon Pythagoras' Theorem. (18) Program on Pythagoras'Theorem, ( 19) Pythagoras' TheoremAnalysis ofFrames, (20) Problems and Aspects of Programming forLanguage Training. A list of selected titles on program-med learning is included. (94)

WILDS, PRESTON LEA and VIRGINIA ZACHERT.Final report, effectiveness of a programmed textin teaching gynecologic oncology to junior medi-cal students: a source book on the developmentof programmed materials for use in a clinicaldiscipline. Augusta, Ga.: The Medical College ofGeorgia, January 1966. 370 pp.

This report was written to meet the needs ofpersons interested in research results of a project

24

evaluating new educational media in clinical medicineand for persons interested in the problems involvedin the development of programmed materials of suf-ficient quality for use in graduate level instruction.Chapters are: (1) Statement of Problem; (2) Catalogof Project Materials (teaching and testing materialsdeveloped and used by the project); (3) ExperimentalDesign of the Project; (4) Development of Pro.,grammed Teaching Materials (work accomplished priorto the start of the project, controls of course con-tent, development and revision of "content" text, theunique sequencing aspects of case presentations, andcomparisons of revisions of the "content" and "ap-plications" texts); (5) Results; (6) Interpretation ofData; (7) Principal Contributions of the Project (asummary discussion of the development of the pro-gramming methods, the effects of the texts, theeffect on the curriculum, shortcomings of evaluationmethods, the development of new tests, and thetexts produced). Appendices contain sample frames,tests, objectives, and research data. There is a69-item bibliography. (95)

4

3

DETERMINING NEEDS-GENERAL

CROW, RICHARD R. Group training in higher man-agement development. Personnel 29:6, May1953. pp. 457-460.

The author discusses some ways of isolatingspecific management training needs and suggests cri-teria for use in determining when to apply grouptraining methods. (USCSC 3, edited) (96)

DINDA, ROBERT. An investigation of methods ofdetermining management training needs (Mas-ter's thesis). Cambridge, Mass.: MassachusettsInstitute of Technology, July 1961. 152 pp.

An investigation of fourteen methods of de-termining management training needs in twelve cate-gories of business, including non-profit organizations,was conducted. The thesis includes an analysis ofthe methods as well as a study of the extent ofuse of methods of determining training needs. Theresearch methods used included a literary search aswell as a survey of 265 businesses classified intotwelve categories. Training personnel reflections ofmanagement attitude toward the performance of thetraining activities were checked through interviews withfourteen management representatives of thirteen indus-trial corporations. The results of the study indicate anotable degree of relation in the use of the fourteenmethods of determining needs by twelve categories ofbusiness as indicated by a calculation of a coefficient ofconcordance. As a result of the study, it was concludedthat irrational methods of determining training needsmust be avoided at all costs. (ASTD) (97)

DUFFY, HOWARD M. Avoid the "shot-gun" approachto training; survey your needs before you train.Trained men 39:3, 1959. pp. 18-23.

Diagnosis of training needs through careful anal-ysis will result in less expensive and more effectivetraining. The author lists and discusses advantages anddisadvantages of common methods for determiningtraining needs, and he presents a simple inventory formto record training needs on an organizational elementbasis. (USCSC 3, edited) (98)

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GILBERT, THOMAS F. Praxeonomy: a systematicapproach to identifying training needs. Manage-ment of personnel quarterly 6:3, Fall 1967. pp.20-33.

Four rules provide a basis for deciding how tolimit training objectives to a practical program ifinstruction. The first rule: instructional objectivesshould be expressed in terms of deficiencies only,determined by subtracting the behavior that the traineealready knows from what he will have to know in orderto master a subject or task. It is a waste of time andmoney to teach a trainee what he already knows. Thesecond rule: acquirement (what a person has learned)must be differentiated from accomplishment (the valueof what a person has learned). For diagnostic purposes ininstruction, attention should be directed to acquirement.It should be recognized that individual differences inacquirement are relatively small, whereas differences inaccomplishment are large. The third rule: deficiencies inknowledge must be differentiated from deficiencies inexecution. Training is not the remedy for deficiencies inexecution; their remedies must be determined by specialstudy. There are four causes of faulty execution:(1) inadequate feedback; (2) task interference; (3) pun-ishment; and (4) lack of motivation. These problemsshould be removed from a list of instructional objectives.The fourth rule: the value of overcoming a deficiencyshould be compared to instructional costs to determine apriority of objectives before planning instruction. (99)

GORDON, DAVID E. Appraising training needsa newtechnique for management. Personnel journal44:7, July-August 1965. pp. 349-353.

"How does your company determine training forits first line supervisors' requirements? This articleoutlines a technique of eliciting training needs from thefirst line supervisors themselves, based upon the tech-niques of self-evaluation." The six phases of the self-evaluating techniques are (1) formulation of written jobdescriptions; (2) self-appraisal by each foreman and hissupervisor of how well he carries out his responsibilities;(3) identification of problems and comparisons;(4) assessment of weaknesses by the supervisor with eachforeman; (5) followup by management; and (6) training.(ASTD) (100)

HALLAM, JAMES A., GENE NEWPORT and ROLANDD. SPANIOL. Determining training needs. Jour-nal of the American Society of Training Direc-tors 16:6, June 1962. pp. 51-57.

The article notes the various approaches used inappraising training needs such as the subjective, objec-tive, and integrative. The latter method is discussed indetail, and other symptoms of the necessity for trainingare pointed out. Among these are poor leadership, poormorale, low productivity, high rate of employee turn-over, and inadequate decision-making. (USCSC 4,edited) (101)

HALSEY, GEORGE D. Determining training needs andplanning the program. IN HIS Training em-ployees. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1949.pp. 237-253.

Making a separate survey of training needs ineach of the following training areas is recommended:(1) training new employees; (2) training present em-ployees for increased work effectiveness; (3) trainingoutstanding employees for promotion; (4) executiietraining; and (5) attitude training. A general outline ofquestions to ask in making a training survey and anin-plant training program developed from such a surveyare presented. Further discussion centers on planningtraining to meet a specific operating need, responsibili-ties of a training director, and compliance with the law.

(102)

JACKSON, B. B. and A. C. MacKINNEY. Methods ofdetermining training needs. Personnel 36:5, Sep-tember-October 1959. pp. 60.68.

Methods for determining training needs are classi-fied into three general categories: emotional, rational,and empirical. It is recommended that emotional meth-ods be avoided and that rational methods be used mainlyfor preliminary analysis. The article urges greater use ofthe more dependable empirical methods and points outthat there is no single "best" method; one method willpick up needs that another method may miss. Examplesof each type of method are described. A 21-itembibliography is included. (103)

JOHNSON, RICHARD B. Determining training needs.IN Craig, Robert L. and Lester R. Bittel (eds.).Training and development handbook. New York:McGraw-Hill, 1967. pp. 16-33.

The chapter is divided into three sections. In thefirst section, Analysis of Training Needs, basic reasonsfor determining training needs are discussed and categor-ization of types of training needs is presented. The

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second section, Methods to Determine Training Needs,briefly discusses the methods: analysis of an activity(process, job, operation), of equipment, of problems, ofbehavior, of an organization; appraisal of performance;brainstorming; buzzing; card sort; checklist; committee;comparison; conference; consultants; counseling; in-basket; incident pattern; informal talks; interviews;observation; problem clinic; research; role-playing; self-analysis; simulation; skills inventory; slip writing;studies; surveys; tests; task force; questionnaire; work-shop; and other ways. In the third section, Sources ofTraining Need Information, the following are discussed:articles, books, case studies, complaints, crises, experi-ence of others, factual data, grievances, plans, policies,records, reports, requests, rumor, statements, symptoms,and other sources. A 24-item bibliography is included.

(104)

KORB, L. DAVID. How to determine supervisorytraining needs. Personnel 32:4, January 1956.pp. 335-352.

An approach to determining training needs,based on problems a id long-range goals of the organiza-tion, is presented. Ways by which training needs can beidentified are reviewed. Among methods discussed in thearticle are: interviews, questionnaires, observation, anal-ysis of records, group discussion, individual appraisal bysupervisors, individual job analysis by a supervisor andhis superior, appraisal panels, and a self-developmentapproach. (105)

LERDA, LOUIS W. and LESLIE W. CROSS. Perfor-mance-oriented training needs analysis. Journalof the American Society of Training Directors16:3, March 1962. pp. 40-44.

The article describes four approaches to trainingneed determination: responsility analysis; problem ap-proach; the interview-questionnaire; and the personnelinventory. (USCSC 4, edited) (106)

PROCTOR, JOHN H. and WILLIAM W. THORNTON.Determining training needs. IN THEIR Training:a handbook for line managers. New York:American Management Association, 1961. pp.2842.

Needs are the skills, knowledge, and attitudesindividuals require in order to overcome problems and toavoid creating problem situations. It is the line manager'sresponsibility to determine training needs; he may gethelp from specialists, but the decisions are his. The linemanager should consider training when he foresees thepossibility of surpassing standards by improvement ordifficulty in meeting present standards; when experi-

enced employees are to be transferred, promoted, orretired; when new equipment and facilities dictate newmethods; and when measures of production and indi-cators of morale consistently run counter to the desireddirection. Some of the techniques for determiningspecific training needs are observations, managementrequests, interviews, group conferences, job or activityanalyses, questionnaire surveys, tests or examinations,merit or performance ratings, personnel records, businessand production reports, and long-range organizationalplanning. Four techniques are considered in detail:(1) job analysis describes all the unit operations per-formed by the worker, each operating step in correctsequence, and key points related to each operating step;(2) checklist surveys record the opinion and observationsof respondents concerning training needs and oftenneeds shared by several employees within a singledepartment or across department lines; (3) interviews arediscussions with the employee regarding his work (theyare usually held by line managers, but they may behandled by the training specialist); (4) from the analysisof personnel data, the extent to which a problem isgrowing can be determined, possible consequences canbe forecast, and a broader view of training needs acrossdepartmental and divisional lines can be obtained. Attimes, more than one method of determining specifictraining needs may appropriately be used. (107)

ROSE, HOMER C. Determining training requirements;and Appendix B, an analysis and inventory ofmanagement and supervision. IN HIS The devel-opment and supervision of training programs,Chicago: American Technical Society, 1964. pp.105-135; 239-265.

The seven steps in planning and directing trainingprograms are: (1) determine job performance require-ments; (2) assess personnel resources (aptitude andability); (3) determine training requirements (kinds andlevels of required skills); (4) assess training resources;(5) plan programs; (6) direct, control, and evaluate theprocess of training (classroom, laboratory, on-the-job);and (7) evaluate product (performance on the job). Thefirst three steps are discussed in detail in this chapter. InSection 1, Determining Performance Requirements,eight characteristics of job or occupational analysis arelisted. A detailed example of such an analysis ispresented in Appendix B which contains three parts:discussion of the inventory, the inventory of manage-ment skills, and selected references referred to in theinventory. In Section 2, Assessing the Skills Possessed byIndividual Employees, there is consideration of directobservation aided by progress charts, personal inter-views, questionnaires, theory and information tests,performance tests, on-site surveys, and analysis ofoperating problems and development. In Section 3,Determining Qualitative and Quantitative Requirementsfor Training, four steps are delineated. The need for

27

having the information which is gathered organized,evaluated, and summarized by one competent person,and then evaluated by a group, is emphasized. Examplesof summaries made by various groups, for trainingpeople within geographic areas, are included. Diagrams,tables, and illustrations support the text. (108)

STERNER, FRANK M. Determining training needs: amethod; a systematic procedure for establishingneeds and priorities. Training directors journal19:9, September 1965. pp. 42-45.

This article is concerned with a technique bywhich inappropriate and ineffective training may beavoided. The method described includes six major steps:(1) study of the work, (2) development of training needschecklists, (3) survey of training needs, (4) analysis oftraining results, (5) establishment of priorities and initia-tion of training, and (6) a periodic review of needs.(USCSC 4, edited) (109)

TIMBERS, EDWIN. Defining training needs. Trainingdirectors journal 19:2, February 1965. pp.17-19.

In this article seven different approaches thathave been used in defining training needs are discussed.The approaches include (1) opinion surveys, (2) perfor-mance appraisals, (3) management query, (4) observa-tion, (5) termination interviews, (6) personnel changes,and (7) personnel statistics. The author states, however,that the use of multiple methods is more effective thanuse of any one method. By identifying training needsbefore starting a training program, it is possible toestablish long-range objectives. (ASTD) (110)

U. S. CIVIL SERVICE COMMISSION. Assessing andreporting training needs and progress (PersonnelMethods series no. 3). Washington: U.S. Govt.Print. Office, 1961. 80 pp.

Methods and approaches to reviewing trainingneeds, planning training for meeting them, and eval-uating the training provided are suggested. The chapteron identifying training needs presents an approach toneed identification based on an analysis of organiza-tional problems and conditions and of employees'performance, problems, and potential. The advantagesand limitations of need identification methods arereviewed: interview, questionnaire, testing, group prob-lem analysis, job analysis and performance review, andrecords and reports study. The chapter on evaluationconsiders the nature and purpose of evaluation; suggestsmajor steps to follow in planning and conducting it;considers the problem of standards; and discussessources, treatment, and use of evaluation data. The

chapter on meeting needs lists methods and resourcesand describes the major steps in planning training.Examples are given of suggested approaches to assessingtraining needs and progress. References are cited in thetext, and a 54-item bibliography is included. (111)

U. S. CIVIL SERVICE COMMISSION. How to deter-mine supervisory training needs in management.IN ITS Training the supervisor, by L. David Korb(Personnel Methods series no. 4). Washington:U.S. Govt. Print. Office, 1956. pp. 18-39.

In designing a program to determine organiza-tional training needs, one must initially consider certainfactors: availability of training staff; size, structure, anddispersion of the organization; amount and type of priortraining; whether a regular or pilot program is btiagconsidered; contemplated scope of the training venture;amount of expected assistance; possibility of use of aspecific "packaged" instruction course; and the probablelife span of the new training course. Data on trainingmust then be gathered in order to prepare "needanalysis" forms for organizational approval. The three

28

steps in this process are: (1) collection of information byeither the survey or individual appraisal approach (thesurvey approach includes interviews, questionnaires, andrecord reviews; the individual appraisal approach in-cludes supervisory appraisal and self-appraisal performedin groups where individuals consider possible trainingsolutions to their own problems); (2) analysis andseparation of data into the need for knowledge oforganizational policies and the need for supervisory andmanagement skills; (3) comparison of analyzed data withdata gathered by other organizations for the purpose ofsupplementation and reinforcement. (112)

U. S. CIVIL SERVICE COMMISSION LIBRARY. Plan-ning, administration, and evaluation of executivedevelopment programs (Personnel Bibliographyseries no. 4). Washington, D.C.: The Library,1961.64 pp.

The bibliography includes a section on "deter-mination of training needs," pp. 12-16. (USCSC 2,edited) (113)

DETERMINING NEEDSJOB AND TASK ANALYSIS

AMMERMAN, HARRY L. Development of proceduresfor deriving training objectives for junior officerjobs (Technical report 66.3, Task SAMOFF).Fort Bliss, Texas: Human Resources ResearchOffice, Division No. 5 (Air Defense), May 1966.82 pp.

Research was undertaken to develop a systematicmethod that could be used by service school personnelto prepare job-oriented training objectives for juniorofficers, primarily in the form of behavioral statementsof student performance expected after training. Theprocedures developed are divided into four phases:(a) listing of all tasks for a job; (b) selecting tasks forsome formal training; (c) identifying the training empha-sis needed in the selected tasks; (d) specifying theknowledges and skills necessary for the selected trainingaspects. The procedures included administration ofexperimental questionnaires, both by personal interviewand by mail, reviews of pertinent directives and publica-tions, and visits to field units. As the procedures weredeveloped, they were tried out on a sample officer job(Nike Hercules Fire Control Platoon Leader). In the trialapplication a task inventory of 452 items provided thebasis for choosing, by use of definite selection rules, 101job activities (22%) for some formal schooling; of 160training objectives stated for these activities, 46 wereperformance-type objectives for which detailed activitydescriptions were required. It is believed that use ofthese procedures by service school personnel to preparejunior officer training objectives is feasible, and thatthese procedures provide a method for deriving behav-ioral statements of relevant and essential objectives(author's abstract). (114)

AMMERMAN, HARRY L. Manual of procedures forderiving training objectives for junior officers. 1strevision. Fort Bliss, Texas: U.S. Army Air De-fense Human Research Unit, November 1964.232 pp.

The manual describes procedures for analyzing ajunior officer job in order to specify training objectivesappropriate to a service school program of instruction.Detailed instructions are provided for preparing specifictraining objectivesfor junior officer courses. Sequentialsteps leading up to the final statements of trainingobjectives are described (with illustrative materials andexamples). These steps include a complete description of

29

the junior officer job, the administration and analysis ofjob questionnaires, and detailed task and skill analysis ofselected job activities. Background discussions of train-ing objectives and of the nature of officer job behaviorare also included. The manual is divided into two parts.Part One provides background and a general introduc-tion to the procedures; Part Two presents detailedinstructions for carrying out the procedures described inPart One. Chapters in Part One explain the structure,source, and use of training objectives; describe themethod of deriving training objectives from job require-ments; and suggest additional applications and uses ofthe method. Chapters in Part Two are arranged in thesequential order in which the information will be used inaccomplishing the entire set of procedures. (115)

BUREAU OF NATIONAL AFFAIRS, INC. Job analysis(Personnel Policies Forum, survey no. 79). Wash-ington, D.C.: The Bureau, 1966. 29 pp.

Findings of a survey are presented. Data onprevalence and characteristics of job analysis programs,products of job analysis and how they are used, jobanalysis and employee morale, and time and costs inanalyzing typical jobs are included. There is also acollection of forms. (USCSC 1, edited) (116)

HAGGARD, DONALD F. The feasibility of developing atask classification structure for ordering trainingprinciples and training content (HumRRO re-search memorandum). Alexandria, Va.: TheGeorge Washington University, Human ResourcesResearch Office, January 1963.

This report explores the need for developing amethod of systematic analysis, description, and classifi-cation of behavioral events as a preliminary step inevolving generalized theoretical formulations and utiliz-ing available knowledge. The theory and methodology oftaxonomy are reviewed in relation to the problem ofintegrating empirical knowledge obtained from discretebehavioral events. Current efforts to construct taxonom-ic systems for behavior are examined. An organization ofeffort is suggested for further development of (1) atheoretical framework for interrelating behavioral re-search at all levels of generality and (2) a more restrictedtask classification for training principles and trainingcontent. (ASTD) (117)

LANHAM, ELIZABETH. Job analysis. IN HER Jobevaluation. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1955. pp.124-175.

Job analysis is defined as the process of deter-mining (by observation and study) and reporting perti-nent information relating to the nature of a specific job.It is the determination of the tasks that comprise the joband of the skills, knowledges, abilities, and responsibili-ties that are required of the worker for successfulperformance and that differentiate the job from allothers. Section headings within the chapter are: Methodsfor Securing Job Facts, Selection of Personnel forSecuring Job Facts, Selection of Personnel for GivingJob Facts, Determination of the Type of Information toSecure, and Training the Job Analysts. Detailed samplequestionnaires, work sheets, and job requirement formsare included. (118)

MADDEN, JOSEPH M. Determining training needs. INOfiesh, Gabriel D. and Wesley C. Meierhenry(eds.). Trends in programmed instruction. Wash-ington, D.C.: National Education Association,Department of Audiovisual Instruction, and TheNational Society for Programmed Instruction,1964. pp. 124-126.

The Air Force method of job description isdiscussed. This method uses a task inventory to surveythe work of job incumbents. The task inventory presentstask statements organized into categories called duties.The incumbent checks off the tasks he performs, addsany not listed, and gives any other information askedfor, such as frequency of performance. The advantagesof this method of job description over other methods arediscussed, and its usefulness in inferring training needs ispointed out. (119)

McGEHEE, WILLIAM and PAUL W. THAYER. Opera-tions analysis. IN THEIR Training in businessand industry. New York: John Wiley & Sons,1961. i pp. 61-87.

Operations analysis is described as one phase in athreefold approach to the determination of trainingneeds (other phases being organization analysis and mananalysis). This phase establishes the content of thetraining program. The data of operations analysis con-sists of performance standards; task identifications; jobmethods; and skills, knowledge, and attitudes. Proce-dures for conducting an operations analysis are dis-cussed. These include reviewing literature about the job,observing the job, performing the job, and askingquestions about the job. (120)

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MILLER, ROBERT B. Analysis and specification ofbehavior for training. 1N Glaser, Robert M. (ed.).Training research and education. Pittsburgh: Uni-versity of Pittsburgh Press, 1962. pp. 31-62.

Task analysis is approached' in terms of the kindof information needed for training decisions. Includedare discussions of the different functions of tasks; thecollection, organization and coding of task information;the development of training from a task analysis; and theimplications of task analysis for general education. A12-item bibliography is appended. (121)

MILLER, ROBERT B. Task description and analysis. INGagne, Robert M. (ed.). Psychological principlesin system development. New York: Holt, Rine-hart and Winston, 1962. pp. 186-228.

The purposes of task description and analysis aredescribed and their relation to the process of systemdevelopment is indicated. The general rationale for taskdescription within the framework of system develop-ment, the nature of task description, its categories ofoperation, and its terminology are all discussed. Finally,the analysis of tasks into their behavioral requirementsand the use of the analysis for the design and evaluationof training are discussed. (122)

MORSH, JOSEPH E. Keeping training on target. USAFinstructors journal 5:2, Fall 1967. pp. 11.15.

Job analysis is discussed. Reviews of the observa-tion-interview method and the job inventory method areincluded, the latter having been adopted as the officialprocedure for surveying Air Force jobs. The Air Forceadministers the job inventory as a booklet to largesamples of workers who respond to the task statementsorganized under major functions of their jobs. Inaddition to specifying whether or not they perform eachtask, respondents provide identification, backgroundinformation, and data descriptive of their performanceof the tasks. (123)

ROSE, HOMER C. Determining what to teach. IN HISThe instructor and his job. Chicago: AmericanTechnical Society, 1961. pp. 57-77.

The determination of content of certain types oftraining, both formal and on-the-job, is difficult. Severalmethods which may be used to determine this contentare: interviewing individuals or groups, submitting ques-tionnaires, using formal tests, and making a detailedanalysis of each job performed to identify skills andknowledge required at all levels of performance. In thischapter the job analysis method is discussed in terms of5 steps: (1) determining the blocks (small but major

parts of a job); (2) determining and listing the doing knowing units. Samples of practical analyses are includ-units; (3) determining and listing the knowing units; ed. Thirteen questions and assignments conclude the(4) listing the steps in a doing unit; and (5) outlining the chapter. (124)

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DETERMINING NEEDSOTHER SPECIFIC METHODS

CALDWELL, LYNTON K. Determining training needsfor organizational effectiveness. Personnel admin-istration 26:2, March-April 1963. pp. 11-19.

The article notes that training needs are mostlikely to be found when discovered in a generalmanpower or personnel resources survey. The survey,use of outside consultants, costs, and relation of trainingto personnel development are discussed. (USCSC 4,edited) (125)

DePHILLIPS, FRANK A., WILLIAM M. BERLINERand JAMES J. CRIBBIN. Discovering trainingneeds and content. IN THEIR Management oftraining programs. Homewood, Ill.: Richard D.Irwin, 1960. pp. 152-158.

A procedure for establishing training needs andidentifying individuals who should be trained is dis-cussed: (1) analyzing the work force; (2) listing theoperations; (3) studying available data; (4) observing;(5) talking; (6) evaluating the personnel; (7) making ajob analysis; and (8) making a lesson plan (a sample isincluded). (126)

DUBIN, SAMUEL S. and H. LEROY MARLOW. Thedetermination and measurement of supervisorytraining needs of hospital personnel: a survey ofPennsylvania hospitals. University Park, Pa.:Pennsylvania State University, 1965. 132 pp.

The objectives of this study were (1) to deter-mine the present and long-range training needs ofadministrative, supervisory, and other hospital staffpersonnel; and (2) to recommend methods for providingcontinuing professional education for hospital personnel.A summary of questionnaire and interview responses andspecific recommendations arising from these are pre-sented. Appendices contain survey data and copies ofquestionnaires and form letters used. (127)

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FLANAGAN, JOHN C. and ROBERT K. BURNS. Theemployee performance record, a new appraisaland development tool. Harvard business review35:5, September-October 1955. pp. 95-102.

This article reviews an employee performancerecord program used by the Delco-Remy Division ofGeneral Motors Corporation. The performance record isdescribed as being a procedure for collecting facts aboutemployee performance rather than a yardstick or ratingdevice. It is described as being useful to supervisors andmanagement, both in improving the employee's under-standing of the requirements of his present job and indeveloping his potential for more responsible positions.Descriptions of the performance record, guides to itsuse, and methods of evaluating the results are presented.

(128)

GORHAM, WILLIAM A. Staff nursing behaviors con-tributing to patient care and improvement. Nurs-ing research 11:2, Spring 1962. pp. 68-79.

The critical incident technique was used tocollect and systematize information on the role of thestaff nurse in contributing to patient improvement. Themethod, as applied in this study, is described in detail.Three main products of the research are presented:(1) definitions of the kinds of behaviors which consti-tute effective staff nursing performance; (2) a list of 320specific behaviors with indices as to their desirability andthe degree to which they discriminate effective fromineffective performance; and (3) the relative contribu-tion of each of the areas and categories of jobperformance to patient improvement. (129) -

KLAUS, DAVID J., D. E. GOSNELL, P. C. REILLY andJ. A. TAYLOR. Controlling experience to im-prove nursing proficiency: categories of nursingperformance (Report no. 2). Pittsburgh, Pa.:American Institutes for Research, January 1968.38 pp.

An investigation to obtain information on thedistribution of the activities of a general duty nurse in amedical-surgical hospital is described. As a part of theinvestigation, categories for classifying nursing activitieswere developed and observational data on the distribu-tion of activities among the categories were collected.

The development of the instruction-oriented categoriesof nursing behavior and the procedures used to observeand classify nursing performance are described. Thefindings are discussed in terms of their implications forthe selection, assignment, and training of nursing person-nel. The categories of nursing performance used and asample activity record are included in an appendix.There is a bibliography. (130)

McGEHEE, WILLIAM and PAUL W. THAYER. Mananalysis. IN THEIR Training in business andindustry. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1961.pp. 88-125.

Man analysis is described as the third phase in athreefold approach to the determination of trainingneeds (other phases being organization analysis andoperations analysis). This phase establishes who needstraining and what training he requires. The process ofman analysis is divided into two stepssummary analysisand diagnostic analysisand procedures for both stepsare delineated. Three methods of data collection arediscussed: objective job performance records, devisedsituational measures, and observational measures.Achievement tests are the main situational measurereviewed, but it is suggested that lists can be developedto rate performance in some devised situations that areusually used only for training purposes (role-play, casestudy, Pigors' incident method, and business games).Observational measures discussed are hecklists, criticalincident procedures, forced-choice ratings, diagnosticratings, diaries, interviews, and questionnaires. (131)

McGEHEE, WILLIAM and PAUL W. THAYER. Organi-zation analysis. IN THEIR Training in businessand industry. New York: John Wiley & Sons,1961. pp. 24-60.

Organization analysis is the first phase in athreefold approach to the determination of trainingneeds (other phases are operations research and mananalysis). This phase determines where training empha-sis can and should be placed within the organization.The four steps involved in this phase are discussed indetail: (1) statement of the organization's objectives,(2) analysis of human resources, (3) analysis of effic-iency indices, and (4) analysis of the organizationalclimate. (132)

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WHITING, JOSEPH F. The medical practitioner's viewof continuing medical education: a systematicapproach and some preliminary data. Archives ofdermatology, vol. 96, August 1967. pp. 132-146.

"The fact that although the full range of ournational organizational, political, economic, and techno-logical power has become associated in recent years withcontinuing medical education, yet specific concrete data(as distinct from hearsay evidence and clinical impres-sions) on the medfcal practitioner's views regarding thesubstantive aspects of his own continuing education arepractically non-existent, is a paradox." The uniqueecology of continuing medical education is describedand fundamental requirements of an adequate methodfor enabling the physician to articulate his viewsregarding his own continuing medical education arestated. The development of a data collection device forobtaining information in this area is described. Anoutline of kinds of data sought in the preliminary fieldtrial of the method is included. Preliminary results fromanalysis of a structured sample of Utah practitioners'responses to the device are presented in the areas of(1) weekly work schedule; (2) resume of patient con-tacts in two days of full-time medical practice; (3) se-lected data on diagnostic entities regarding applicabilityto medical practice, breadth of educational need in themedical community, and intensity of educational need;and (4) methods currently used by practitioners tosatisfy their educational needs. [Located too late forindexing.]

WNUK, J. J., JR. The 3x5 card: a training technique.Training directors journal 18:3, March 1964. pp.29-32.

The purpose of the 3x5 cards, as described in thearticle, is to allow the participants in a training programto reveal their problems and yet remain anonymous. The3x5 cards are given to trainees and the trainees writetheir particular problems on the cards. The cards areturned in and mixed up so that none may be traced. Thecards may then be given out for people to read asdisinterested parties, and the question can be discussedwithout anyone feeling personally affected. The mainfeature of this technique is that it allows the realproblems to be aired so that training may be gives. inthese areas of difficulty. The procedure for using such asystem is included in the article. (ASTD) (133)

OBJECTIVESDEVELOPMENT AND USE

BLOOM, BENJAMIN S. (ed.), MAX D. ENGELHART,EDWARD J. FURST, WALKER H. HILL andDAVID R. KRATHWOHL. Taxonomy of educa-tional objectives; handbook I, cognitive domain.New York: David McKay Company, 1956. 207pp.

This book presents the first of two taxonomiesdeveloped by a group of college and university exam-iners for the purpose of facilitating communicationabout educational goals. Objectives in the cognitivedomain deal with the recall or recognition of knowledgeand the development of intellectual abilities and skills.Categories of cognitive objectives are ordered along acontinuum of increasing complexity ranging from"knowing" at one end to "evaluating" at the other. Foreach category, three levels of definition are given: (1) averbal description of the class or subclass; (2) illustrativeexamples of objectives for each subclass; and (3) illustra-tive examples of test items for each subclass. (134)

BURNS, RICHARD W. Objectives and classroom in-struction. Educational technology 7:17, Sep-tember 15,1967. pp. 1-3.

Many schools operate without objectives andmost educational materials are prepared without behav-ioral objectives. To help the education profession andrelated interests correlate theory with practice, thefollowing suggestions are made: (1) all teachers intraining should develop skill in Expressing objectives interms of specific behavior; (2) all practicing teachersshould be exposed through inservice training experiencesto the theory of behavioral objectives and the practicalaspects of expressing them in writing; (3) all teachersshould be required to establish a list of specificobjectives for each area taught; (4) teachers shouldexperiment with allowing students to set their ownlearning goals; (5) teachers, supervisors, and administra-tors should demand that published materials be devel-oped from carefully defined and published learninggoals; (6) research should be initiated to establish proce-dures aimed at discovering the real needs of students;(7) published materials should be designed for lessvariable learner populations; (8) teachers (who so desireand who have the aptitude for it) should be allowed timeto develop some of their own teaching materials;(9) teachers should experiment with lists of objectives;

34

and (10) teachers should experiment with alternative yetsimilar objectives, letting students choose what theydesire to learn. (135)

ESBENSEN, THORWALD. Writing instructional objec-tives. Phi Delta Kappan 48:5, January 1967. pp.246-247.

A well-written instructional objective should say:(1) what a student who has mastered the objective willbe able to do; (2) under what conditions he will be ableto do it; and (3) to what extent he will be able to do it.It also will suggest how the student's accomplishmentcan be measured, but it should not specify how thataccomplishment is to be achieved. (136)

FOSTER, JERRY F. Classification of cognitive educa-tional objectives. Training directors journal 19:7,July 1965. pp. 34-45.

The objectives of this self-instructional programare stated as: (1) the learner will recall that an educa-tional objective should include a statement of thedesired behavior change in terms of the level of desiredachievement and a method by which this achievementcan be measured; (2) the learner will immediatelyrecognize a hierarchy of cognitive educational objectivesand will recall that each higher level in the hierarchyassumes attainment of all the lower levels; (3) the learnerwill demonstrate his skill in classifying educationalobjectives in levels within a hierarchy by correctlyclassifying four out of five educational objectives within30 minutes; (4) the learner will demonstrate his skill informulating educational objectives to a level within ahierarchy by correctly formulating an objective for aprovided term or concept to a specified level within ahierarchy within 30 minutes. The classification systemtaught is based on Taxonomy of Educational Objectives,Benjamin S. Bloom (ed.). (137)

GAGNE, ROBERT M. The implications of instructionalobjectives for learning. IN Lindvall, C. M. (ed.).Defining educational objectives. Pittsburgh: Uni-versity of Pittsburgh Press, 1964. pp. 37-46.

The need for a system for classifying instruction-al objectives that will indicate the teaching strategies

that should be used to achieve them is discussed. As asolution, a seven-category hierarchy for classifying thebehavior that is to be learned is suggested: (1) responses,(2) identifications, (3) response chains or sequences,(4) associations, (5) concepts, (6) principles, and(7) problem-solving and strategy-using. The behaviors ateach level of the hierarchy are discussed and it isproposed that the behaviors at the different levels differin terms of the conditions necessary for optimal learningand that learning the behaviors at a particular levelrequires the pre-learning of related behaviors at everylevel lower in the hierarchy. There are 14 references.

(138)

HOEHN, ARTHUR J. and ANDREW J. McCLURE. Thedevelopment of training programs for first enlist-ment repairmen: I. how to define training objec-tives (Job Train I). Alexandria, Va.: The GeorgeWashington University, Human Resources Re-search Office, July 1960. 67 pp.

A method is described for defining trainingobjectives in terms of minimum performance require-ments. Concepts and principles related to the definitionof objectives are stated, and a procedure based on theseconcepts and principles is described. This procedure isdesigned for ube with the development of training inequipment maintenance. The application to one militaryoccupational specialty is used as illustration, and thetechniques are explained in detail. (139)

JENSEN, BARRY T., STANLEY J. TEREBINSKI andWILLIAM R. ELLIS. The importance of criteri-on definition. Journal of the American Societyfor Training and Development 15:2, February1961. pp. 3-7.

Three levels of goals or criteriaultimate, inter-mediate, and immediateare discussed, and an explana-tion is given of the way they function to direct andevaluate progress. The importance of making criteriaknown to workers and, in training, to trainees is stressed.Examples are provided of inadequately defined criteriafor workers and of how these lead to the workers'establishing their own, possibly incorrect, criteria. (140)

KRATHWOHL, DAVID R. Stating objectives appropri-ately for program, for curriculum, and forinstructional materials development. The journalof teacher education 16:1, March 1965. pp.83-92.

The article is concerned with the use of educa-tional objectives at several levels of detail in theeducational process. The most general levels of objec-tives are most relevant to program planning, the inter-

35

mediate level to curriculum development-, and the mostspecific level to instructional material development. Thearticle makes two basic points: (1) objectives at severallevels of generality and specificity are needed to facili-tate the process of curriculum building and instructionaldevelopment; (2) a framework or taxonomy currentlyexists that can facilitate the development and analysis ofobjectives at the intermediate level, and one is at presentbeing developed at the more detailed level. (141)

KRATHWOHL, DAVID R. The taxonomy of educa-tional objectivesits use in curriculum building.IN Lindvall, C. M. (ed.). Defining educationalobjectives. Pittsburgh: University of PittsburghPress, 1964. p13'. 19-36.

The taxonomy developed under the leadership ofDr. Benjamin S. Bloom to provide a more precise meansof communicating about educational objectives is de-scribed. Presented are the categories and illustrativeobjectives from the cognitive and affective domains. Theassumptions on which the taxonomy is based and waysin which it might be used are discussed. There are fivereferences. (142)

KRATHWOHL, DAVID R., BENJAMIN S. BLOOM andBERTRAM B. MASIA. Taxonomy of educa-tional objectives; handbook II, affective domain.New York: David McKay Company, 1964. 196pp.

The second of two taxonomies, this book wasdeveloped by a group of college and university exam-iners for the purpose of facilitating communicationabout educational goals. Included are those objectiveswhich "emphasize a feeling tone, an emotion, or adegree of acceptance or rejection." The categories in thetaxonomy are ordered along a continuum of inter-nalization ranging from "awareness" at one end to ageneralized outlook on life at the other. Although suchwords as "satisfaction," "valuing," and "commitment"are used, they are defined in terms of intended studentbehaviors. For each category, three levels of definitionare given: (1) a verbal description of the class orsubclass; (2) illustrative examples of objectives for eachsubclass; and (3) illustrative examples of test items foreach subclass. In addition, there is a section on some ofthe major issues in the behavioral measurement of eachcategory. A 70-item bibliography is included. (143)

LINDVALL, C. M. (ed.). Defining educational objec-tives; a report of the Regional Commission onEducational Coordination and the Learning Re-search and Development Center. Pittsburgh: Uni-versity of Pittsburgh Press, 1964. 83 pp.

Educational planning must be based on the goalsof education. This report assumes that statements of thepurposes of education are meaningful only if they tellexactly what a pupil is to be able to do after he has hada learning experience. Each chapter presents somewhatdifferent ideas on defining instructional objectives, butall clarify some aspect of the educational task in termsof what pupils are expected to be able to do. Chaptertitles and authors are: (1) Instruction, by C. M. Lindvall;(2) The Importance of Specific Objectives in CurriculumDevelopment, by C. M. Lindvall, Stella Nardozza andMargaret Felton; (3) The Taxonomy of EducationalObjectivesIts Use in Curriculum Building, by David R.Krathwohl; (4) The Implications of Instructional Objec-tives for Learning, by Robert M. Gagne; (5) InstructionalObjectives and Programmed Instruction: A Case Study,by Robert Glaser and James H. Reynolds; (6) SomePersistent Questions on the Defining of Objectives, byRalph W. Tyler. (144)

MAGER, ROBERT F. Preparing instructional objectives.Palo Alto, Calif.: Fearon Publishers, 1962. 60 pp.

This programmed text is intended to teach thereader how to specify and communicate the instruc-tional intents he has selected; it is not concerned withwho should select objectives or with which objectivesshould be selected. Discussed are the importance ofbeing explicit, the qualities of meaningful objectives,identifying the terminal behavior, defining the condi-tions of performance, and stating the criterion forsuccessful performance. A self-test is provided. (145)

POPHAM, W. JAMES and EVA L. BAKER. Educationalobjectives (filmstrip-tape program). Los Angeles:Vimcet Associates, 1967. Color, 37 frames, 25minutes.

The specified objectives of the program are that,after viewing the program, the learner should be able to:(1) accurately distinguish between written objectiveswhich are stated in terms of student behavior and thosewhich are not so stated; (2) convert nonbehavioralobjectives to objectives which adequately describe post-instruction pupil behavior; (3) obtain a score on anattitude inventory which reflects a more favorabledisposition toward behaviorally stated instructional ob-jectives. The program is designed for both experiencedand future teachers. A report of validation studies on the

36

program and related test questions and answers whichmay be used as pre- and post-tests are included. (146)

POPHAM, W. JAMES and EVA L. BAKER. Establishingperformance standards (filmstrip-tape program).Los Angeles: Vimcet Associates, 1967. Color, 46frames, 22 minutes.

The program is designed to help teachers andprospective teachers make explicit their expectation ofstudent achievement. There are three objectives. At theconclusion of the program, the viewer should be able toperform the following behaviors: (1) when given astatement of an objective, to identify the portion of it, ifany, which describes a student performance standard (alevel of achievement which enables instructors to iden-tify those students who have satisfactorily achieved theobjective); (2) when given an objective, to identify theportion of it, if any, which specifies the class perfor-mance standard (achievement levels used to judge theadequacy of instruction); (3) when provided with anobjective, to construct performance standards of the twotypes listed above using both quantitative and qualitativestandards. The accompanying instructor's manual in-cludes a report of validation studies on the program, aguide to the instructional use of the program, and a quiz(with answers) which may be used as a pre- and/orpost-test. (147)

POPHAM, W. JAMES and EVA L. BAKER. Selectingappropriate educational objectives (filmstrip-tapeprogram). Los Angeles: Vimcet Associates, 1967.Color, 44 frames, 26 minutes.

The general objective of the program is todevelop a more positive attitude toward behaviorallystated objectives. The viewer is given practice in usingmodified versions of the taxonomies of educationalobjectives developed by Bloom, Krathwohl, and associ-ates toward accomplishing four specific objectives:(1) the learner will be able to distinguish correctlybetween written objectives representing the cognitive,affective, and psychomotor domains of pupil behavior;(2) having properly identified cognitive objectives, thelearner will be able to classify them as (a) the lowest, or(b) higher than the lowest level of the cognitive domain;(3) given a relatively unstructured task of writing objec-tives for a single class period, the learner will tend towrite cognitive objectives at a higher level than would bethe case prior to viewing the program; and (4) learnerswill achieve pre- to post-instruction scores on an attitudeinventory which reflect a positive attitude towardobjectives. The accompanying instructor's manual in-cludes a report of the validation studies on the programand appropriate quiz questions and answers which maybe used as pre- and post-tests. (148)

SMITH, ROBERT G., JR. An annotated bibliography onthe determination of training objectives(HumRRO research memorandum). Alexandria,Va.: The George Washington University, HumanResources Research Office, June 1964. 39 pp.

This research memorandum is an annotatedbibliography prepared. as a basis for a manual on thedetermination of training objectives, The referencesincluded in this bibliography are from the followingsources: (1) Psychological Abstracts from 1954 to pres-ent, (2) Annual Review of Psychology from 1957 topresent, (3) recent books on training and human factors,(4) HumRRO Bibliography, Cumulative Supplement,and (5) suggestions solicited from directors of researchat HumRRO's Units and Divisions. References are listedalphabetically by author according to seven categories:(1) General Rationales, (II) System Analysis, (III) JobAnalysis, (IV) Allocation of Training, (V) Task Descrip-tion, (VI) Determination of Knowledges and Skills, and(VII) Description of Objectives. A total of 101 refer-ences are listed. (ASTD) (149)

SMITH, ROBERT G., JR. The development of trainingobjectives (Research bulletin 11). Alexandria,Va.: The George Washington University, HumanResources Research Office, 1964. 101 pp.

Procedures for developing and stating trainingobjectives are described. The introduction includesdiscussion of the importance of job-related objectivesand uses of objectives for course design and communica-tion. Chapter headings and selected subheadings indicatecontents: (I) Introduction; (2) System Analysis; (3) De-veloping the Task Inventory (How to Develop a TaskInventory for Enlisted Men; Task Inventories for Offi-cers' Jobs); (4) Deciding Which Tasks to Teach (TheBasic Problem; Rationales for Deciding What to Teach;Obtaining Information About Tasks); (5) DescribingTasks in Detail (The Purpose of Detailed Task Descrip-tion; Types and Aspects of Tasks; Formats for DetailedTask Description; Preparation of the Detailed TaskDescription); (6) Determining the Knowledge and SkillComponents of Tasks; and (7) Ho'W to State Objectives.There is a classified bibliography. Appendices contain asample system analysis, examples of duty and task levelsof generality, an illustration of the decision process, andsample task description formats. (150)

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SOLEM, ALLEN R., VICTOR J. ONACHILLA andKARL Z. HELLER. The posting problems tech-nique as a basis for training. Personnel admini-stration 24:4, July-August 1961. pp. 22-31.

The use of Maier's posting problems techniquesas a basis for determining training objectives, content,method. and an evaluation approach are described. Anexperiment was conducted in a series of one-weekmanagement institutes for lower and middle level linesupervisors and staff personnel in the field service of agovernment agency. Results suggest advantages overtraditional approaches and a number of useful guides inperforming the training function. (151)

WALBESSER, HENRY H. Constructing behavioral ob-jectives. College Park, Md.: University of Mary-land, College of Education, Bureau of Educa-tional Research and Field Services, 1968. 90 pp.

The reader is instructed in the identification andconstruction of behavioral descriptions. The instructionis separated into three units. Each unit is designed tohelp the reader to acquire certain specific competencies.After covering the first unit, Behavioral Objectives:Appearance and Components, the reader should be ableto (1) distinguish between behavioral and nonbehavioraldescriptions of objectives when given a list containingstatements of each kind; and (2) identify and name thecharacteristics of a behavioral objective. The secondunit, Behavioral Objectives: Operational Practices andConstruction, is meant to enable the reader to: (1) de-scribe a set of procedures employed in the constructionof a minimal working set of action verbs for use in thedescription of behavioral objectives; (2) identify anassessment task consistent with an action verb; (3) iden-tify action verbs consistent with assessment tasks;(4) identify appropriate action verbs for behavioralobjectives; and (5) construct a behavioral objective andan assessment task. Objectives for the third unit,Behavioral Hierarchies, are to develop the reader'sabilities to (1) distinguish between a behavioral hier-archy and a scope and sequence chart; (2) describe a

adure for constructing a behavioral hierarchy; and(3) demonstrate the behavioral hierarchy constructionprocedure by providing one subordinate level of behav-iors when given a terminal task. Self-assessment ques-tions are included at the end of each unit. (152)

SELECTING METHODS

DePHILLIPS, FRANK A., WILLIAM M. BERLINERand JAMES J. CRIBBIN. Criteria for selectingappropriate training methods. IN THEIR Man-agement of training programs. Homewood, Ill.:Richard D. Irwin, 1960. pp. 166-171.

Eleven criteria for selecting appropriate trainingmethods are discussed: pertinence; effectiveness; train-er's familiarity with the method; factors of time andphysical facilities; cost; size of the trainee group; type oftraining program; attitudes of the training group; thetrainer's motivation; the trainer's personality; and com-pany climate. (153)

FILLEY, ALAN C. and FRANKLIN C. JESSE. Trainingleadership style: a survey of research. Personneladministration 28:3, May-June 1965. pp. 14-18.

The article recommends the proper balance thetrainer should maintain between leader-centered andgroup-centered training methods. It examines traininggoals and other determinants of training leader styles,discusses the selection of a proper leadership method,and enumerates conditions which determine whenleader-centered and group-centered training methods aremore effective. A bibliography is included. (USCSC 4,edited) (154)

McGEHEE, WILLIAM and PAUL W. THAYER. Specifictraining techniques. IN THEIR Training in busi-ness and industry. New York: John Wiley &Sons, 1961. pp. 192-196.

There is a definite need for carefully controlledresearch: (1) to examine the relative efficiencies oftechniques urrler a wide variety of conditions; and (2) toexamine the 'whys" of each technique. When selectingtraining techniques, consideration should be given to:(1) the kinds of behavior desired; (2) the number ofemployees to be trained; (3) the ability level of trainees;(4) individual differences among trainees; (5) cost inrelation to various factors; and (6) the incorporation oflearning principles. (155)

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POPHAM, W. JAMES and EVA L. BAKER. Appropriatepractice (filmstrip-tape program). Los Angeles:Vimcet Associates, 1967. Color, 30 frames, 31minutes.

The program is designed to assist an instructorwith the selection of learning activities that are likely tolead to the successful attainment of instructional goals.The viewer learns about two forms of learner behavior(equivalent and analogous practice) that permit studentsto practice the behavior called for in the instructionalobjective. In addition, a brief examination is provided ofprerequisite (preliminary) tasks, as well as behavior thatis irrelevant to objectives. In general the program tendsto force the instructor to focus on the "end-relevance"of his instructional means. The specific objectives of theprogram are: (1) at the end of the program, the learnerwill be able to distinguish between written examples ofpupil activities according to whether they are equivalentpractice, analogous practice, prerequisite tasks, or irrele-vant to a given objective; and (2) at the end of theprogram the learner will be able, given instructionalobjectives, to write out learning activities that areequivalent practice, analogous practice, and prerequisitetasks and objectives. The accompanying instructor'smanual includes a report of validation studies on theprogram and appropriate quiz questions and answerswhich may be used as pre- and post-tests. (156)

TALLMADGE, G. KASTEN and JAMES W. SHEARER.Study of training equipment and individualdifferences (Technical report NAVTRADEVCEN66-C-0043-1). Orlando, Fla.: Naval Device Train-ing Center, March 1967. 105 pp.

"The aim of this project was to determinewhether training effectiveness could be increased byemploying training methods which differed as a functionof trainee characteristics. A study was designed involvinga control and two experimental training methods and 16measures of trainee aptitudes and interests. The experi-mental training methods were designed to reflectGagne's (1965) Type 3 (Chaining) and Type 7 (PrincipleLearning) theoretical constructs" (report abstract). Ref-erences are included. (157)

U. S, CIVIL SERVICE COMMISSION. Selecting trainingmethods. IN ITS Training the supervisor; a guideon how to set up and conduct a supervisorytraining program, by L. David Korb (PersonnelMethods series no. 4). Washington: U.S. Govt.Print. Office, 1956. pp. 65-80.

The technique or method of training should be assimple, clear, and economical as possible. If knowledge isto be taught, the lecture method is an efficient means oftransmitting information. The lecture can be followedwith a discussion period. Since the lecture method isdependent on auditory memory, it should be reinforcedand supplemented with the judicious use of demonstra-tion and visual aids, such as films, charts, and handouts.If skills are to be developed, the trainee needs to beshown how to perform the task. He then requirespractice time to demonstrate his skill proficiency. Ifattitude modification or human relations skills aresought, techniques such as role-play, case studies, orproblem-centered conferences may be employed. Theconference method varies in its structuredness. In the"directed conference" the leader presents the subjectmatter in a planned sequence with a time schedule whichrestricts discussion; in the "free" or "unstructuredconference" the leader stimulates participation anddiscussion. The usual training conference, sometimescalled the "guided conference," utilizes advantages ofboth types. Other techniques are described briefly:multiple management, in which a group of selectedsupervisors and junior executives form a junior boardand are given real problems to review, research, andanalyze; central training schools, in which both upperand middle management participate, gaining not onlyspecialized training but also a common understanding oforganization goals; vertically structured training groups,in which all levels of an organization's supervisory stafftake joint courses; two-level training group, in which thevertically structured group is expanded to include bothsupervisors and superiors; human relations laboratories,in which social leaders gain insights into their personalmodes of interaction within groups; a.,d coachingmethods, with which superiors assist individual super-visors to improve their lob performance through objec-tive analyses of their developmental needs. (158)

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. FORESTSERVICE. SOUTHEASTERN AREA ANDSOUTHERN REGION. Selection of method. INITS Instructor training course, n.d. pp. 249-253.

Five variations of conferences are described andcompared: formal lecture, lecture with questions, train-ing conference (directed discussion), seminar (problem-

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solving conference), and pure conference (no predeter-mined outcome). A chart entitled Selection of MethodBased on Knowledge of Student Background lists meth-ods suggested for variations in knowledge of studentbackground and indicates the amount of participationthese methods involve: formal lecture, lecture withquestions, training conferences and practical exercises,seminar and group exercises, and pure conference andstaff planning. (159)

VERNER, COOLIE and ALAN BOOTH. Managing thelearning experience. IN THEIR Adult education.New York: The Center for Applied Research inEducation, Inc., 1964. pp. 68-90.

Educational methods, techniques, and devices areused to manage the learning experience. Methods are

particular ways of organizing people for conducting aneducational activity; techniques are ways of establishinga relationship between the learner and the leirning taskin order to facilitate learning; and devices are conditionsor things used to augment the techniques and makelearning more certain. Some individual methods arecorrespondence study, apprenticeship, internship, anddirected study; some group methods are the class,discussion group, workshop or institute, meeting, forumor assembly, and community methods. Some techniquesfor acquiring information are lecture or speech, andpanel; techniques for acquiring a skill are processdemonstration, role-playing, and drill or practice; tech-niques for applying knowledge are group discussion, andbuzz group or Phillips 66 discussion. Devices such asresult demonstrations and films may be used forillustration; devices such as radio and television may beused for extension; and devices such as tools, equipment,and working models may be used for manipulation. Themost crucial task of the instructional agent is theselection of the right methods, techniques, and devices.A competent choice requires extensive knowledge of thelearning process, the nature and interaction of groups,the socio-cultural characteristics of participants, and theefficacy and appropriateness of the various methods,techniques, and devices. Many different but inter-dependent factors must be reconciled to arrive at theappropriate choice. Among these factors are limitationsimposed by method on techniques and devices; thenature of the learning task; characteristics and experi-ence of the participants; abilities of the instructionalagent; inherent efficiency of the technique; availabilityof facilities and equipment; and the nature of thelearning process. Techniques are classified in two tablesaccording to usefulness in groups of varying sizes underdifferent situational requirements. (160)

SELECTING MEDIA

ALLEN, WILLIAM H. Media stimulus and types oflearning. Audiovisual instruction 12: 1, January1967. pp. 27-31.

The effectiveness of audiovisual instructionalmedia in accomplishing different types of objectives isconsidered. A table gives a rough and preliminary ratinginformation; visual identification; principles, concepts,and rules; procedures; performance of skilled perceptual-motor acts; and (2) for developing attitudes, opinions,and motivations. The following step-by-step procedureshould be used in order to make the most effectiveapplication of instructional media to teaching: (1) statethe exact behavior expected of the learner; (2) identifythe type of learning objective being met by theinstructor; (3) determine availability of the instructionalmedia; (4) determine availability of equipment; and(5) arrange for preparation of unavailable instructionalmedia and/or access to needed equipment. A list ofreferences is included. (161)

BRIGGS, LESLIE J. Multimedia instruction: a truestory. Audiovisual instruction 12:3, March 1967.pp. 229, 253.

The author, finding that little had been writtenspecifically on choosing the appropriate medium ofinstruction for a particular teaching objective, appliedfor and was given funds from the Office of Educationfor a study of the literature and fu: developing astep-by-step procedure for choosing media to achieveobjectives. Subsequently, in developing a multimediacourse on first-aid procedures, he applied, in part, theprocedure he had developed; time did not permit him toapply it in full. He did, however, make explicit hisrationale for each use of media in the course and alsoused the tryout and revision procedures first developedby the practitioners of programmed instruction. Testsgiven to people without first-aid training, to people withother first-aid training, and to people taking the coursedeveloped by the author resulted in non-overlappingdistributions. The poorest student in the new courseperformed better than the best student in other courses.

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BRIGGS, LESLIE J. A procedure for the design ofmultimedia instruction. Audiovisual instruction12:3, March 1967. pp. 228, 252.

To select the most appropriate media for accom-plishing the objectives of each element of instruction,carry out this procedure: (1) select and define theobjectives of instruction and state them in terms ofbehaviors to be developed by the students; (2) sequencethe objectives so that component or prerequisite knowl-edge will be acquired before more complex learning;(3) identify for each objective the type of learningrepresented; (4) list for each objective the sequence ofinstructional events which would provide the generalconditions of learning required for the type of learninginstructional event the nature of the stimuli (such asintensity, duration, and requirement for motion);(6) identify tentatively the optimum medium for pre-senting each stimulus described in the preceding step;(7) review objective sequences to make media choicesthat would permit use of one presentation medium for areasonable length of time before changing to anothermedium during the instruction; and (8) write specifica-tions for the specialist who will prepare material for eachmedium. (163)

BRIGGS, J. LESLIE, ROBERT M. GAGNE and MARKA. MAY. A procedure for choosing, media forinstruction. IN Briggs, Leslie J., Peggie L. Cam-peau, Robert M. Gagne and Mark A. May.Instructional media: a procedure for the designof multimedia instruction, a critical review ofresearch, and suggestions for future research.Pittsburgh: American Institutes for Research,1967. pp. 28-52.

Six steps are recommended for choosing instruc-tional media: (1) state the behavioral objectives in thesequence in which they should be taught; (2) identifythe type of learning required by each objective; (3) usethe required conditions of learning as a guide to designfor each objective a "media program" that lists theinstructional events, identifies the characteristics ofrequired stimuli, and states the acceptable media op-tions; (4) summarize the media options for a group ofobjectives in a sequence of instruction and identifyfrequently occurring media options; (5) assign the mediato achieve optimal effectiveness of stimulus display,

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convenience in changing from medium to medium, andeconomy in terms of size of unit in which each sequenceis to be prepared in the given media; and (6) writespecifications to guide those who will produce themedia. An account is given of how the steps are used forthe six forms of learning most often required ineducational courses. A detailed discussion of each step isalso presented to show its full significance in choosingmedia. (164)

HARTSELL, HORACE C. and RICHARD A. MAR-GOLES. Guidelines for the selection of instruc-tional materials. Audiovisual instruction 12:1,January 1967. pp. 23-26.

Too frequently instructional materials selectionhas been based on the wants of the teacher and not onwhat ought to be available to the learner. The keycurriculum issues seem to be need for establishingpriority, importance of learning how to learn, need tosee the school program as a totality, and caution inpromotion of "easy to adopt" packaged programs. Theclinical link, the communication link, and the judgmentlink deal with standards for setting up objectives for theselection of media. Before the teacher makes a decisionas to what to do with media, he should think throughthe following ideas with others: (1) what order ofhierarchical events constitute the day's objective(s)and/or the weekly lesson plan ?; (2) what sequence ofknowledge (in behavioral terms) has already been at-tained by the student(s)?; (3) what behavior is expectedto be exhibited by the student after the utilization ofthe media?; (4) what are the characteristics of themedia?; (5) what forms of evaluation can determinewhere the students are in terms of the expectedbehaviors?; and (6) how should one set up a variety ofexperiences in order to coordinate the acquired learningexperience(s)? He also needs to know the types ofassistance that the school can provide. (165)

PARKER, JAMES F. and JUDITH E. DOWNS. Selectionof training media (ASD technical report 61473).Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio: Aero-nautical Systems Division, Aerospace MedicalLaboratory, Behavioral Sciences Laboratory,September 1961.94 pp.

Translating statements of desirable personnelperformances and capabilities into training objectives isdiscussed. Statements on the ability of various trainingmedia to meet specific types of objectives are justified in

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terms of objective evidence. An example illustrates theselection of training media for a typical Air Forceoperator position. Chapter headings and sections follow-ing the introduction further indicate contents: ChapterII, The Classification of Human Performance withinSystems; Chapter III, Efficient Learning Environments;Chapter IV, Simulation of Contextual Environments;Chapter V, Training Mediasimulators, procedures train-ers, animated panels, charts, training films, transparen-cies, mock-ups, television, teaching machines or auto-mated training; Chapter VI, The Selection of TrainingMedia in Relation to Specific Training Objectives. Thereis a 7-page bibliography. (166)

SNIDER, ROBERT C. Selection and use of visual media.IN Research, principles, and practices in visualcommunication. Washington, D.C.: National Ed-ucation Association, Departmeht of Audiovisual.Instruction, 1960. pp. 119-128.

Adequate attention has not been given to thevarious modes of visual communication. Historicallyvisual forms of communication have played a littlenoted but essential role in the development of ourpresent-day civilization. Photography is a kind of lan-guage that is communicated through a number ofmedia, e.g., snapshots, newspapers, posters, slides, andmotion pictures. The photographer must understandthe subject matter he is to photograph, and he mustknow how to use the camera. Words and pictures areimportant in verbal-visual presentations such as illus-trated lectures, captioned filmstrips, illustrated dis-plays, or even sound motion pictures. Together theyperform more effectively than either can performalone. Projected visualsmotion pictures, slides, film-strips, and other formshave much appeal and areamong the most effective of the visual teaching aids.They attract and hold attention and are able to showgreat detail. Selecting motion pictures, filmstrips, slides,and other commercially produced audiovisual instruc-tional materials is a continuing activity that can best beviewed as three important steps in the teaching process:(1) once the teaching objectives have been clearlyestablished, it is necessary to identify materials that canbe used to accomplish these objectives most effectively;(2) after potentially useful audiovisual materials havebeen identified but not previewed, it will be necessary toprocure them for further consideration and possible classuse; (3) the third step is the decision to use a particularmaterial with students and how it will be used. A list ofinstructional techniques which, if properly used, increaselearning frog:: films, is included. (167)

EVALUATIONTESTS AND MEASUREMENT (GENERAL)

EBEL, ROBERT L. Measuring educational achievement.Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1965. 401pp

The concepts, principles, and procedures forpreparing and using tests of educational achievement arediscussed. Test development and test analysis, ratherthan selection, and use of standardized tests, are empha-sized. Chapter titles are: The Need for Better ClassroomTests; What Should Achievement Tests Measure?; Howto Plan a Classroom Test; The Characteristics and Usesof Essay Tests; How to Use True-False Tests; How toWrite Multiple Choice Test Items; How to Administerand Score an Achievement Test; Describing Test ScoresStatistically; How to Judge the Quality of a ClassroomTest; How to Estimate, Interpret, and Improve TestReliability; How to Improve Test Quality Through ItemAnalysis; The Validity of Classroom Tests; and Marksand Marking Systems. A glossary of educationalmeasurement terms and an index are included. (168)

FLANAGAN, JOHN C. The use of comprehensiVerationales in test development. Educational andpsychological measurement 11:1, Spring 1951.pp. 151-155.

The need to improve the development of tests byprecisely defining what is to be measured and by statinginferences and hypotheses on how to prepare valid testsis pointed out. A method designed for developing testspecifications and intended to meet this need is de-scribed. In this method, rationales are developed formeasuring the behaviors on what is assumed to be a validlist of behaviors to be sampled or predicted. In develop-ing the rationales, each behavior is first defined, de-limited, and illustrated to show the variety and scope ofthe actions included; then each behavior is classifiedwith respect to other behaviors, inferences are madeabout its nature, and hypotheses regarding its generalityand predictability are formulated; finally, deductionsand practical suggestions are used to describe theparticular type of item which should provide a validestimation of each specified behavior. Examples of theseprocedures are given. This method of explicit rationalesis designed to ensure systematic consideration of theavailable information by the test constructor; to makepossible checking of his descriptions, analyses, infer-ences, and item specifications by editors and critics

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before the test items are prepared; and to providedetailed hypotheses that can be objectively tested. (169)

FLYNN, JOHN T. and HERBERT GARBER (eds.).Assessing behavior: readings in educational andpsychological measurement. Reading, Mass.: Ad-dison-Wesley, 1967. 377 pp.

The readings are organized under ten headings:(1) Purposes and History; (2) Essentials of a Useful Test;(3) Reliability and Validity; (4) Test Score Interpreta-tions; (5) Measuring Cognitive Variables; (6) MeasuringNoncognitive Variables; (7) Decision-Making and Predic-tion; (8) Teacher-made Tests; (9) School Testing Pro-grams; and (10) Measurement in Research. A chartcorrelating the readings with chapters in popularmeasurement texts is provided at the end of the book.

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FURST, EDWARD J. Constructing evaluation instru-ments. New York: David McKay Company,1958. 334 pp.

The basic problems in evaluation are discussed inPart I under the chapter headings: Determining What toEvaluate; Defining the Behavior; Selecting AppropriateSituations; Getting a Record; and Summarizing theEvidence. Part II gives specific information on construct-ing achievement tests in separate chapters on: Planningthe Test; Constructing Items to Fit Specifications;Constructing Supply-Type Questions; ConstructingChoice-Type Items; Review, Assembly, and Repro-duction; Administration and Scoring; Analysis and Re-vision. The book is designed to help those concernedwith evaluation of instruction (1) acquire an understand-ing of problems involved in developing an evaluationtechnique; (2) further their understanding of principlesof test construction; (3) become familiar with some ofthe best references in the field; and (4) broaden theirunderstanding of the purposes which can be served bytests and other techniques of appraisal. Chapters includegraphic illustrations, concrete suggestions, and recom-mendations for further reading. The book is indexed.

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GREEN, JOHN A. Teacher-made tests. New York:Harper & Row, 1963. 141 pp.

This indexed book discusses the relationshipbetween instructional objectives and evaluation objec-tives, and emphasizes the practical applications of testingrather than abstract measurement theory. Types ofteacher-made tests are discussed, their strength andweaknesses noted, suggestions for improving the use ofevaluating measurements are given, and specific rules andpractical examples are presented to aid the teacher inconstructing his own test. The book has nine sections:(1) Instruments and Criteria of Measurement (Strengthsand Weaknesses of Various Test Forms; Selection ofTeaching Objectives); (2) Planning Measurement Instru-ments (Planning the Test-Table of Specifications; Gen-eral Principles of Test Construction); (3) Constructionand Use of Informal Objective Tests (Short-AnswerForm; Alternative Response Form; Multiple-ChoiceForm; Matching Form); (4) Construction and Use ofPerformance Tests (Measurement Approaches; PlanningPerformance Tests; Construction of Performance Tests;Evaluation of Performance Tests); (5) Construction andUse of Essay Tests (Planning Essay Tests; Constructionof Essay Tests; Types of Essay Tests; Grading EssayTests); (6) Construction and Use of Oral Examinations(Types of Oral Examinations; Planning Oral Examina-tions; Construction of Oral Examinations; Principles ofUse; Special Advantages of Oral Examinations);(7) Characteristics of Good Measuring Instruments (Va-lidity; Reliability; Usability); (8) Scoring, Grading, andAssignment of Course Marks; and (9) Statistical Treat-ment of Test Data (Untabulated Data; Frequence Distri-bution; Graphic Representation of Test Results; CentralTendency and Variability; Percentiles). (172)

LINDQUIST, E. F. (ed.). Educational measurement.Washington: American Council on Education,1951. 819 pp.

This handbook and textbook on the theory andtechnique of educational measurement covers the func-tions of measurement in education, the construction ofachievement tests, and measurement theory. Althoughchapters were written by single authors so as to providedifferent points of view and types of experience, allchapters were reviewed, criticized, and revised by ateam. Each chapter lists references, and the entire text isindexed. Chapter titles are: The Functions of Measure-ment in the Facilitation of Learning; The Functions ofMeasurement in Improving Instruction; The Functionsof Measurement in Counseling; The Functions ofMeasurement in Educational Placement; PreliminaryConsiderations in Objective Test Construction; Planningthe Objective Test; Writing the Test Item; The Experi-mental Tryout of Test Materials; Item Selection Tech-niques; Administering and Scoring the Objective Test;

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Reproducing the Test; Performance Tests of EducationalAchievement; The Essay Type of Examination; TheFundamental Nature of Measurement; Reliability; Valid-ity; Units, Scores, and Norms; Batteries and Profiles.

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REMMERS, H. H., N. L. GAGE and J. FRANCISRUMMEL. A practical introduction to measure-ment and evaluation. New York: Harper &Brothers, 1955. 370 pp.

An orientation to measurement and evaluationfor those who have had little or no systematic study ofthis field, this book is designed for an introductorycourse in measurement and evaluation. Chapter titlesunder Part One, Orientation, are: Purpose and Organiza-tion of This Book, Survey of Evaluation in the SchoolProgram, and Statitistical Concepts Used in Measure-ment. Under Part Two, The School Testing Program,chapters are entitled: Development and Administrationof the Evaluative Program; Selection of MeasurementInstruments; and Administration, Scoring, and Interpre-tation of Tests. Chapters in Part Three, Evaluation ofClassroom Instruction, are entitled: Identification ofEducational Objectives, Constructing Teacher-MadeTests, and Assigning Marks and Reporting Pupil Progress.Chapter titles in Part Four, Appraisal of PersonalityAspects, are: Determining Attitudes and Interests, andAssessing Emotional and Social Adjustment. A list oftest publishers and a glossary of common measurementterms are provided in two appendices. The book isindexed. (174)

SYMONDS, PERCIVAL M. Eliminating bias in evalu-ating students' achievements. American journalof nursing 52:5, May 1952. pp. 610-613.

The purpose of the paper is (1) to analyzepossible causes of variations in evaluation, and (2) topropose a few simple and practical steps that may betaken to remedy the situation. Two basic types ofevaluation are (1) the evaluation of information, judg-ment, reF3oning, and other responses that can be clearlydefined as to correctness, and (2) the evaluation of othermore vague and less tangible responses and personalqualities. The former calls for objective testing, wherethere is a minimum of judgment on the part of thetester; the latter calls for observation and the exercise ofjudgment. Factors causing variation in testing informa-tion and reasoning are first investigated, and four rulesfor improving objective test items are offered: (1) eachtest item should have only one correct response; (2) anitem should be free from ambiguity; (3) the truth orfalsity of an item should not be debatable; and (4) "spe-cific determiners" (such as "always" and "never") whichprovide clues as to the correctness or falsity of the item

should be avoided. Factors which cause variations inmaking judgments are discussed under the headings: haloeffect; constant error judgment; variability of the sub-ject; errors in memory; difference in the meaning oftraits; differences in interpreting behavior; evaluator'sprocedure. Eleven suggestions for eliminating bias areoffered and discussed. A list of references is included.

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THORNDIKE, ROBERT L. and ELIZABETH HAGEN.Measurement and evaluation in psychology andeducation. 2nd edition. New York: John Wiley &Sons, 1961. 602 pp.

The book is a comprehensive review of thesubject and is intended as a guide to its theory andpractice for psychologists, practicing and prospectiveteachers, and laymen. It is designed to serve as atextbook for courses related to the subject. Chaptertitles are: (1) Historical and Philosophical Orientation;(2) Overview of Measurement Methods; (3) The Teach-er's Own Tests; (4) Preparing Objective Tests; (5) Ele-mentary Statistical Concepts; (6) Norms and Units forMeasurement; (7) Qualities Desired in Any MeasurementProcedure; (8) Where to Find Information about Spe-cific Tests; (9) Standardized Tests of Intelligence orScholastic Aptitude; (10) The Measurement of SpecialAptitudes; (11) Achievement Tests; (12) Questionnairesand Inventories for Self-Appraisal; (13) The Individual asOthers See Him; (14) Behavioral Measures of Personal-ity; (15) Projective Tests; (16) Planning a School TestingProgram; (17) Marking and Reporting; (18) Measure-ment in Vocational Guidance; and (19) Tests in theSelection of Personnel. There are four appendices:(I) Computation of Square Root; (II) Calculating theCorrelation Coefficient; (III) A. General IntelligenceTests, B. Aptitude Test Batteries, C. Reading Tests,D. Elementary School Achievement Batteries, E. HighSchool Achievement Batteries, F. Interest Inventories,G. Adjustment and Temperament Inventories;(IV) Sources for Educational and Psychological Tests.An index is included. (176)

WOOD, DOROTHY ADKINS. Test constructiondevelopment and interpretation of achievementtests. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Books,1961. 134. pp.

Designed for use by both experienced andprospective teachers at all education levels, the book's

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principal purpose "is to expedite the transition fromtheory to practice, or to help to erase the cultural lag inthe development and widespread use of psychologicaltesting techniques drawn from an integrated body ofsubject matter that can be taught." No prerequisiteknowledge of statistics is assumed; treatment of statisti-cal methods useful in dealing with test scores is confinedto minimum essentials. Though the book is concernedprimarily with educational achievement testing, many ofthe principles and procedures described are applicable tothe development of aptitude tests and the use ofachievement tests in other settings, e.g., in personnelselection. The chapters are: (1) Introduction; (2) TheGeneral Nature of Educational Achievement Tests (Indi-vidual Differences; Tests as Predictors; Tests as TeachingAids); (3) Principles of Psychological Measurement (TheMeaning of Psychological Measurement; The Concept ofTest Reliability; The Concept of Test Validity); (4) TheRole of Objective Measures in Academic AchievementTesting (Reliability; Scoring Economy; Adequacy ofContent Sampling); (5) Common Types of ObjectiveTest Items (True-False Items; Multiple-Choice Items;Matching Items; Rank-Order Items; Completion Items);(6) Planning an Objective Test (Defining the Objectivesof a Test; Weighing Test Components; Use of StatisticalData in Test Planning; Planning Optimal Testing Diffi-culty; Special Instructions for a Test; Planning EfficientTest Scoring; The Question of Correction for Guessing;Use of Optional Items); (7) Constructing Objective TestItems (Requisites for Item Writing; The Item as aWhole; The Alternatives; Independence of Items in aTest; Position of the Best Answer; Gauging ItemDifficulty); (8) Treatment of Test Scores (The Fre-quency Distribution; The Range; The Grouped Fre-quency Distribution; The Median; The ArithmeticMean; Other Measures of Dispersion; Translating RawScores to Letter Grades; Application of SuggestedGuide Distributions; Combining Letter Grades fromSeveral Examinations; Further Considerations in Com-bining Measures; An Alternative Procedure for Combin-ing Scores; Another Example of Problems in Combin-ing Scores; The Concept of Correlation); (9) ItemAnalysis (Item Difficulty; Item Discriminating Power);(10) The Essay Test (Definition; Presumed Advantages;Problems with the Essay Test; Improving the EssayTest). Appendices are: (A) Illustration of an ObjectiveApproach to Measuring Scientific Thinking; (B) Illustra-tive Multiple-Choice Items; and (C) Illustrations ofVarious Forms of Multiple-Choice Items in SeveralFields. Selected references are included. (177)

EVALUATION PROCESS

BELMAN, HARRY S. and H. H. REMMERS. Evaluatingthe results of training. Journal of the AmericanSociety for Training and Development 12:5, May1958. pp. 28-38.

The definition of evaluation, what can andshould be evaluated, and principles of evaluation arediscussed. (178)

BESCO, ROBERT, JOSEPH TIFFIN and DONALD C.KING. Evaluation techniques for managementdevelopment programs. Journal of the AmericanSociety for Training and Development 13:10,October 1959. pp. 13-27.

The place of evaluation in management trainingis discussed, and extensive supporting references arecited from the literature. The importance of defininggoals and determining needs before attempting to designevaluation procedures is emphasized. Listed are sevensteps to follow in evaluating a management developmentprogram. The difference between the evaluation ofmethods and the evaluation of results is stressed.Forty-nine references are given. (179)

BLUMENFELD, WARREN S. Attitude change as acriterion in training: the adequacy of experi-mental design in evaluating attitude change.Training and development journal 20:9, October1966. pp. 26-32.

The author analyzed studies to determine thedegree to which research concerned with attitude changeas a criterion in the evaluation of training used anexperimental design which would permit the experi-menter to state (with some degree of statistical confi-dence) the role that particular training techniques playedin his results. The studies analyzed were found inPsychological Abstracts, 1957 through 1961. Applicablestudies were classified as to two variables: (1) controlgroup versus no control group; and (2) pretest andposttest versus pretest only, posttest only, or nomeasurement instrument application. A fourfold tablewas accordingly set up and is included in the study. Anexample of each of the four classifications is presented.It is concluded that the number of published studiesaddressed to the use of attitude change as a criterion inthe evaluation of training was relatively small when

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compared to the studies on personnel selection or rating(for example). Thirty-one references are included. (180)

CALDWELL, LYNTON K. Measuring and evaluatingpersonnel training. Public personnel review 25:2,April 1964. pp. 97-102.

The article distinguishes between measurementand evaluation of training and states that their purpose is". . . to discover the extent to which and in what waystraining is effective. Probability, not certainty, is theonly feasible objective." It points out the need formethods of measuring achievement, warns of commonerrors in the use of statistics, and notes the importanceof selecting measurement criteria. Two points of refer-ence are necessary: base point or level of performancebefore training, and standard of performance towardwhich training is directed. (USCSC 4, edited) (181)

CRONBACH, LEE J. Course improvement throughevaluation. Teachers college record 64:8, May1963. pp. 672-683.

A distinction is made between evaluation de-signed to improve a course and evaluation designed tojudge individuals, whether they be pupils or teachers.Several approaches to evaluation for course improve-ment are discussed, and the need to use evaluation forthis purpose is emphasized. Six references are included.

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CRONBACH, LEE J. Evaluation for course improve-ment. IN Heath, R. W. (ed.). New curricula. NewYork: Harper & Row, 1964. pp. 231-248.

Evaluation is collecting and using information tomake decisions about an educational program; as such, itis used for decisions about course improvement, aboutindividuals, and about administrative regulation. Forcourse improvement, evaluation is used to ascertain whateffects the course has, that is, what changes it producesin pupils. A process study can be used to evaluate eventstaking place in the classroom; proficiency and attitudemeasures can determine changes observed in pupils; andfollowup studies can relate later careers of pupils to thecourse. To evaluate courses, it is suggested that descrip-tion and observation of general outcomes ranging be-

yond the curriculum content be made; that analysis ofperformance on single items or types of problems ratherthan of composite scores be carried out; and that thesame test not be given to all pupils, but that moderate-sized samples of pupils each be given a different test,each test being made as long as possible. (183)

DRESSEL, PAUL L. and LEWIS B. MAYHEW. Evalua-tion as an aid to instruction. IN irench, SidneyJ. (ed.). Accent on teaching. New York: Harper& Brothers, 1954. pp. 297-320.

The theme of this essay is that approachinginstruction through consideration of the evaluationproblems can suggest many specific devices to enrich thelearning process. An attempt is made to illustrate theproposition that a number of general principles firmlybased in the psychology of learning, commonly acceptedby teachers and closely related to evaluative thinking,can be evoked to maintain a clear sense of order andpurpose while enlarging the range of instructionalprocedures to many additional practices. Three majorpurposes of evaluation are examined first: (1) investiga-tion of program effectiveness; (2) improvement of theeducational program; and (3) the motivation of students.The following topics are discussed: Importance ofEvaluation in General Education; Evaluation TechniquesApplied to Teaching (peer reactions, analyzed models,paper-and-pencil achievement tests, inventories, scales,and checklists, audiovisual aids); and Guides to the Useof Evaluative Concepts in Instruction (individualizationof instruction, motivation, emphasis on progress). (184)

FREDERIKSEN, NORMAN. Proficiency tests for train-ing evaluation. IN Glaser, Robert (ed.). Trainingresearch and education. Pittsburgh: University ofPittsburgh Press, 1962. pp. 323-346.

Criterion measures which reflect more accuratelythe objectives of instruction and which permit separatejudgments about various aspects of the teaching programare needed. Training evaluation requires some method ofmeasuring desired outcomes. These methods may in-volve: (1) soliciting opinions of students or experts;(2) using attitude scales; (3) measuring knowledge offacts and principles; (4) eliciting for observation behav-ior which is logically related to the desired outcome;(5) eliciting behavior in the "What would you do?" situa-tion; (6) eliciting lifelike behavior in situations whichsimulate real life; and (7) observing real-life behavior.The real-life behavior is closest to the ultimate objectivesof instruction, but it is rarely a good technique forevaluation because of lack of control of the testsituation. Therefore, eliciting lifelike behavior in situa-tions which simulate real life is the best measurementtechnique. (185)

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GLASER, ROBERT and DAVID J. KLAUS. Proficiencymeasurement: assessing human performance. INGagne, Robert M. (ed.). Psychological principlesin system development. New York: Holt, Rine-hart & Winston, 1962. pp. 419-474.

Proficiency measurement is described within theframework of system development. Topics discussedinclude criterion vs. norm-referenced measures, stan-dards, uses of proficiency measurement, the identifica-tion of the behavior to be measured, sampling of andassigning weights to performance components, precisionand relevance in proficiency measurement, and theelicitation of behavior for measurement. Applications ofproficiency measurement are also described. A 41-itembibliography is included. (186)

GOODACRE, DANIEL M., III. The experimental evalua-tion of management training: principles andpractice. Personnel 33:6, May 1957. pp.534-538.

A properly conducted experimental evaluationcan provide information on the overall value of aparticular training program and, if rightly designed, onthe specific strengths and weaknesses of its content andmethod. Such an evaluation consists of the following:(1) criteriaquantifiable indexes of the change in behav-ior the program is designed to accomplish; (2) controlsexp,:rimental conditions or statistical manipulations tohold constant as many of the variables in the situation aspossible; (3) statistical analysisuse of accepted statisti-cal techniques which are appropriate for the criteria; and(4) built-in designthe development of the design forthe experimental evaluation, including criteria, controls,and statistics, as an integral part of the training program,not as an afterthought. Accuracy of the evaluationlargely depends on adequate criteria, the most difficultof the four requirements to satisfy. Accordingly, amethod is presented for testing criteria, which consistsof testing their statistical utility, relevance, and reliabil-ity. An outline of an experimental evaluation conductedby the B. F. Goodrich Company is presented to illustratethe method. (187)

HAGEN, ELIZABETH P. and ROBERT L. THORN-DIKE. Evaluation. IN Harris, Chester W. (ed.).Encyclopedia of educational research. 3rd edi-tion. New York: Macmillan, 1960. pp. 482-485.

Evaluation is concerned with describing andjudging (1) a total school program, (2) curricular proce-dure, (3) an individual or group of individuals. Threedistinct aspects of the process of evaluating are selectingthe attributes that are important for judging the worthof the specimen to be evaluated, developing and apply-ing procedures that will describe these attributes truly

and accurately, and synthesizing the evidence yielded bythese procedures into a final judgment of worth.Research studies in the following areas are discussed:historical background, selecting and defining objectives,instruments for appraising educational products, evalua-tion and self-evaluation of school programs, and self-evaluation of the individual student. References areincluded. (Extensive entries on evaluation of programsarid services and on evaluation practices and techniquesare given throughout this edition of the Encyclopedia ofEducational Research.) (188)

KIRKPATRICK, DONALD L. Evaluation of training. INCraig, Robert L. and Lester R. Bittel (eds.).Training and development handbook. New York:McGraw-Hill, 1967. pp. 87-112.

With the objectives of clarifying the meaning ofevaluation and suggesting evaluation techniques, theauthor discusses four focal areas for measurement.Measurement may focus on trainee reactions, on knowl-edge learned, on changes in job behavior, or on tangibleresults. Techniques and research studies on "in-house"classroom training programs relevant to each area arediscussed. A number of sample questionnaires, refer-ences, and a brief bibliography are included. (189)

KIRKPATRICK, DONALD L. Techniques for evaluatingtraining programs. Journal of the AmericanSociety of Training Directors 13:11, November1959. pp. 3-9. 13:12, December 1959. pp. 21-26.14:1, January 1960. pp. 13-18. 14:2, February1960. pp. 28-32.

This is a four-part article dealing with successivesteps in evaluation: reaction, learning, behavior, andresults. (USCSC 4, edited) (190)

LERDA, LOUIS W. and LESLIE W. CROSS. Perfor-mance oriented trainingresults measurementand follow-up. Journal of the American Societyfor Training Directors 16:8, August 1962. pp.12-21.

The authors state that if a training need orproblem has been accurately determined and clearlystated and if the objectives of the program have beenproperly defined, the results are measurable. They notethat areas for measuring are learning and application,

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and point out the benefits of their evaluation. Somegeneral principles for evaluating training progress, aguide for evaluating results, and an outline of "factorsand techniques for measuring the tangible results oforganized training" are included. (USCSC 4, edited)

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LYNTON, ROLF P. and UDAI PAREEK. Support andevaluation. IN THEIR Training for development.Homewood, Ill.: Richard D. Irwin, Inc. and TheDorsey Press, 1967. pp. 299-321.

When participants return to work at the end of atraining program, both they and the program are undertest. The training institution can help participantstransfer learnings to the work situation by (1) collab-orating with participants and their colleagues in on-the-job projects; (2) counseling participants on their prob-lems from a distance; and (3) offering general refreshercourses. Also, it might publish news sheets or sponsorassociations through which the participants might shareproblems and experiences. Such posttraining contactsand services are part of the pimiary task of the traininginstitution; however, they should be limited to what isrequired to accomplish the original task effectively. Tojudge what posttraining contacts are needed requiressound criteria and procedures for evaluating the trainingprocess and its results. Of the three most commonevaluation measuresnumbers trained, participants' re-actions, and measures of end-of-course learningonlythe latter is promising for this purpose. However, thelatter cannot show what really matters: whether partici-pants can use the new knowledge and skill on their jobs.Whether or not training is effective, in the sense that it isused on the job, depends on all three partners in it: theparticipants, the training institution, and the workorganization. In evaluating training, the training institu-tion can seek to learn (1) how effective was the phase inwhich its responsibility is largest, namely the trainingprogram, and (2) how it can best help the other twopartners evaluates their parts and improve them. Inmaking these determinations, all aspects of the trainingprogram should be assessed with the help of theparticipants and the work organization. Further, thetraining objectives need to be periodically evaluated bythe work organization to make sure that the programmeets current needs. Finally, individual participants canbe evaluated. This is best done by the work organizationalthough the training institution might help if the resultsare to be made known to the participants and used tohelp in their growth. Shortcomings in the trainingprogram that show up at the posttraining phase may bedue to four imbalances: (1) input overload which leftthe partii too excited at the end of the training:(2) unrealistic goals set by participants; (3) alienationfrom work colleagues created by new learnings; (4) fail-ure to link the program to organizational realities.Actions can be taken during the pretraining and trainingphases to prevent these imbalances; they cannot becorrected during the posttraining phase. (192)

MacKINNEY, A. C. Progressive levels in the evaluationof training programs. Personnel 34:3, November-December 1957. pp. 72-77.

Criteria for judging the validity of trainingevaluations are discussed. Various systems of evaluationinclude hierarchical levels of quality in results obtained,and these levels are discussed for each system: (1) levelsclassified according to kinds of behavior being evaluated:the trainee's classroom behavior (lowest level); thetrainee's on-the-job behavior; and his subordinate'son-the-job behavior (highest level); (2) objective (high-er)subjective evaluations; (3) formal (higher)informalevaluations; and (4) Goodacre's three-unit scale (atti-tude, knowledge acquired, and job performance). Theauthor introduces an alternative classification relatedprimarily to the design of evaluationthe controlledexperimental study (highest and recommended); evalua-tion of trained group only by "before" and "after"measures; and evaluation of trained group only by"after" measures. A system of levels based on relevanceof criteria may be superimposed on the design system. Itincludes objective performance scores (highest level),subjective judgments or estimates of job performance,course achievement measures, and opinions and attitudesabout the course or its results. There is a hierarchywithin this latter level also: opinions of trainee'ssubordinates (highest), of trainee's supervisor, of trainee,and of trainer. The conclusion is that evaluation is bestat the higher levels, but that compromise procedures areoften necessary. The closest approximation possible tothe best study design should be the aim. (193)

MASSERMAN, CHRISTINE McGUIRE. Teaching vs.learning. American journal of psychiatry, vol.121, September 1964. pp. 221-227.

Evaluation of a training program must show theextent to which the program produces the desired changesin behavior, and it must point out the program charac-teristics that produce these changes. Scientific proceduresfor assessing trainees and evaluating programs include thedefining of training goals in operational terms; detailedspecification of the behavior to be evinced by trainees whoachieve the goals; design of test situations that require thetrainee to demonstrate the desired behavior undercircumstances that also permit inadequate behavior; andobjective and reliable methods of recording, measuring,and evaluating trainee responses. (194)

McGEHEE, WILLIAM and PAUL W. THAYER. Evalua-tion of training. IN THEIR Training in businessand industry. New York: John Wiley & Sons,1961. pp. 256-285.

The purpose of training evaluation and theprocedures needed to achieve that purpose are discussed.

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Evaluation measures are classified into four types:objective-subjective, direct-indirect, intermediate-ultimate, and specific-summary; the characteristics ofeach type are described. Characteristics needed by anytype of evaluation measure are described as beingrelevance, reliability, freedom from bias, and practical-ity. The number of measures to use and when to securethem are discussed. (195)

MEIGNIEZ, R. and OTHERS. Evaluation of supervisoryand management training methods, coordinationof research. Paris: Organization for EconomicCooperation and Development, June 1963. 162pp.

In a report based on European ProductivityAgency consultations (1961-1962) on research activitiesand methods, the relatively brief history and the currentstate of training evaluation are reviewed, the task ofdetermining objectives and criteria are discussed, typesof evaluation instruments (interviews and questionnaires,psychological and knowledge tests, measures of percep-tion, and attitude and rating scales) are noted, thestudies themselves are outlined, and methodologicalaspects of training evaluation set forth. Results of pastresearch suggest that training outcomes depend onnumerous complex factors, not least of all the influenceof superiors on trainees, that the impact of differingobjectives and individual needs makes it unprofitable tocompare different training programs as a whole, and thatthe evaluations made by participants are far fromadequate. Therefore, evaluation requires planning, strictexperimental design, and a specific focus, and must bedone in terms of gains in knowledge, competence,attitudes, and furtherance of company aims. Finally, thevarious dimensions involved in the thorough integrationof evaluation and training should be rigorously tested,clearly defined to facilitate information exchange, andtranslated into useful measurements. Tables and dia-grams, the studies done in several European countries forthe European Coal and Steel Community, and 127references are included. (ERIC 2, edited) (196)

MILLER, HARRY L. The evaluation of education andtraining. IN Self and service enrichment throughfederal training, an annex to the report of thepresidential task force on career advancement(Distributed by the U.S. Civil Service Commis-sion). Washington: U.S. Govt. Print. Office,1967. pp. 430-443.

The soecification of program objectives as theessential prerequisite for th.; evaluation process is dis-cussed. The development of tools to measure theachievement of those objectives is described as thetechnical contribution of evaluation. The goals ofevaluation and problems in measurement, including

validity, reliability, determination of transfer from train-ing to performance, and control of variables other thantraining, are discussed. (197)

MORGAN, BARTON, GLENN E. HOLMES andCLARENCE E. BUNDY. Evaluation in adulteducation. IN THEIR Methods in adult educa-tion. Danville, Ill.: The Interstate Printers andPublishers, 1960. pp. 151-161.

Types of evaluation may be classified accordingto degree of formality and precision: informal (such asobservation, informal tests), semiformal (reliable andvalid tests, surveys) and formal (research requiringstatistical procedures and special training). The purposesof evaluation are to determine how nearly the goals ofindividuals and of the class are reached; to measure thestudents' rate of progress at any given time; to determinethe effectiveness of specific teaching materials, methods,and activities; and to provide useful information to thestudent, the instructor, and the public. Principles ofevaluation are: (1) have a definite purpose; (2) usedefinite and attainable objectives; (3) gather evidence asto changes in people; (4) use different evaluation instru-ments; (5) assure cooperation between the evaluator andthose being evaluated; (6) do not try to evaluate alloutcomes; (7) make evaluation a continuous process.Steps in evaluation are: (1) check the objectives; (2) ex-amine what was done to reach the objectives; (3) collectevidence; (4) gather primary evidence from the peopletaught (either all of them or a reliable sample from largegroups); (5) select the most suitable of the followingdevices: questionnaires, checksheets or schedules, testsor inventories, scales (either standardized or not),records or reports, case histories, experimentation;(6) analyze and weigh the evidence; (7) use findings as abasis for planning programs and methods in talks anddiscussions, in newspapers and educational publications,in annual reports, for historical records, or to informsupervisors and people in educational institutions whoare interested in research. An evaluation of an extensionagent's project and a short form for evaluating meetingsconclude the chapter. (198)

PARNICKY, JOSEPH J. The evaluation of institutes; aguide for measuring their impact on social workparticipants. New York: National Association ofSocial Workers, 1966.45 pp.

Developed as an aid for regional social workinstitute planning committees, and intended to comple-ment the NASW publication, Manual for EducationalDirectors and Seminar Leaders (1954), the proceduresoutlined are applicable to other groups as well. Oral,written, and observational techniques, both structuredand open-ended, are considered, with primary emphasis

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on written techniques. Chapters are entitled: (1) Intro-duction and Overview; (2) Planning and ConstructingEvaluative Instruments; (3) Scheduling and ConductingEvaluations; (4) Interpreting and Disseminating Results.Appendixes are: (A) Sample of Written Evaluative In-struments (13 are reproduced); (B) Sample of Refer-ences (21 annotated evaluation references); and (C) Sam-ple of Professional Journals (11 journals containingmaterial on evaluation and social work). [Located toolate for indexing.]

POPHAM, W. JAMES and EVA L. BAKER. Evaluation(filmstrip-tape program). Los Angeles: VimcetAssociates, 1967. Color, 43 frames, 29 minutes.

This program is designed for teachers, prospec-tive teachers and supervisors of practice or regularteachers at any educational level. The primary objectiveof th., program is that the viewer will subsequentlydiscuss evaluation in terms of using student achievementto measure teacher effectiveness. Specific objectives arethat the viewer will be able to: (1) design both formaland informal preassessment procedures when given anobjective; (2) construct a test item that measures a givenobjective; and (3) make defensible inferences from testdata that is provided. The accompanying instructor'smanual includes a report on validation studies on theprogram and appropriate quiz questions and answerswhich may be used as pre- and post-tests. (199)

POPHAM, W. JAMES. The product development cyclein the Southwest Regional Laboratory for Educa-tional Research and Development. National So-ciety for Programmed Instruction journal 6:9,November 1967. pp. 4-8.

The development of a program entitled Educa-tional Criterion Measures, whose general objective was tobroaden the base of educational evaluation, is described.The formulation, objectives, specification, development,and field trial procedures are discussed. Four specificobjectives were selected: (1) the learner would bepresented with two comparable tests requiring him tolist potential criteria measures which might be employedto evaluate a specific educational innovation. One ofthese assignments would be presented two or moreweeks prior to the learner's viewing the program; thesecond would be presented at least two weeks after theprogram has been used. It was predicted that a greatervariety of measures will be displayed in the postinstruc-tional responses; (2) the learner would be able todistinguish between events and/or procedures whichcould be employed as criterion measures in educationalevaluation and those which could not be so employed;(3) the learner would be able to write without promptsthe names of each of the eight classes of criterionmeasures treated in the program; and (4) the learner

would be able to classify properly exemplars of theeight-cell criterion classification scheme described in theprogram. Tests to measure each objective were form-ulated, and results are reported in tables with discussion.Results were encouraging since on the basis of only a48-minute exposure to the program, statistically signifi-cant behavior changes in an uncued situation weresecured. The program is being produced in printed andfilmstrip-audiotape versions which will be field tested.

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REMMERS, H. H. How to evaluate training programs inbusiness and industry. Lafayette, Ind.: PurdueUniversity, n.d. 36 pp.

The booklet introduces the concept of evaluationwhich is developed as follows: Why Evaluate?, byRobert Mainer; What to Evaluate, by Warren Siebert;Building a Test, by R. E. Horton; Testing the Test, byPaul E. Baker. (USCSC 4, edited) (201)

RINES, ALICE R. Principles and purposes of evaluation.IN HER Evaluating student progress in learningthe practice of nursing (Nursing Education mon-ograph no. 5). New York: Columbia UniversityTeachers College, Bureau of Publications, 1963.pp. 7-23.

Evaluation involves the repeated use of a varietyof observational techniques. Although it includesmeasurement, evaluation is broader in scope, requiringalso the intellectual act of setting the standard to beachieved. There are eight guiding principles for evalua-tion: (1) evaluation should be in terms of the objectives(the desired outcomes of the educational program);(2) evaluation must be in terms of observed studentbehavior; (3) evaluation should take into considerationthe behavior that is appropriate for the stage of learningwhich the student has reached; (4) evaluation should bea continuing process; (5) evaluation should take intoconsideration the stage of growth and developmentwhich the student has reached; (6) evaluation shouldinclude all who participate in the educational program;(7) evaluation should be a stimulating force leading todefinite improvement in both teaching and learningsituations and in the growth and development ofstudents; and (8) evaluation should be in terms of unitsappropriate to the behavior being measured. Purposes ofevaluation include; (1) determining the progress a stu-dent is making toward achieving the goals of theprogram; (2) helping the individual student maintainstrengths and eliminate weaknesses; (3) helping theteacher improve teaching; (4) determining the worth ofthe undertaking in general; (S) clarifying and definingeducational objectives; (6) developing more reliable in-struments for evaluation; (7) motivating the student;(8) providing psychological security for the students,

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staff, and community; and (9) providing certification tomeet legal requirements. (202)

ROSE, HOMER C. Evaluation of the training program.IN HIS The development and supervision oftraining programs. Chicago: American TechnicalSociety, 1964. pp. 204-231.

This discussion of the evaluation process isorganized around a pyramid symbolically representingthree aspects of evaluation. The first levelThe Planinvolves evaluation of instructor qualifications, occupa-tional analysis and training needs, objectives, course ofstudy and lesson plans, instructional materials, trainingaids and equipment, and examinations. The secondlevelThe Processincludes evaluation of the applica-tion of learning-teaching principles, and progress towardobjectives indicated by student achievement, attitude,and performance. The third levelThe Productis theperiodic evaluation of the performance of graduates onthe job. A sample course evaluation questionnaire foruse by trainees is included. The controlled researchmethod of evaluation is explained, and two examples ofsuch research are reported: one involving comparison oftwo instructional techniques for teaching the samecontext, and the other a project to study the validity ofa seven-step procedure for evaluating technical trainingprograms (the procedure was judged valid). Aptitude,attitude and achievement are usually measured bywritten tests; whereas, procedures, pace, and productsare often measured on the job, in the laboratory or shop,and in simulated situations. The importance of valid,specific objectives and pre- and posttraining performanceevaluation, are emphasized. (203)

SCHULTZ, DOUGLAS G. and ARTHUR I. SIEGEL.Post-training performance criterion developmentand application; a selective review of methods formeasuring individual differences in on-the-jobperformance. Wayne, Pa.: Applied PsychologicalServices, 1961.60 pp.

The authors review the current "state-of-the-art"and the techniques used such as production records,interviews and questionnaires, work samples and situa-tion tests, and appraisal of executive performance ratingscales. The conclusion is that an "integrating conceptualframework is needed to order and organize the field ofmeasuring individual differences and to provide a moresatisfactory basis for evaluating measurement tech-niques." (USCSC 4, edited) (204)

SMITH, EUGENE R., RALPH W. TYLER and THEEVALUATION STAFF. Appraising and record-ing student progress (Adventures in AmericanEducation, vol. III; by the Progressive EducationAssociation, Commission on the Relation ofSchool and College). New York: McGraw-Hill,1942. 550 pp.

A plan for evaluating an educational program ispresented. The major purposes of evaluation are statedas being to check periodically on the effectiveness of aneducational institution in order to discover where theprogram needs improvement; to validate the hypothesesupon which the institution operates; to provide informa-tion for use in guiding individual students; to providepsychological security to the school staff, the students,and the parents; and to provide a sound basis for publicrelations. The assumptions made by the authors indeveloping an evaluation program are stated as being(1) that education is a process that seeks to change thebehavioral patterns of a human being; (2) that thebehavior changes sought are the educational objectives;(3) that an educational program is appraised by findingout the extent to which its objectives are being realized;(4) that human behavior is ordinarily too complex todescribe or measure with a single term or a singledimension; (5) that the organization of a student'sbehavioral patterns should be appraised; (6) that paperand pencil tests are not the only evaluative methods;(7) that the nature of appraisal influences teaching andlearning; and (8) that the responsibility for evaluatingthe school program belongs to the staff and clientele ofthe school. Chapter titles in Part I, Development and Useof Evaluation Instruments, are: Purposes and Proceduresof the Evaluation Staff; Aspects of Thinking; Evaluationof Social Sensitivity; Aspects of Appreciation; Evalua-tion of Interests; Evaluation of Personal and SocialAdjustment; Interpretation and Uses of Evaluation Data;and Planning and Administering the Evaluation Program.Part II, Recording for Guidance and Transfer, containschapters entitled: Philosophy and Objectives, BehaviorDescription, Teacher's Reports and Reports to theHome, Form for Transfer from School to College, andStudy of the Development of Pupils in Subject Fields.

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SMITH, ROBERT G., JR. An annotated bibliography onproficiency measurement for training qualitycontrol (HumRRO research memorandum).Alexandria, Va.: The George Washington Univer-sity, Human Resources Research Office, June1964. 27 pp.

This research memorandum is an annotatedbibliography prepared as a basis for a manual on qualitycontrol in training. The references included in thisbibliography are from the following sources: (1) Psycho-logical Abstracts from 1954 to present, (2) Annual

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Review of Psychology from 1957 to present, (3) recentbooks on training and human factors, and (4) HumRROBibliography, Cumulative Supplement. References arelisted alphabetically by author according to five cate-gories: (I) General, (II) Test Manuals, (III) Test Methods,(IV) Quality Control Systems, and (V) Test Develop-ment and Description. A total of 101 references arelisted. (ASTD, edited) (206)

SMITH, ROBERT G., JR. Controlling the quality oftraining (HumRRO technical report 65-6). Alex-andria, Va.: The George Washington University,Human Resources Research Office, 1965. 41 pp.

This report is designed to provide guidelines formilitary personnel on the evaluation of training systems.The chapters cover (1) ways of measuring the effective-ness of training, (2) considerations in test developmentand use, (3) procedures for developing tests, and(4) operation of the quality control system. A 51-itembibliography is included. (207)

STAKE, ROBERT E. The countenance of educationalevaluation. Teachers college record 68:7, April1967. pp. 523-540.

The two basic acts of evaluation are descriptionand judgment, both of which are essential if educationalprograms are to be understood. In conjunction with thisbasic assumption, the author offers a conceptual back-ground for developing a plan of evaluation of educa-tional programs rather than educational products. Theneed for data banks documenting information on antece-dent conditions, transactions, and intents--as well asgoals and objectivesis pointed out, and an attempt ismade to clarify the guidelines and the rational choice ofprograms for public schools. Graphs and diagrams areused to illustrate key points. References are included.

(208)

STAKE, ROBERT E. Testing in the evaluation ofcurriculum development. Review of educationalresearch 38:1, February 1968. pp. 77-84.

The origins of the development of curriculumevaluation as separate from the measurement of apti-tudes or accomplishments of individuals are discussed.Differences among present models are pointed out anddifferent methodological strategies growing out of thesedifferences are described. Three issues in measurementmethodology are discussed: (1) the question of thecentrality of objectives; (2) the question of samplingfrom the universe of behaviors to be tested; and (3) thequestion of unmatched testing. Finally, a number ofrecent evaluation studies are cited. A bibliography isgiven. (209)

TYLER, RALPH W. Achievement testing and curricu-lum construction. IN Williamson, E. G. Trends instudent personnel work. Minneapolis, Minn.: TheUniversity of Minnesota Press, 1949. pp.391-407.

Achievement testing is not only an aid tocurriculum building but an essential step in the totalprocess. Curriculum building involves four steps: (1) de-cide on objectives to be sought through the curriculumby tapping three sources: studies of students, investiga-tions of contemporary life, and reports of subject matterspecialists; (2) select learning experiences likely to attainthe chosen objectives; (3) organize learning experiencesso that the cumulative effect of the whole series will beas great as possible in attaining the objectives (withattention devoted to continuing, sequence, and integra-tion); (4) evaluate the effectiveness of the curriculumAchievement testing serves as a tool to determineeffectiveness. The task of achievement test constructionprovides a continuous reinforcement to curriculumbuilding by helping to clarify objectives. Achievementtests provide devices for making studies of students andcontribute to the organization of learning experiences byclarifying needs for sequence and integration. Suchtesting also contributes to the continuous re-evaluationof the curriculum and the identification of pointsneeding improvement. Finally, it is making a generalcontribution to the inservice education of teachers byfocusing their attention upon the student and hisprogress rather than inwardly upon the teacher and hisparticular devices. (210)

U. S. CIVIL SERVICE COMMISSION. How to measureresults. IN ITS Training the supervisor; a guideon how to set up and conduct a supervisorytraining program, by L. David Korb (PersonnelMethods series no. 4). Washington: U.S. Govt.Print. Office, 1956. pp. 94-115.

Evaluation determines how well a training jobhas been done with respect to supervisory and organiza-tional needs and indicates the resources available to meetthese needs. Research methods for evaluating traininginclude intensive observation of small groups, fieldexperiments, and field studies. The field study is theapproach most likely to be used for scientific evaluationof training. It involves: definition of the problem to bestudied; identification and isolation of the variables tobe examined; construction and pretesting of an instru-ment to measure variables; selection of the group to bestudied; measurement; development of standards ofperformance, or criteria, against which the measuredchanges may be compared; study of the total setting ofthe organization; collection and organization of the dataobtained; and analysis and interpretation of the resultsin applying research methods. The evaluator should:(1) use a carefully prepared and pretested evaluation

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plan; (2) use control groups; (3) obtain measures ofperformance before and after training; (4) recognize thenumber of variables that may go into the production ofcertain results; (5) use sampling techniques and statisti-cal analysis; (6) use methods such as questionnaires andinterviews; analysis of organization, production, andpersonnel records; observation of work behavior byindependent observers and observation of interviewswith groups; and arrangement of an experimental situa-tion. An evaluation plan should inform management ofthe results of training; be administratively feasible;provide for a systematic and unbiased means of collect-ing information; and contribute information that can beused to selectively improve the training program. Fourcharts on the evaluation of supervisory training aregiven: (1) Guide to the Evaluation of SupervisoryTraining; (2) In-course Evaluation of Participant's Pro-gress; (3) Measuring Impact on the Supervisors afterTraining; (4) Measuring Impact on the Organization.Two sample plans for applying the charts before andafter training are given. Prior to training, a list of needsthat the course was designed to meet should beprepared. The evidence or problems upon which theseneeds are based should be recorded objectively, and themanner in which these problems became known shouldbe recorded. After training, evidence of the currentnature and extent of the problems previously identifiedshould be examined. Information should be obtainedfrom participants, superiors, and subordinates. Changesshould be noted where training has been given and notgiven. Untrained supervisors constitute the control groupand should be matched as closely as possible to thetrained men in all pertinent elements. An outline of apractical evaluation plan where training may not havebeen built upon a detailed needs survey is given. Someevaluation measures are (a) the rating of performance bythe superior, and (b) the opinions of the traineesthemselves. (211)

WEISS, CAROL H. Evaluation of in-service training. INTargets for in-service training (Report of aseminar convened in Washington, D.C., May 4-5,1967, by the Office of Law Enforcement Assis-tance and the Joint Commission on CorrectionalManpower and Training). Washington, D.C.: TheJoint Commission, October 1967. pp. 47-55.

Evaluation as systematic and objective researchon the outcomes of training is discussed. Recommenda-tions are made on when and when not to carry outevaluation research. The planning of evaluation is dis-cussed in terms of identifying its purpose and selectingmeasures of training effectiveness. The followingmeasures are discussed: opinions of trainees, changes intrainees' knowledge, changes in trainees' attitudes, pre-disposition to practice, changes in job performance andeffect on the client. Factors to consider in deciding who

should do evaluation research are presented in theanswer to a question from the audience. (212)

WEISS, CAROL H. Evaluation of staff training. Welfarein review 3:3, March 1965. pp. 11-17.

Discussion of three aspects of tra;ning evaluationis included: the purposes of the program, uses of results,and how these affect the method of evaluation; relation-ships between evaluator and trainer; the measures ofsuccess that are chosen. (USCSC 4, edited) (213)

WILSON, CLARK L. On-the-job and operational cri-teria. IN Glaser, Robert (ed.). Training researchand education. Pittsburgh: University of Pitts-burgh Press, 1962. pp. 347-377.

There is a need for more precise devices formeasuring on-the-job performance. The function of thistype of measurement is to feed information back to thetrainer so that training can be improved. Certainrequirements for performance measurements followfrom learning theory. The measurement must be: (1) re-liable and valid; (2) specific; (3) available to trainer and

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trainee soon after performance; and (4) frequent. Thereare three classes of performance measures in order oftheir specificity: (1) operational performance measures;(2) work samples; and (3) ratings. Operational perfor-mance measures which are both highly reliable andspecific include measures of (a) tangible products;(b) specific behavior elements; (c) gross performance;(d) inferred performance; and (e) molperformance. Worksamples, when reliability can be obtained and when thesample fairly represents the real task, offer usefulmeasures based on tests designed as replicas or segmentsof the regular job. Ratings represent a departure fromthe actual on-the-job situation, and their use in trainingstudies is seriously limited by the inability of observersto render sufficiently specific evaluations. (214)

WITTROCK, M. C. Statement of intent. Evaluationcomment (Center for the Study of Evaluation ofInstrictional Programs). 1:2, May 1968. p. 1.

UCLA's Center for the Study of Evaluation ofInstructional Programs (CSEIP) is a Research and Devel-opment Center sponsored by the U.S. Office of Educa-tion and located in the Graduate School of Education atUCLA. Inquiries are invited.

EVALUATIONSPECIFIC PROGRAMS

ANGELL, DAVID, JAMES W. SHEARER and DAVIDC. BERLINER. Study of training performanceevaluation techniques (Technical report:NAVTRADEVCEN 1449-1). Port Washington,N:Y.: U.S. Naval Training Device Center, 1964.74 pp.

"The report discusses performance evaluation inthe training environment, specifically in training situa-tions involving the use of simulators and other complextraining equipment. The important variables involved indeveloping a system of performance evaluation are seenas: (1) types of behaviors, (2) types of measures ormensural indices, and (3) types of instruments forrecording performance.... An illustrative application ofan automatic training/evaluation system is given." Asummary of current Navy proficiency-evaluation meth-ods is included. (USCSC 4, edited) (215)

ALDRICH, C. KNIGHT and H. BERNHARDT, JR.Evaluation of a change in teaching psychiatry tomedical students. American journal of ortho-psychiatry 33:1, January 1963. pp. 105-114.

"Results of a test constructed to measure themedical student's use of psychiatric information inmedical situations indicated that a new sequence ofuridagraduate teaching in psychiatry combining theseminar-case-study teaching method with a longer periodof supervised patient contact . .. (was) slightly but notsignificantly superior to the old sequence which reliedheavily on the lecture method. Grades given to studentsby psychiatrists as seminar leaders were not significantlycorrelated with the students' test scores, suggesting thatthe grades measure something other than the acquisitionof information. The grades given by different psychia-trists to the same students in successive years were notsignificantly correlated. The psychiatrist-teacher reliedheavily on his evaluation of the student's report of hisrelationship with his patient in grading . . . (the) seminar-case-study course." The urgent need for developingpractical tools to measure achievement and potentialityin interpersonal relationships for the selection andgrading of medical students is emphasized. [Located toolate for indexing.]

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EDDY, WILLIAM B., DONALD D. GLAD andDONALD D. WILKINS. Organizational effectson training. Training and development journal21:2, February 1967. pp. 15-23.

The effect of a training program upon thebehavior of employees may be determined by: (1) con-tent of course material; (2) methods and techniques ofpresentation; (3) social psychological context of theorganization which training is intended to influence; and(4) attitudes, abilities, and interpersonal skills of thetrainees. The interactive effects of these factors wereanalyzed in a study of attitudes of public employeesattending a graduate program in public administration.The research was carried out in these four stages: (1) theformation of student groups to define and describeimportant training areas for evaluation; (2) the contentanalysis of evaluation reports submitted by studentgroups; (3) the development and utilization of attitudequestionnaires based on the content of student evalua-tion reports; and (4) analysis of organizational climate intwo agencies whose students differed in attitudes aboutthe training program. The findings and observations ofthe research are further reviewed in their relation to thestudents' incentives, their opportunities to practicenewly acquired behaviors, and reinforcement they re-ceived as a consequence of the training. (216)

HOWARD UNIVERSITY. CENTER FOR COM-MUNITY STUDIES. INSTITUTE FOR YOUTHSTUDIES. Youth counseling institute, trainingprogram and research design (Training report no.8). Washington, D.C.: The University, April1965. 19 pp.

The purpose of the Youth Counseling Institute isto assist youth rejected by the Army to improvesufficiently to enter the services, train for a career, orreturn to school. Fifteen issues which relate to makingcontact with disadvantaged youth and appropriate tech-niques of group counseling are listed. This reportevaluates the training program for those who work withthese youth. The evaluation of the training program wasdesigned to discover the extent to which (1) partici-pating in the training program enables the counselors torelate with youth effectively; (2) learning about the lifestyles of the poor occurs; (3) learning about groupcounseling techniques occurs; and (4) the value of usinggroup counseling after training is seen. The appendices

include five questionnaires used for evaluation (ratingscales, pre- and post-tests of information, and a problem-solving task). (217)

JOHNSON, PATRICIA C. and STEPHEN ABRAHAM-SON. The effect of grades and examinations onself-directed learning. Journal of medical educa-tion 42:9, September 1967. pp. 869-870.

This abstract reports an experiment at theUniversity of Southern California School of Medicine.Letter grades were elimMated; only one graded examina-tion, rated "satisfactory" or "unsatisfactory," was to begiven. It was predicted that students would becomemore self-directed in their study and there would be lesscramming for examinations. Students were interviewedand tested in the spring of each year for three years.They reported that they were doing more assigned andunassigned reading and more studying and that theywere cutting fewer classes. It was concluded thatstudents show an increase in self-directed study as theyprogress through medical school. (218)

KLAUS, DAVID J., DORIS E. GOSNELL, M. JOYCECHOWLA and PAMELA A. REILLY. Control-ling experience to improve nursing proficiency:determining proficient performance (Report no.3 AIR-E77-2/68-TR). Pittsburgh: American Insti-tutes for Research, February 1968. 46 pp.

This reportthe third in a series of reports onimproving nursing proficiency by controlling clinicalexperiencedescribes an approach for identifying orspecifying the components of proficient performance forany nursing task and for assessing how proficiently thetask is performed. Specific techniques described, illus-trated, and discussed are indicated by chapter andsection headings: (I) Introduction; (II) Describing Per-formance (Problems of Description, Task Enumeration,Illustrative Task Enumeration, Task Analysis, IllustrativeTask Description); (III) Estallishing Proficiency Stan-dards (Qualitative Aspects of Proficiency, Critical Inci-dent Technique, Background Components of Profic-iency); (IV) Proficiency Measurement (RepresentativeTest Formats, Simulation); (V) Discussion; (VI) Sum-mary. There is a 14-item bibliography. (219)

MAHONEY, THOMAS A., THOMAS A. JERDEE andABRAHAM KORMAN. An experimental evalua-tion of management development. Personnelpsychology 13:1, Spring 1960. pp. 81-98.

The Management Development La',oratory ofthe Industrial Relations Center at the University ofMinnesota used an experimental approach to evaluatethe training program of a large industrial organization.

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The objectives of the training program were to com-municate knowledge and understanding of the principlesof management, to develop the ability to apply a specialanalytical approach to the solution of managerial prob-lems, and to develop an appreciation and sense ofpersonal responsibility for self-development. Case anal-ysis and group discussion, supplemented by reading andoccasional lectures, were used in the training. Theevaluation was designed to determine if the courseattained its objectives and if the involvement of aparticipating manager's superior contributed to theattainment of the objectives. A management practicesquiz, case analyses, and an attitude scale ware used tomeasure changes in factors related to the stated objec-tives of the course. Results showed that the course didnot entirely meet the objectives; they further disclosedthat the case approach and the boss-involved approachwere not entirely effective and raised doubts as to thevalue of the analytical approach taught in the course.

(220)

MEISSNER, FRANK. Measuring quantitatively the ef-fect of personnel training: an experiment in foodretail stores. Training directors journal 18:3,March 1964. pp. 37-38, 40.46, 48-49.

The author describes a "bagsmanship" trainingprogram sponsored by Crown Zellerbach Corporationand concludes that (1) valid quantitative measurementsof a personnel training program are possible, and(2) training input-output coefficients may be usefulmanagement tools for both retail firms and publicpolicy-makers. (USCSC 4, edited) (221)

MIRAGLIA, JOSEPH F. Human relations training.Training and development journal 20:8, Sep-tember 1966. pp. 18-25.

Research to determine on-the-job effects ofhuman relations training is critically reviewed andclassified under the following categories: (1) descriptiveevaluation of course effects on trainees back-on-the-job;(2) quasi-experimental evaluation of impact of coursecontent on trainees (without control group); (3) experi-mental evaluation of impact of content on trainees (withcontrol group); and (4) experimental evaluation ofcourse effects on traineesincluding on-the-job behavior.It is pointed out that evaluations of human relationstraining on job performance are usually poorly executedbecause of (1) lack of valid and reliable human relationsmeasuring instruments; (2) unwillingness of organiza-tions to experiment in these "sensitive" areas; (3) knowl-edge that these supervisory skills change very slowly;(4) difficulties inherent in investigating and controllingthe dynamic interaction of any organization; and (5) theproblems created by an always changing organizationalatmosphere.. (222)

MODLIN, HERBERT C. An evaluation of the learningprocess in a psychiatric residency program. Bul-letin of the Menninger Clinic 19:5, September1955. pp. 139-160.

In 1951 the Menninger School of PsychiatryExecutive Committee authorized the appointment of aCommittee on Educational Research to devise evaluativemethods which would supplement written reports fromclinical supervisors. A method was needed to measurethe learning of students and thus to indicate the valueand the effectiveness of the program. The committeeagreed that such a method should (1) provide datadifferent from those contained in supervisors' reports,(2) produce results that could be quantified and statisti-cally measured, (3) specifically evaluate the didacticprogram, and (4) realistically fit staff and budget limita-tions. It was proposed that written examinations begiven annually, beginning in 1952. Details of theinvestigation of such examinations are reported. It wasconcluded that the comprehensive annual written exam-inations quite clearly differentiated first, second, andthird year trainees; demonstrated the quality and quan-tity of professional change and growth which occurredfrom year to year; and were useful for checking theefficacy of the curriculum and for changing aspects ofthe teaching. [Located too late for indexing.]

MONROE, RUSSELL. Techniques for evaluating theeffectiveness of psychiatric teaching. Americanjournal of psychiatry 122:1, July 1965. pp.61-67.

This paper reports work at the University ofMaryland on devising methods of examination forclinical skills. Emphasis is on using the tests to evaluatethe effectiveness of teaching. Specific techniques dis-cussed are: (1) short-answer, multiple-choice tests;(2) the giving of separate examinations in clinical evalua-tion, psychotherapeutic techniques, and factual knowl-edge to provide a profile of competency for eachstudent, highlighting his strengths and weaknesses, andproviding a guide for instructors involved in the small-group, tutorial educational system in the clinical years;and (3) using available movies and rating scales standard-ized on trained personnel as a way of measuring studentcapabilities and for interschool comparison. It is hopedthat such procedures can be designed so that the practiceeffect will be minimal and that the same exam can berepeated at least once during the four-year medicalschool curriculum so as to evaluate the effectiveness ofpsychiatric teaching. [Located too late for indexing.]

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NEWMARK, GERALD, RALPH MELARAGNO andHARRY SILBERMAN. The development of cri-terion- referenced tests in four skills for fieldtesting three approaches to teaching Spanish inelementary schools (TM-3063). Santa Monica,Calif.: System Development Corporation, 1966.57 pp.

The tests used in the California State Departmentof Education Spanish Research Project D-177 are de-scribed. Studied and assessed were: (1) instruction by aqualified foreign-language teacher; (2) programmed self-instruction; and (3) instruction by television. The 28criterion-referenced tests developed to measure listeningcomprehension, speaking, reading, and writing, dependon an absolute standard of quality rather than on arelative standard. They were designed to ascertain theextent to which each student achieved the specificobjectives of his language course. It was discovered thatthese absolute assessment procedures permit greaterobjectivity in evaluating achievement and provide a basisfor making decisions about selecting a language course,developing improved materials, modifying learning con-ditions, and revising course objectives. In the report aredetailed descriptions of the tests, including constructionprocedures, administration, scoring, and statisticalcharacteristics. (223)

'PEARSON, JUDSON B. (ed.). The analysis of short-termseminars in psychiatry for non-psychiatric physi-cians: a progress report for the years 1963-1966.Boulder, Colo.: Western Interstate Commissionfor Higher Education, 1966. 65 pp.

The differences in evaluative results between thequestionnaire analysis of eight seminars in 1963-1964and ten seminars in 1964-1965 are described. Specimenquestionnaire forms are included. In the evaluation ofany program there are two basic questions that must beanswered: What does the program accomplish, an,' howdoes the program accomplish it? The successful seminarfor non-psychiatric physicians first transfers the level ofcommunication from abstract discourse to concreteinformation exchange. Presentation of case studies helpsthe seminar members establish a commonality of mean-ings emerging out of a mutuality of concrete experiences.After a language of commonality is established, theconceptual framework of most seminar members isidentical enough that mutuality of meaning at the abstractlevel will be approximately equal. On the abstract level,role obligations can be presented in such a way that thephysician becomes self-reliant in his newly acquired role.Numerous variables must be taken into consideration forthorough evaluation: instruction, methods, participants(different motivations and interests), and the goals of thecourse. Different types of evaluation should be applied tothe same subject to help obtain a clear picture of the manyfacets of that subject. (224)

RINES, ALICE R. Evaluating student progress in learn-ing the practice of nursing (Nursing Educationmonograph no. 5). New York: Columbia Uni-versity Teachers College, Bureau of Publications,1963. 76 pp.

The material presented is based on a projectcarried out by the author in partial fulfillment of therequirements for the degree of Doctor of Education. Asa part of the project, the literature of nursing education,general education, and educational psychology wasreviewed, and instructors attempting to apply evaluationtheory were interviewed. The study is concerned onlywith the learning that takes place in the actual nursingsituation and with the evaluation of that learning;evaluation in the usual classroom setting is not con-sidered. Theories of learning and their application to thelearning of the practice of nursing are discussed; aconcept of evaluation in relation to the way studentslearn is developed; and ways in which that conceptmight be used to assess the progress of students in thepractice of nursing are proposed. Chapter headings afterthe introduction are: (2) Principles and Purposes ofEvaluation; (3) Tools cf Evaluation (in which the anec-dotal record, the checklist, the rating scale, studentself-evaluations, and patient observations are discussed);(4) Evaluation and Learning; (5) Proposals for a Programof Evaluation; and (6) Summary, Conclusions, and Im-plications. There is a 4-page bibliography. An appendixcontains the Interview Guide used to question nurseinstructors about evaluation procedures. (225)

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY. Training feed-back information requirements and methods inthe research, development, test, and evaluationof Navy systems (Report no. ND 65-4, preparedby Dunlap and Associates under Contract Nonr4167 00). Washington, D.C., 1964.

A study made to determine the relation oftraining feedback process to effectiveness of currenttraining evaluation programs is presented. Technical andmanagement recommendations for improving trainingfeedback are included. (USCSC 4, edited) (226)

VIGLIANO, ALDO and MANGESH GAITONDE. Eval-uation of student performance in a clinicalpsychiatry clerkship. Journal of medical educa-tion 40:2, February 1965. pp. 205-213.

The study reported made use of data gatheredduring the operation of a regular psychiatry clerkship

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program for senior medical students. The specific pur-pose of the study was to achieve some form of explicitformulation of those implicit criteria on which thepsychiatry faculty based the generic ratings of "satisfac-tory," "superior," and the like, traditionally used indescribing student performance. The study attempts toshow that a faculty's criteria of student evaluation neednot be regarded as too abstract, too personal, or tooelusive to be subject to systematic investigation. Suchinvestigations may well lead to useful outcomes. Theymay highlight flaws in existing student evaluationprocesses and permit a reorganization of a faculty'sevaluative approach. [Located too late for indexing.]

WAKELEY, JOHN H. and MALCOLM E. SHAW.Management training- an integrated approach.Training directors journal 19:7, July 1965. pp.2-13.

The evaluation of the use of the laboratorymethod and simulation in the training program of a newplan is described. The guidelines for the training programrequired that the training should be as real as possibleand that the staff should function interdependently intheir new roles. The participants, time, setting, financialand operating data, organization and interpersonal rela-tionships, and problems of the program are outlinedbriefly. Four different surveys were conducted toevaluate the program: trainees, trainers, trainees twomonths later, and before and after comparisons. Theseratings were on acquaintanceship, anticipated contact,personal effectiveness, and performance effectiveness.Results of these four evaluations are discussed. (227)

ZABARENKO, LUCY. Education of the graduate physi-cian: attempts at evaluation. American journal ofpsychiatry 122:5, November 1965. pp. 500-504.

Challenges to evaluative research cluster in fourareas: goals, sampling, instrumentation, and method-ology. Twelve evaluative studies of continuing educationin psychiatry are mentioned. The best way to advanceevaluation is to make use of a properly balancedinterdiseipline research team. (228)

EVALUATIONSPECIFIC METHODS

Simulation in Evaluation

LEVINE, HAROLD G. and CHRISTINE McGUIRE.Role playing as an evaluative technique in acertifying examination. Journal of medical edu-cation 42:3, March 1967. pp. 264-265.

New evaluative techniques developed by theCenter for the Study of Medical Education at theUniversity of Illinois and a major specialty board as partof a continuing project in the analysis of the develop-ment of professional competence are reported. Three ofthese techniques required the examiner, the candidate,or both to role play during parts of the examination: thesimulated diagnostic interview, the simulated proposedtreatment interview, and the simulated patient manage-ment conference. (229)

LEVINE, HAROLD G. and JOHN R. NOAK. Thevalidity and reliability of oral simulations asevaluation techniques. Journal of medical educa-tion 42:9, September 1967. p. 882.

A study which explored the question of whethersimulation techniques in medical education possessconstruct and concurrent validity as well as acceptablereliability is discussed. The simulations studied were oralrole-playing exercises which required the examinees tosimulate physicians and to interview examiners whowere programmed to simulate patients. This studysuggests that some oral simulations have sufficientreliability and validity to serve as valuable tools forassessing heretofore neglected areas of competence inmedicine. (230)

LEVIT, EDITHE J. The use of motion pictures in testingthe clinical competence of physicians. Annals ofthe New York Academy of Sciences 142:2. pp.449-454.

The National Board of Medical Examiners hasdeveloped a technique using motion pictures for evalua-tion of physicians' abilities to make appropriate andaccurate observations of a patient and to translate andintegrate these visual impressions into an understandingof the medical problem at hand. In order to control thetwo variables of the patient and the examiner and henceto provide a more valid examination, a film of a

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standardized patient and multiple-choice questions relat-ing to the clinical problem are substituted for the actualpatient and medical examiner used in traditional testing.The types of skills that can be tested by use of motionpictures and the distinction between the testing film andthe teaching film are discussed. The six steps describedfor producing a film are: (1) selecting the patient andplanning the film, (2) filming, (3) creating questions andinitial editing, (4) review by a panel, (5) final editing andprinting, and (6) administering the film test. (231)

Observations

HINZ, CARL F., JR. Direct observation as a means ofteaching and evaluating clinical skills. Journal ofmedical education 41:2, February 1966. pp.150-161.

In the study described, student performanceduring medical history taking and physical examinationwas observed and rated by trained physician observers.The rating scale used was designed to elicit judgmentsnot only as to whether certain items of behavioroccurred, but also as to whether they were appropriatein the particular situation. The rating scale is presentedand its development and use are discussed. Results of thestudy are described as showing that the method of directobservation was valuable for both teaching and evalua-tion, because it provided feedback to the students andrevealed aspects of their performance not otherwisevisible. There are four references. (232)

MEDLEY, DONALD M. and HAROLD E. MITZEL. Atechnique for measuring classroom behavior.Educational psychology, vol. 49, 1958. pp.86-92.

The Observational S chedule and Record(OScAR) was developed for use by a classroom observer.It directs the observer's attention to and serves as arecording instrument of certain behaviors of teacherfand pupils. An analysis was made of its use in a series of588 half-hour visits by six observers visiting 49 teacherstwice each. Items which, on the basis of content,appeared to belong together were grouped into 14 keyswhich were found to have reliabilities of at least .60. Afactor analysis identified three statistically independentfactors accounting for most of the observed differences.

The three aspects in which the behaviors observed in the49 classrooms differed were: emotional climate, therelative amount of hostility observed; verbal emphasis,the relative degree to which traditional schoolroomactivities were emphasized; and social structure, therelative amount of pupil-initiated activity. It was con-cluded that relatively untrained observers using aninstrument like OScAR can develop reliable informationabout differences in classrooms of different teachers,that the OScAR technique is sensitive to only three ofmany dimensions that probably exist, and that observa-tions made with instruments of this type can contributeto the solution of many important problems having todo with the nature of effective teaching. (233)

MEDLEY, DONALD M. and HAROLD E. MITZEL.Measuring classroom behavior by systematic ob-servation. IN Gage, N. L. (ed.). Handbook ofresearch on teaching. Chicago: Rand McNally,1963. pp. 247-328.

Direct observation of the teaching process isstresses' ..s being important for the discovery of theeffects of teaching on pupil learning. Methods ofsampling classroom behaviors, of recording the behaviorsobserved, and of scoring the recorded behaviors arereviewed. A 74-item bibliography is included. (234)

Ratings

BARBEE, ROBERT A., SOL FELDMAN and LOUIS W.CHOSY. The quantitative evaluation of studentperformance in the medical interview. Journal ofmedical education 42:3, March 1967. pp.238-243.

A study in which members of the medical facultyrated audiotape recordings of ten medical studentstaking present-illness histories is described. The first twoand last two interviews of each student were rated, bothfor information obtained and for technique. Resultsshowed better average ratings on the last interview thanon the first. When tapes were rated a second time sixmonths later, the ratings on information obtained agreedhighly with the original ratings, but on technique theyshowed little agreement with the original ratings.Abridged versions of the forms used are presented. Tworeferences are cited. (235)

BLUMENFELD, WARREN S. Interrater reliability: abrief empirical reminder. Training directors jour-nal 19:6, June 1965. pp. 17-20.

An empirical test of a form for rating conferenceleadership is described. Low interrater reliability (co-

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efficient of .59 for 15 raters) was found. Possible reasonsfor this result are discussed. Conclusions are that moreattention must be given to interrater reliability whenrating forms are used to evaluate complex behaviors. Sixreferences are included. (236)

CRATTY, BRYANT J. The assessment of teachersensitivity. California journal of educational re-search 13:2, 1962. pp. 73-77.

This article presents a method for evaluatingteacher sensitivity using a device for matching therelative emphasis teachers and pupils place upon variousmotivational factors. This method derives its value fromthe research of Fogg who found a significant andpositive relationship to exist between sensitivity tostudent reactions and classroom teaching success. Thetechnique presented here involves careful selection ofvarious factors which may influence pupil learning in aspecific situation. After these factors are listed, eachstudent is asked to weigh the degree to which each aidshim to do his best in the learning situation. The teacheris asked to list the average weight given by the studentson each factor. It is assumed that attitudes are measur-able and vary along a linear continuum and that it isdesirable and valid to meaiure group attitudes. Further-more, it is felt that this process enables the teacher toengage in meaningful self-assessment and positive self-im-provement. Moreover, it affords the students an opportun-ity to express themselves concerning the types ofactivities which are carried out in their learning environ-ment and to suggest new activities. (ASTD) (237)

GEERTSMA, ROBERT H. and JOHN E. CHAPMAN.The evaluation of medical students. Journal ofmedical education 42:10, October 1967. pp.938-948.

The University of Kansas School of Medicineuses a system of evaluation in which each student israted in all major courses as superior, satisfactory, orunsatisfactory on 11 cognitive and non-cognitive dimen-sions. In order to assess the functioning of this system,all evaluations given to two consecutive classes ofstudents (180 in all) were subjected to (1) factor analysisof the ratings on the evaluative dimensions; (2)frequency counts of superior and unsatisfactory ratingsfor preclinical and clinical years; and (3) tabulation ofthe distribution of low and high records by courses. Themajor findings follow: (1) the ratings of the dimensionsare highly interrelated; (2) instructors have a tendencyto give unsatisfactory ratings on cognitive dimensionsand superior ratings on non-cognitive dimensions; and(3) clinical instructors are more favorable in their eval-uative stance than preclinical faculty. (238)

GLASER, ROBERT, DORA E. DAMARIN and FLOYDM. GARDNER. The tab item: a technique forthe measurement of proficiency in diagnosticproblem-solving tasks. Educational and psycho-logical measurement 14:2, Summer 1954. pp.283-293.

The development of a type of test item designedto simulate electronic "troubleshooting" behavior onpaper is described. A tab item measuring this behaviordescribes a symptom of equipment malfunction and lists

a series of check procedures that might be used to findthe cause of the symptom, the results (under tabs) thatwould be obtained if each procedure were carried out,and the components that, if defective, might cause thesymptom described. The examinee is told to locate thedefective component by "carrying out" as few checkprocedures as possible. To "carry out" a procedure helifts the tab covering the results he would obtain if heactually carried out the procedure. The construction andscoring of the tab item and problems of application arealso discussed. (239)

REMMERS, H. H. Rating methods in research on teach-ing. IN Gage, N. L. (ed.). Handbook of researchon teaching. Chicago: Rand McNally, 1963. pp.329-378.

Rating scales are classified as numerical, graphic,cumulated-points, checklists, or forced-choice. Exam-ples of each type are shown, along with a discussion ofits characteristics, procedures for construction and scor-ing, and advantages and disadvantages. Several of themore sophisticated scales are described in depth. Theseinclude sociometric methods, the semantic differential,Q-technique ratings, and self-anchoring scaling. Practicaland theoretical matters related to the use of rating scalesare also discussed. (240)

SALZMAN, LEONARD F. and JOHN ROMANO. Grad-ing clinical performance in psychiatry. Journal ofmedical education 38:9, September 1963. pp.746-751.

A rating scale for grading the clinical psychiatricperformance of medical students was developed as animportant aspect of their evaluation during the clinicalclerkship. The student is rated separately in 10 catego-ries, on a 9-point scale. A composite grade is obtained,giving greater weight to the judgment of senior, moreexperienced faculty, among those who perform theratings. The data suggest the scale is better able to obtainnormal distribution of grades than were earlier, moresubjective methods. There is tentative data suggestingthe method is reasonably reliable, and that it correlatesmeaningfully with other measures of knowledge ofpsychiatry. [Located too late for indexing]

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TORGERSON, WARREN S. Classification of scalingmethods. IN HIS Theory and methods of scaling.New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1958. pp. 41-60.

A considerable number of procedures have beendevised to enable social scientists, psychometricians, andpsychophysicists to determine scale values of a series ofobjects, events, or individuals with response to someattribute. The development of an inclusive frameworkwithin which the different methods can be classified isthe topic of this chapter. Major sections are: (1) Intro-duction; (2) Principal Ways in Which the ProceduresDiffer; (3) Three Broad Approaches to Scales; (4) Judg-ments Versus Responses; (5) The Determination ofOrder; (6) Judgment Methods; and (7) Response Meth-ods. [Located too late for indexing]

WICKER, IRVING B., JR. Errors in rating. USAFinstructors journal 5:2, Fall 1967. pp. 19-23.

If a rating or evaluation is to serve its purpose, itmust be as objective as possible. Four major errors inrating and evaluation are defined, illustrated, and dis-cussed: (1) logical errorthe tendency to give similarratings to two or more traits which are logically relatedin the mind of the rater; (2) error of standardsthetendency to overrate or underrate everyone as comparedwith the averages of other raters; (3) error of centraltendencythe tendency to group ratings about theaverage point and avoid extreme ratings either high orlow; and (4) halo errora general or overall impressionwhich affects the rating of specific traits. (241)

Pre- and Post-Testing

HALEY, HAROLD B. Pretesting and repeat testing astools in teaching. IN Abstracts/Conference onResearch in Medical Education. Journal of medi-cal education 42:3, March 1967. p. 266.

Pretesting at the beginning of a course of studycan serve to: (1) establish student objectives by empha-sizing areas which should be mastered during the courseof study, (2) define for the teacher the general level ofclass knowledge to which he should direct his teaching,(3) provide specific points of reference based on pretestanswers, (4) give the teacher insight into student atti-tudes, and (5) formally open dialogue between studentsand teacher. The simplest technique is to pretest, use theanswers to direct teaching, then retest to measure theincrement of learning. A later retest can measureretention, immediate or long-term. The technique maybe broadened to measure the student's development ofconcepts or insight into relationships. For example, twoor more seemingly unrelated items in the pretest areshown to be related during the course. The retest thenmeasures the student's understanding of the relationship.

These techniques, used intuitively by teachers, have hadminimal analysis or study in the medical or generaleducational literature. They can be adapted to manydifferent circumstances to accomplish many differentobjectives. Some results of the application of thesetechniques in a lecture course in oncology with twosuccessive junior classes are outlined. (242)

HARMON, FRANCIS L. and ALBERT S. GLICKMAN.Managerial training: reinforcement through eval-uation. Public personnel review 26:4, October1965. pp. 194 -198.

"A new approach to determining the effective-ness of a training program is described in which theevaluation process is used to encourage positive rein-forcement of what has been learned." In answer to thecommon question "are our management training coursesworthwhile?" the authors examine tangible evidence oftraining effects on job performance. Their method ofevaluation is demonstrated on a five-day managementtraining course in which 54 middle and upper manage-ment men participated. Participants were surveyed by atrainee set and a supervisor set of three open-endquestionnaires which were constructed for administra-tion prior to training, immediately after training, andeight to ten months after training. The results of thesurvey seemed to support the assumption that themethod can yield objective evidence that is susceptibleto statistical analysis, and that the information obtainedis relevant to the practical objectives of industrial andgovernmental training. (ASTD) (243)

KIRKPATRICK, DONALD L. How to start an objectiveevaluation of your training program. Journal ofthe American Society of Training Directors 10:3,May-June 1956. pp. 18-22.

The purpose of the article is to suggest a specifictechnique for beginning an objective evaluation of atraining program. The technique involves four evaluativeprocesses designed to answer the most basic pertinentquestion: Have the desired facts and principles beenlearned by the trainee? The four processes are: (1) usinga suitable paper and pencil test; (2) testing the traineebefore and after the program; (3) determining the overalleffectiveness of the course by comparing pretest andposttest scores for each trainee; and (4) determiningwhich specific facts and principles were learned byanalyzing the changes on each test item from pretest toposttest. An explanation of the computation of meangain and the chi square formula are included. (244)

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LINCOLN, RICHARD E. A comprehensive procedurefor pre- and post-test construction (Paper pre-sented at the Fifth Annual Convention, NationalSociety for Programmed Instruction, April 19,1967, Boston, Mass.). Atlanta, Ga.: NationalCommunicable Disease Center, 1967. 7 pp.

In constructing a test, a rigorous attempt shouldbe made to identify and respond to the critical com-ponents of each training objective and to use test itemswhich are appropriate and discriminating. The procedureoutlined ensures: (1) certainty that all relevant topicswithin a given area have been considered; (2) balancedcoverage and weighting needed for each topic; (3) appro-priate test item types; and (4) fundamentally sound testitems which have been designed to discriminate. Tenspecific steps in the procedure for pre- and post-testconstruction are outlined and discussed. (245)

Critical Incidents

BAILEY, JUNE TEIG. The critical incident technique inidentifying behavioral criteria of professionalnursing effectiveness. Nursing research 5:2, Octo-ber 1956. pp. 52-64.

The purpose of the study on which this article wasbased was twofold: (1) to identify, objectively, behavioralcriteria of the effective or successful professional graduatestaff nurse by means of the "critical incident" technique,which consists of collecting a comprehensive list ofobserved behaviors from individuals who are the mostcompetent to make judgments about the worker beinginvestigated; and (2) to investigate to what extent patientsand the medical team, i.e., doctors, head nurses, andclinical instructors, vary in these judgments relative toprofessional nursing effectiveness. The topic headings andsubheadings describe the contents: Nature and Back-ground of the Study (studies relative to predicting nursingsuccess, status of evaluation procedures in nursing schools,the present study defined); Design of the Study (thecritical incident technique, universe of critical incidents,the interviewing program); Analysis of the Data (initialtreatment of interview data, examples of incidentssupplied by resource personnel, organizing and classifyingthe behaviors, defining areas and subareas, behavioralcriteria, statistical analysis); and Summary and Conclu-sions (limitations of the study and recommendations). Alist of references is included. (246)

FIVARS, GRACE and DORIS GOSNELL. Nursingevaluation: the problem and the process; thecritical incident technique,. New York: Macmil-lan, 1966. 228 pp.

The critical incident technique is described andapplied to (1) the identification of the objectives in a

school of nursing; (2) curriculum development and theorganization of learning experiences; (3) evaluating theperformance of students and practitioners; and (4) relat-ing performance to professional standards. Chapters are:(1) Why Study Nursing Behavior?; (2) The Critical Inci-dent Approach to Problems in Nursing; (3) The CriticalRequirements Approach to Establishing Objectives in aSchool of Nursing; (4) Using Critical Incidents to DefineBehaviors; (5) Developing Curriculum Objectives andLearning Experiences Consistent with Critical Require-ments in Nursing; (6) Evaluation in Terms of Objectives;(7) Evaluation in Terms of the Task (including the taskanalysis approach); (8) The Tools of Evaluation;(9) Evaluation in Terms of Performance; (10) Evaluationin Terms of Professional Standards. Appendix I, CriticalRequirements for Selected Fields, contains lists ofrequirements for social case workers, interns and resi-dents, and orthopedic surgeons. Appendix II listsexpected student-nurse behavior in selected clinical areas(based on course objectives). Appendix III lists perfor-mance descriptions for selected nursing tasks. There is anindex. [Located too late for indexing]

FLANAGAN, JOHN C. The critical incident technique.Psychological bulletin 51:4, July 1954. pp.327-358.

The historical background, early developments,and present form of the critical incident technique arediscussed. A review of various developmental studies inthe technique is also included. The critical incidenttechnique consists of a procedure for collecting andanalyzing directly observed incidents of human behaviorhaving special significance and meeting systematicallydefined criteria. The procedure has five steps: (1) deter-mination of the general aim of the activity; (2) develop-ment of plans and specifications for collecting factualincidents regarding the activity; (3) collection of thedata; (4) analysis of the data; (5) interpretation andreporting of the statement of the requirements of theactivity. Each step is discussed in detail. Applications ofthe critical incident technique in the following areas arediscussed: measures of typical performance (criteria);measures of proficiency (standard samples); training;selection and classification; job design and purification;operating procedures; equipment design; motivation andleadership (attitudes); counseling and psychotherapy. Alist of 74 references is included. (247)

FULLERTON, DONALD R., PHILIP R., A. MAY andRUTH WHITE. The unusual occurrence report: ateaching and therapeutic device. Journal ofpsychiatric nursing 3:3, May-June 1965. pp.258-268.

An "unusual occurrence" form used in a psychi-atric hospital to report incidents for the purposes of

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teaching and better understanding is described. It maybe used in the inservice education of psychiatric resi-dents and nurses. The form was designed to avoid theimplication of blame and retribution. (248)

GLICKMAN, ALBERT S. and T. R. VALLANCE. Cur-riculum assessment with critical incidents. Jour-nal of applied psychology 42:5, 1958. pp. 3-9.

This investigation explores the use of criticalincidents for assessing the relevance of various aspects ofa training program to the job performance requirementsof its graduates. Specifically it involves the relevance ofthe subject matter taught in the Navy's Officer Candi-date School to the duty requirements of new officersaboard destroyer-type ships. An earlier study providedbasic data for description and operational definitions ofcritically significant elements. A Junior Officer TrainingRequirement Checklist was sent to 340 commanding andexecutive officers of destroyer-type ships and wascompleted by 301 officers. The checklist was preparedin ten forms of approximately 100 items each and sentto from 30 to 50 officers with instructions to make ajudgment for each incident as to "How soon after hisreporting aboard, under normal conditions, would youexpect the new officer to be able to handle the situationto your satisfaction." The findings indicate that the newensign most frequently and most immediately will becalled on to draw on background relevant to humanrelations, leadership, and personnel administration skills.(ASTD) (249)

HERZBERG, FREDERICK, SCOTT INKLEY andWILLIAM R. ADAMS. Some effects on theclinical faculty of a critical incident study of theperformance of students. Journal of medicaleducation 35:7, July 1960. pp. 666-674.

A critical incident study designed to improveevaluation of clinical training by developing criteria ofstudent performance and by educating the faculty intheir use is described. Five principles of performanceevaluation which appeared to have been learned andaccepted by faculty participating in the study are:(1) evaluation is a continuous process based on anaccumulative record; (2) the critical incident procedurehelps the evaluator recognize clearly the intrusion of the"halo" effect on his general impression of studentperformance; (3) the critical incident procedure helps toprevent the use of generalities as a way of escapingmaking a judgment; (4) the critical incident procedurehelps eliminate the confusion of superficial personalitytraits and performance by emphasizing, behavioralevents; and (5) the procedure reduces the evaluator'snatural reluctance to judge other people by its require-

ment that he simply record what the student did. Othersubstantive effects of the study on the clinical facultyare discussed. Five references are given. (250)

How to get better trainee performance appraisalsthrough the "critical incident" technique (Train-ing methods 10). The training workshop. Water-ford, Conn.: Bureau of Business Practice, 1967. 4pp.

Supervisors have trouble accurately rating theirtrainees since they rarely have time to observe themclosely. They can solve this problem by noticing andrecording the trainees' performance in critical incidents.A critical incident is usually something an employeedoes or fails to do which illustrates either outstanding orunsatisfactory job performance in the critical areas ofwork habits, physical qualifications, mental qualifica-tions, personal characteristics, and temperament. Exam-ples of both satisfactory and unsatisfactory criticalincidents are given, and a sample form that can be usedto record critical incidents is reproduced. Suggestions fordealing with various reactions of trainees to their jobperformance ratings conclude the article. (251)

MAYESKE, GEORGE W., FRANCIS L. HARMON andALBERT S. GLICKMAN. What can criticalincidents tell management? Training and develop-ment journal 20:4, April 1966. pp. 20-34.

The use of critical incidents in the U.S. Depart-ment of Agriculture's Management of Human Resourcesprogram is described. Critical incidents involve the

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reporting of observed actions or behaviors that arejudged to have been significantly effective or signif-icantly ineffective. A critical incident is not an evalua-tion of a person; it is a report of what action took placeand of its consequences. Examples of forms used incollecting critical incidents and summaries of informa-tion gotten from their analysis are presented. Criticalincidents are described as providing information that isunbiased and objective and that is more precise, morespecific, and more relevant to the job than informationobtained by more traditional methods. This method issaid to contribute to management by creating moreeffective communication, more effective supervision,improved quality of training, and better motivation andmorale. (252)

NAHM, HELEN, DOROTHY M. SMITH and RUTH E.HUNTER. Evaluating student progress in clinicalexperience. The American journal of nursing50:5, May 1950. pp. 309-311.

The "anecdotal record" method of evaluatingstudent progress in clinical experience was instituted atthe Duke University School of Nursing. The methodreplaced the "efficiency record" method, a procedurefor evaluating students by listing a number of traits(such as skills or attitudes) believed to be important innursing and descriptions of behavior corresponding tothese traits. (An example is given.) Described is the"anecdotal record" method, its rationale, the administra-tive procedures found necessary for its implementation,and the makeup of a "Committee on Evaluation ofStudent Progress" at the school. Examples of anecdotesdescribing students' behavior are included. (253)

EVALUATIONSPECIFIC DEVICES

ADLER, LETA McKINNEY and ALLEN J. ENELOW.An instrument to measure skill in diagnosticinterviewing: a teaching and evaluation tool.Journal of medical education 41:3, March 1966.pp. 281-288.

An experimental use of the Psychotherapy Inter-action (PIA) Scale as both a teaching tool and a researchinstrument is reported. The scale has the following majorcharacteristics: (a) the conceptual basis of the scaleconcerns primarily the interpersonal process rather thanthe content of the interview; (b) the scale minimizesinferences about the subjects' intrapsychic processes;(c) it codes all actsverbal and nonverbalof bothparties in the interaction; (d) it is suitable for scoringline therapy sessions; (e) it includes codes for standardpsychotherapeutic interventions; (f) it does not includebuilt-in ratings of psychotherapeutic effectiveness. Thestudy was conducted as part of a six-month seminar indiagnostic interviewing for third-year residents in psychi-atry. As part of the seminar each resident practiceddiagnostic interviewing in front of the group. The PIAScale was used to provide scores and profiles on theinterview behavior of both the residents and the patientsinterviewed. This information in turn was used as ateaching tool during the class discussions. The studyattempted to provide information about two researchproblems: (1) did the seminar increase a resident'sability to conduct a diagnostic interview? and (2) did thePIA Scale provide evidence in support of the theory onwhich instruction was based? The study is. reportedunder the headings: Teaching Goals; Method: ResearchSetting and Measurement of Interview Behavior; Evalua-tion of Learning Gain; Test of the Premises of Instruc-tion; Discussion and Conclusions. The study illustratespossible uses of the PIA Scale, and results suggest thatfurther testing and refining of the PIA Scale and scoresderived from it are justified. Samples of the PIA Scaleare included. (254)

CURETON, EDWARD E. The rearrangement test. Edu-cational and psychological measurement 20:1,Spring 1960. pp. 31-35.

Areas in which the rearrangement test might beused to measure knowledge of the order of a series ofpersons, objects, events, operations, or concepts withrespect to some attribute are discussed. A procedure for

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scoring these tests based on Spearman's Footrule ispresented. Two references are cited. (255)

CLOS, MARJORIE. Evaluation of mental health work-- shops in Kentucky. Journal of education research

59:6, February 1966. pp. 278-281.

The Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory wasused to study the attitude changes in teachers whoparticipated in a 3-week or 4-month. workshop onmental health. The MTAI was taken on the first and lastdays of the workshop and nine months after theworkshop. Teacher attitudes changed in a positive way,and on the average these attitudes held up over the9-month period. The younger the teacher and the lessthe teacher's education, the greater the attitude change.Workshops in a 4-month period produced more attitudechange than those given in a 3-week period. (256)

MESHKE, EDNA. Analysis of college classroom teachingand a form for recording evidences of quality.Minneapolis, Minn.: Burgess Publishing Com-pany, 1959. 20 pp.

Listed under five categories of teaching activityare evaluative questions with particular reference toeffective college teaching. Space is provided for theteacher's self-evaluation. The categories are: (1) writtenpreparations for courses to be taught; (2) presentationsof subject matter in the classroom and the laboratory;(3) administration of tests during the term; (4) depart-mental meetings; and (5) self-appraisal. From analysisand interpretation of cumulative evidences, a degree of"quality" denoting teacher effectiveness will begin toemerge. (257)

STRASSMAN, HARVEY D., ALEXANDER NIES andEVELYN McDONALD. An attitudinal objective:its measurement through the use of taxonomy II.Journal of medical education 42:3, March 1967.pp. 201-206.

As reported in the summary, "The results of thispilot study show that the student behavior as observedon a clinical clerkship can be rated on a taxonomic scaleand that these ratings do reflect the attitudes of thestudents toward the emotions of their patients. It also

demonstrates that through this instrument, students canbe compared with one another during learning experi-ences to determine the extent of accomplishment ofattitudinal objectives. Each student can be observed insimilar activities to determine whether or not anattitudinal objective has been achieved." (258)

SWANSBURG, RUSSELL C. Pupil performance evalua-tion. USAF instructors journal 11:3, January1965. pp. 53-56.

Criteria for evaluation instruments are discussedand the advantages of a pupil performance checklist forteaching and evaluating a skill are stressed. Suggestionsare provided for developing and using such a checklist.An example is provided of a checklist designed toevaluate handwashing procedures used by medical-helpertrainees. There are three references. (259)

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WIEDEMAN, GEOFFREY D. Are student critiquesworthwhile? USAF instructors journal 5:2, Fall1967. pp. 51-54.

The relative worth of any critique form isdependent upon how the form is administered and howthe information obtained is evaluated and utilized. Coursepersonnel must make an effort not to influence thestudent in any way when he is filling out the critique.Students attending long courses should be provided theopportunity to complete a critique at the end of eachblock of instruction. The student critique program at theMedical Service School has resulted in numerous improve-ments. In addition to learning a great deal about the useand interpretation of critique information, a programwhich emphasizes close support and cooperation betweenschool and squadron personnel was initiated; the impor-tance of remedial instruction, washback, and proficiencyadvancement was emphasized; the amount of lecture anddemonstration-performance instruction was realigned;classroom training aids requirements, school-wide, werestandardized; tests that were confusing, ambiguous, orthat failed to measure course objectives were reviewed andrevised; and numerous improvements in the classroomenvironment and the outdoor field training area wereinitiated. (260)

GROUPING FOR INSTRUCTION

ANDERSON, ROBERT H. Organizing groups for in-struction. IN Henry, Nelson B. (ed.). Individual-izing instruction (The sixty-first yearbook of theNational Society for the Study of Education,Part I). Chicago: The University of Chicago Press,1962. pp. 239-265.

The historical backgrounds of grouping practicesare summarized, various grouping alternatives now ingeneral or exploratory use are considered, and theirrelationship to the goal of individualized instruction isexamined. The subject is presented under the followingheadings: Historical Perspective; Dividing Pupils intoInstructional Groups (Fixed or Stable Class Groups,Departmentalization, Basis for Grouping, Subgroupings);Emerging Patterns (Informal Plans of Flexible Organiza-tion, The Concept of Multi-Age Classes, Automation andArchitecture); and Conclusion. (261)

FLEISHER, DANIEL S. Composition of small learninggroups in medical education. Journal of medicaleducation 42:9, September 1967. p. 882.

Recent work in small-group composition hasshown that better and more efficient learning is likely tooccur when maximal individual participation and sup-port of each group member's contribution is ensured.This is done by balancing membership according toindividual behavior likely to be expressed, providing taskand process resources, preventing overrepresentationwith members likely to detract from productive work,and matching individual value orientations. The studyattempts to explore whether such findings are applicablein the medical school. (262)

HENRY, NELSON B. (ed.). The dynamics of instruc-tional groups; sociopsychological aspects ofteaching and learning (The fifty-ninth yearbookof the National Society for the Study of Educa-tion, Part II). Chicago: University of ChicagoPress, 1960. 286 pp.

Partial contents are: role functions of the teacherin the instructional group; the classroom group as aunique social system; the sociopsychological structure ofthe instructional group; characteristics and functions of

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leadership in instructional groups; and implications ofthe dynamics of instructional groups. (USCSC 3, edited)

(263)

HOCK, LOUISE E. What, why, and how of classroomgrouping for effective learning. Educational lead-ership 18:7, April 1961. pp. 420424.

The question of grouping in general is discussedand the reasons for its necessity and importance arepointed out. Several kinds of classroom groupsbuzzgroups, job groups, study-work committeesare definedand explained. Two kinds of classroom grouping arepointed out: (1) those based on commonality of inter-ests, skills, talents, and abilities; and (2) those based ondifferences involving varied backgrounds,. viewpoints,and personalities. The rationale for grouping is fourfold:(1) to provide for vast differences that exist amongindividuals; (2) to promote more effective learning;(3) to vary teaching-learning procedures; and (4) todevelop individuals capable of living and working withinthe society of men. Practical guides for effectivegrouping conclude the article. (264)

LONGEST, J. W. Group formation for teaching. Journalof co-operative extension 2:3, 1964. pp.143-151.

The use of sociometrically formed groups wasexperimented with in meeting the demands of anintensive farm management program in some New Yorkcounties. One such demand was for recruiting most ofthe eligible farm families in the township areas selected.Attendance at meetings and fulfillment of programrequirements were good when the groups were wellformed and administered. The success of these groupswas attributed to the high cohesiveness that occurredbecause the groups were formed on the basis ofsociometric testing. (ASW) (265)

VEATCH, JEANETTE. Grouping is the function andprocess of content. Educational leadership 18:7,April 1961. pp. 425-428.

No average measurephysical, mental, or emo-tionalcan be justified in grouping students because nostudent is average in any real sense. Teachers must

group, then, to teach single particulars, using such asbases for classroom organization. Grouping on a singleparticular can come only after an initial exploratoryteaching act which, in mass or individually, enables theteacher to identify specific items or elements commonto two or more children; these isolated particularsbecome the "lesson plan" for those particular children.The problem explored here is how to help teachersidentify and act upon those single particulars in order toteach specific children what they need to know exactlywhen they need to know it. Grouping then must be afunction and a process of content, curriculum, and itslearning. Specific guides to this kind of grouping areoffered by an analysis of grouping appropriate to twosample situations illustrated by classes in beginningreading and written language. (266)

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WARREN, VIRGINIA B. (ed.). Grouping the adult class.IN HER A treasury of techniques for teachingadults. Washington, D.C.: National Associationfor Public School Adult Education, 1964. pp.15 -19.

Advantages of grouping, bases for grouping, andhow to decide who goes in which group are brieflydiscussed. The necessity for forming new groups and forusing large-group and individual instruction at times isnoted. (267)

INDIVIDUALIZING INSTRUCTION

ALLEN, DWIGHT. Individualized instruction. CaliforniaTeachers Association journal 61:4, October1965. pp. 27, 43-44, 47-48, 50.

Achievement, not time spent in class, is proposedas the criterion for educational progress, and provisionfor new levels of individualization within the schoolprogram is seen as the only way educators can achievecontinuous development of responsibility among theirstudents. Individualization is defined as a type ofinstruction in which the student engages in activitiesuniquely appropriate to his learning and which promotesindependence, provides opportunities for study beyondthe regular curriculum, and permits maximum use ofinstructional resources. The ramifications of individual-ized instruction, problems in planning and organizing it,and suggestions for effectively instituting it are dis-cussed. Detailed discussions of the "resources center"and the "open laboratory" concepts are included. (268)

CRONBACH, LEE J. How can instruction be adapted toindividual differences? IN Gagne, Robert M.(ed). Learning and individual differences. Co-lumbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Books, 1967.pp. 23-39.

The effects of differences in individuals in alearning situation can be reduced by schools whichadopt differentiated instructional techniques. The schoolshould be free to identify the criteria of success; it is thetask of the psychologist to devise or select instructionalmethods that take into account differences in pupils sothat the achievement of all pupils seeking a giveneducational goal will be significantly greater than if asingle "best" method were used. Individual adaptationscan be made with results from multivariate testing by acomputer. In principle, unique instructional methodscould be matched to the student's intellectual processes,but any modifications must be validated. (269)

ESBENSEN, THORWALD. Working with individualizedinstruction; the Duluth experience. Palo Alto,Calif.: Fearon Publishers, 1968. 122 pp.

"Individualized instruction does not depend for itssuccess upon any given arrangement of persons, materials,or environmental conditions," such as independent study,team teaching, or flexible scheduling, though these may be

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aspects of a given program. This statemLnt is illustrated insubsequent pages of the book which describe the develop-ment of individualized instruction programs in three pub-lic schools in Duluth, Minnesota. The importance of finan-cial support, use of volunteer teachers (among staff), inser-vice training of selected teachers, and development of be-havioral objectives for the program are stressed. After aforeword by Robert F. Mager and the general discussion ofindividualized instruction in Chapter One, the remainingthree chapters describe programs in the Congdon Park Ele-mentary School, the Franklin-Nettleton ElementarySchools, and the Chester Park Elementary School. Twentypages of photographs illustrate the text. Fifteen selectedreferences on instruction are included. (270)

GROPPER, GEORGE L. and GERARD C. KRESS. Indi-vidualizing instruction through pacing procedures.AV communication review 13:2, Summer 1965.pp. 165-182.

"This report summarizes the results of three stud-ies bearing on the relationship between pacing mode andperformance. The first, dealing only with self-paced in-struction, discusses the determinants of a self-adoptedpace and the effects of the pace adopted on performance.The second study presents results showing the effects offixed pacing on performance and also provides evidenceconcerning the relative eft ,..:iveness of self-paced and fix-ed-paced instruction. The third study, dealing with televi-sion instruction, reports on the relative effectiveness of al-ternative approaches toward individualization of fixed-paced programmed instruction. Together, they provide abody of data describing failures in the individualization ofinstruction which can occur as a result of inappropriatepaces either adopted by learner himself or selected for himby those whose task it is to instruct him. The data also af-firmatively suggest some solutions to both types of pacingproblems."(ASTD) (271)

HENRY, NELSON B. (ed.). Individualizing instruction(The sixty-first yearbook of the National Societyfor the Study of Education). Chicago: Universityof Chicago Press, 1962. 337 pp.

Certain theories dealing with individual differ-ences and various proposals for providing for thesedifferences in our schools are outlined in this yearbook.The writers deal with broad issues and general principles

rather than with specific proposals for each subject fieldat each grade level. Sections and chapters are: Section I,Conditions Tending to Encourage or Suppress IndividualDifferencesTheoretical Issues: Biology and IndividualDifferences; Society and Individual Differences; TheSchool and Individual Differences; The Curriculum andIndividual Differences; The Teacher and IndividualDifferences; Section II, Illustration of Individual Differ-encesThe Search for Evidence about Individual Differ-ences; Individual Differences Among Preschool Children:Four-Year-Olds; Individual Differences in Early Adoles-cence; Individual Differences Among College Freshmen;Individual Variability; Section III, Current School Prac-tices for Individualizing Instruction: Values and Limita-tions (Acceleration and Retardation; Individual Differ-ences and Vertical Organization of the School; Organ-izing Groups for Instruction; Curricular and Instruc-tional Provisions for Individual Differences); Section IV,Implications of Attempts to Individualize Instruction(Teacher Preparation; The Community and the Individ-ualization of Instruction; Facts and Issues: A ConcludingStatement. An index and a list of publications of thesociety are included. (272)

MILLER, GEORGE E. Continuing education for what?Journal of medical education 42:4, April 1967.pp. 320-326.

Argument is made that continuing medical edu-cation should mean continuing self-education, not con-tinuing instruction. If this desirable goal is to beaccomplished, there must be movement away from thecontent model, which is built around subjects (cardiol-ogy, biochemistry, oncology, and endocrinology) andencourages dependence on teachers, to a process model,which demands a significant measure of self-relianceashift away from preoccupation with courses and meth-ods, toward an augmented concern for educationaldiagnosis and individualized therapy. (273)

MURSELL, JAMES L. The principle of individualiza-tion . . IN HIS Successful teaching: its psycho-logical principles. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1954.pp. 172-208.

Learning at its best is a coordinated, unified,meaningful enterprise, undertaken jointly by the homo-geneous group, with numerous avenues for indiVidualcontributions. Meaningful learning proceeds from theindividual learner's purposes, aptitudes, abilities, andexperiences. Good individualization includes considera-tion of vertical and qualitative differences. Vertical

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difference refers to a single characteristic (such asintelligence) that can be measured to establish order forlearners. Qualitative difference refers to varying apti-tudes, interests, and methods of work. Individualizationin guiding trial-and-error experiments peculiar to thelearner will produce desirable results. There are six waysto use the principle of in .;vidualization: (1) uniformtasks can be performed on uniform schedule withindividualization appearing in differential performance;(2) homogeneous grouping can recognize differences inlevel between groups and differential performance with-in each group; (3) a contract plan can allow theindividual student to work from a printed lesson withinstructions and suggestions; (4) individual instruction;(5) large units of work with suggested optional activity;and (6) individual undertakings stemming from andcontributing to a joint undertaking of a group oflearners. (274)

THELEN, HERBERT A. Some classroom quiddities forpeople-oriented teachers. Journal of applied be-havioral science 1:3, July-August-September1965. pp. 270-285.

Educational practices derived from a traditionalphilosophy of education, with socialization as its majorobjective, and from the philosophy of education whoseobjective is the development of a voluntary quest formeaning (author's position) are contrasted. Currentsocializing practices are discussed in sections entitledEngagement Without Learning, Socialization WithoutEducation, and Sacrosanct Practices. In a section en-titled The Educative Process, the need for actualizingcertain natural tendencies present in all individuals isstressed: (1) involvement tendencies speculation andclosure where stimuli are too sparse, selection wherestimuli are overwhelming, and rationalization or resolu-tion of inconsistencies; (2) the tendency of involvedpersons to seek meaning through discussion in friendshipor psyche groups; and (3) the tendency to seek closureamidst semi-conflicting and untested opinions fromauthorities or by moving into sociogroups (work groupsor class groups). The purpose of the classroom groupshould be to plan and carry out activities in pursuit ofshared goals. To the extent that the natural tendenciesof individuals are built upon, the class could enjoy highmorale, student involvement, and few disciplinary prob-lems. Aspects of classroom teaching touched upon inconnection with this viewpoint are lectures, groupdiscussions, projects and experiments, demonstrations,field trips, films, role-playing, written materials, andlaboratory training techniques. The role and functions ofthe teacher in student-oriented classrooms are indicated.

(275)

CLASSROOM CLIMATE, TECHNIQUES, DEVICES

ADULT EDUCATION ASSOCIATION. How to teachadults (Leadership pamphlet no. 5). Chicago:Adult Education Association, 1959. 48 pp.

The aim of this pamphlet is to help teachers ofadults who teach many different subjects in a variety ofinstitutional settings. Who Hasn't Acted This Way pokesfun at the things teachers and students do to avoidlearning in the classroom. Particular attention is given tothe ways in which adult learners differ from children inAdults as Learners. Planning for Growth is intended tosensitize the teacher to a number of conditions (atmo-sphere, communication, and standards) that can makelearning easier in a classroom group. Ideas for TechnicalTraining suggests specifics for organizing materials andmethods into new and more rewarding patterns for bothstudents and dropouts; When Students Drop Out sug-gests a checklist for students to fill out. Other articlesare: Improving Your Teaching, What Is Learning, UsingInformal Methods, and Adults Evaluate Themselves.

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BULLA, LEE A. Make your lesson assignments moreeffective. USAF instructors journal 5:2, Fall1967. pp. 55-57.

The way the lesson is assigned is effective only tothe extent of what it causes the students to do. A fewtechniques for making the lesson assignment moreeffecive are: (1) the assignment must be clear andprecise; (2) allow sufficient time to make the assign-ment; (3) discuss the assignment thoroughly; (4) beexplicit about the work to be done outside of class;(5) relate the assignment to the next day's activities;(6) challenge each student to complete the assignment;and (7) pick an opportune time to make the assignment.

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CASTLE, LYNN E. Understanding the individual learn-er. Supervisory management 3:4, April 1958. pp.8-15.

The article shows how the successful instructorwill try to understand individual learners rather than sortthem into stereotyped groups. It notes some hindrancesto understanding people and suggests ways to study theindividual so that his training will best meet his needs.(USCSC 4, edited) (278)

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DOUGLAS, THOMAS W. The fear factor in training: acase history in building training morale. Trainingand development journal 20:6, June 1966. pp.41-46.

In industrial training, tension and fear create apsychological problem of broader dimension and greatermagnitude than is realized. The fear factor can becontrolled in several ways: (1) the training director mustbe confident and at ease; (2) it is a mistake to move tooquickly, especially in the first part of the program;(3) good physical arrangements such as comfortablearmchairs and continuous seat rotation make the atmo-sphere less fatiguing; (4) a designated "sheriff' and"posse" can collect fines for assessed minor infractionsof the "house rules" (such as misuse of terminology), atechnique which will lighten the atmosphere; and(5) pressure can be eliminated from testing by controlledself-grading and the matched team approach. (279)

GOMERSALL, EARL R. and M. SCOTT MYERS.Breakthrough in on-thejob training. Harvardbusiness review 44:4, July-August 1966. pp.62-72.

A study of the relationship between organizationclimate and job performance disclosed that reduction ofthe causes of anxiety among new employees shortenedtraining time by half, lowered training costs by two-thirds, cut absenteeism and tardiness in half, reducedwaste and rejects by four-fifths, and cut costs by asmuch as 30 percent. A one-day program to overcomeanxieties was started with a two-hour orientation. Theexcellent opportunity to succeed was emphasized, ig-noring "hall talk" was recommended, and taking theinitiative in communication was urged. Supervisors weredescribed as persons the new employees would enjoygetting to know. Some of the new employees were thentold that there would be no work the first daytheycould relax, get acquainted with one another and theorganization, and ask questions. The next day trainingproceeded as usual, and the employees were finallyassigned to their tasks. The experimental group immedi-ately showed better attitudes, learned faster, and per-formed better than the control group whose membershad not received the special treatment described above.

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SOMMER, ROBERT. Classroom ecology. The journal ofapplied behavioral science 3:4, October-November-December 1967. pp. 489-503.

"In six equivalent discussion sections of anintroductory psychology class involved in an experimentin which classrooms were switched in midsemester,classroom participation was related to seating arrange-ment. In the seminar-style arrangement, it was foundthat students directly opposite the instructor partici-pated more than students on the sides. In classroomswith straight rows, students in front participated morethan students in the rear, and students in the center ofeach row participated more than students at the sides.These results bear out the expressive contact hypothesisrelating direct visual contact to increased interaction"(abstract at beginning of article). Illustrative diagramsand discussions are furnished. Nine references are cited.

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STATON, THOMAS F. A system for conducting instruc-tion. IN HIS How to instruct successfully:modern teaching methods in adult education.New York: McGraw-Hill, 1960. pp. 157-169.

A system for conducting a period of instruction(workable for any instructional technique) that leads tomost effective learning is presented. The plan providesfor: preview of the period, so that trainees can knowwhat the general plan of the lesson will be; questions togive the group specific points to watch for, helping themto stay alert; relating (or having related or demonstrated)the topic to be covered; stating or summarizing thematerial covered, in trainees' own words, with themental reaction required for each of them to composehis best answer to each question; testing trainees'memory of the lesson a week ago, to provide review andrefreshing of memory. (282)

STATON, THOMAS F. Employee counseling as atraining device. IN HIS How to instruct success-fully: modern teaching methods in adult educa-tion. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1960. pp.237-251.

Factors that commonly affect the degree ofacademic success of a trainee are his general intelligence,degree of application, personal problems, and studytechniques. Basic counseling techniques for determiningthe source of learning problems and for establishingmore efficient learning habits are presented. Counselingtechniques for increasing participation in group discus-sions are reviewed. Suggested readings are cited. (283)

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STATON, THOMAS F. Preparing a classroom. IN HISHow to instruct successfully: modern teachingmethods in adult education. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1960. pp. 186-192.

The conditions and equipment for best instruc-tion in a training program are set forth. The followingtopics are discussed: desirable characteristics of a class-room (attractiveness, illumination, quiet, comfortabletemperature); furnishings (tables and chairs, equipmentfor the instructor, general classroom equipment). Sug-gested readings are cited. (284)

WARREN, VIRGINIA B. (ed.). Creating a good climatefor learning. IN HER A treasury of techniquesfor teaching adults. Washington, D.C.: NationalAssociation for Public School Adult Education,1964. pp. 5-9.

A good learning climate exists where class atmo-sphere is warm, friendly, and free from threat; new waysof acting are encouraged; the student gradually becomesindependent of the teacher's learning supports; and thereis effective three-way communication among teacher,student, and other students. Skills needed by the teacherinclude abilities to stimulate a clear and self-evidentsharing of goals, to develop clear rules of behavior forthe group, and to encourage constant self-evaluationamong students. Unrestricted communication and ateacher who is not too bossy are signs indicatingconditions for effective learning. Suggestions for moti-vating students to do outside assignments, for encour-aging student participation, and for determining individ-ual differences are delineated. (285)

WARREN, VIRGINIA B. (ed.). How group involvementboosts learning. IN HER A Treasury of tech-niques for teaching adults. Washington, D.C.:National Association for Public School AdultEducation, 1964. pp. 45-48.

Differences between the class as a collection ofindividuals and the class as a united group are pointedout. Specific methods for encouraging team spirit in theadult group are discussed. (286)

WARREN, VIRGINIA B. (ed.). How to avoid drop-outs.IN HER A treasury of techniques for teachingadults. Washington, D.C.: National Associationfor Public School Adult Education, 1964. pp.35-39.

Motivations of adults for educational activitiesare discussed and suggestions are made for meetingstudents' needs. Signs of apathy in students are delin-eated, and five corrective measures are discussed: sur-

veys, personal interviews, counseling, private tutoring,and variations in teaching design. A specific class surveyform, to be answered anonymously, is presented andexplained. Its use is encouraged for obtaining feedbackon how well the course is meeting student needs. (287)

WARREN, VIRGINIA B. (ed.). How to help adultsstudy. IN HER A treasury of techniques forteaching adults. Washington, D.C.: NationalAssociation for Public School Adult Education,1964. pp. 40-44.

The prospective adult student's apprehension ofcourses, requiring learning how to learn all over again, isnoted. The teacher can help relieve resulting anxiety byunderstanding feelings and offering suggestions for effec-

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tive study. Specific suggestions are made for concen-trating, listening, reading, tackling assignments, andtraining the memory. (288)

WARREN, VIRGINIA B. (ed.). Time savers forteachers and students. IN HER A treasury oftechniques for teaching adults. Washington,D. C.: National Association for Public SchoolAdult Education, 1964. pp. 31-34.

The importance of efficient use of time by bothteachers and students is emphasized. General situationsand human tendencies that waste time are discussed, andsuggestions are offered to help both teachers andstudents conserve valuable minutes. The need for takingenough time for necessary classroom activities, particu-larly for developing the climate for learning, is noted.

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INSTRUCTOR ROLE

AMIDON, EDMUND J. and MICHAEL GIAMMATTEO.The verbal behavior of superior teachers. Theelementary school journal 65:5, February 1965.pp. 283-285.

Teachers were observed by a trained specialistwho used the Flanders system of interaction analysis toclassify classroom verbal behavior into ten categories.The categories describing teacher behavior were: accep-tance of feeling; praise or encouragement; acceptanceand use of student ideas; questions; lecture; direction-giving; and criticism. Two categories used to classifypupils' talk were response to the teacher and talkinitiated by the pupil. An additional category was silenceor confusion. Resi'!ts indicate that the verbal-behaviorpatterns of superior teachers differ substantially fromthose of average teachers. The superior teachers(1) talked about 40 percent of their total class time,while the normative group talked about 52 percent;(2) were more accepting of pupil-initiated ideas, tendedto encourage these ideas more, and made a greater effortto build on these ideas, (3) dominated their classroomsless, used indirect verbal behavior more, and useddirection-giving and criticism less; (4) asked questionsthat were broader in nature, and their lectures wereinterrupted more by questions from the pupils; and(5) had about 12 percent more pupil participation intheir classes. A large-scale study conducted by Flandersin which he related pupil achievement to teacher'spatterns of verbal behavior supports these conclusions.

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AMIDON, EDMUND J. and ANITA SIMON. Teacher-pupil interaction. Review of educational research35:2, April 1965. pp. 130-139.

Three systems are currently used to categorizeteacher-pupil behavior directly or from taped classroomconversation: (1) cognitive system, (2) affective system,and (3) multidimensional system. A review of researchrelated to the following areas is also presented: teachingpatterns; achievement; climate, perception, and personal-ity; and teacher education. A bibliography is included.

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ASCHNER, M. J. The language of teaching. Teacherscollege record 61:5, February 1960. pp.242-252.

Language is both an instrument and a vehicle ofteacher-student interaction. The action concept of lan-guage suggests that verbal behavior has a dimension ofmeaning in the act of speaking as well as in the occasionof its performance (context). A verbal act is anutterance. There are many wordless elements in verbalbehavior, such as tonal stress, pitch, pauses, and voiceinflection. Nonverbal behavior is unaddressed expressivebehavior such as facial expressions. Skinner's theory ofverbal behavior contrasts with the action concept in twoways: a standard for identifying data and describingobservations should be shaped to the purposes for whichthe data are studied; the conceptions or assumptionsbuilt into such a standard should be recognized andacknowledged by its users. The language of teaching isthe language of that responsible action which is taken toinfluence the behavior of those under instruction. Theteacher uses language in all aspects of teaching. Heshould study and interpret verbal action to enable himto diagnose his teaching and adapt it to his pupils'comprehension and progress; to appraise the quality oftheir reasoning; and to assess their emotional reactionsto a situation. The teacher's control over his dealingswith language determines his success or failure atinducing learning. (292)

BANDLER, BERNARD. Ego-centered teaching. INParad, Howard J. and Roger R. Miller. Ego-oriented casework: problems and perspectives;papers from the Smith College School for SocialWork. New York: Family Service Association ofAmerica, 1963. pp. 223-235.

Clinical insights and systematic conceptual con-structs in ego psychology are discussed in terms of theirimplications for the field of education. The importanceof "ego-syntonic" (ego-centered) teaching to the educa-tional task is stressed. Problems of psychological resis-tance and maturational conflicts illustrate the impor-tance of such teaching. Ego-syntonic resources availableto the teacher include the capacity for relationship andfor being an object of identification for the student.[Located too late for indexing.]

BARR, ARVIL S. and ROBERT E. JONES. Themeasurement and prediction of teacher effic-iency. Review of educational research 28:3, June1958. pp. 256-264.

Several studies have tried to measure and predictteacher efficiency. Some measured pupil growth andachievement as criteria for effectiveness, some exploredother factors; the methods used have also been investi-gated. The relationship between personality and teacherefficiency, and perceptions and behaviors have also beenstudied. These studies show that: (1) teachers andteaching are parts of a complex situation that can bestudied from many points of view and involve pupils,purposes, values, activities, and products; (2) most stud-ies have dealt with surface aspects; (3) although a greatdeal of thought has been given to the criteria of teacherefficiency, researchers find low correlations between themost frequently used criteria; (4) a clearer distinction isneeded between ability and achievement; and (5) a needfor greater continuity in teacher evaluation researchexists. (293)

BARR, ARVIL S., D. A. WORCESTER, ALAN ABELL,CLARENCE BEECHER, LELAND E. JENSEN,ARCHIE L. PERONTO, THOMAS A. RING-NESS and JOHN SCHMID, JR. Wisconsin studiesof the measurement and prediction of teachereffectiveness: a summary of investigations. Madi-son, Wis.: Dembar Publications, 1961. 156 pp.

In 12 chapters by various authors, 83 un-published doctoral dissertations and articles are summar-ized. The original studies all explored methods ofvalidating an objective approach to teacher evaluation.Some of the approaches explored were: measures ofpupil growth and achievement; tests of qualities thoughtto be associated with teacher effectiveness, and all sortsof rating scales; studies of teacher and pupil behaviorsand interrelationships; and tests of basic knowledges,attitudes, and skills. The contents are: (1) Nature of theProblem, by A. S. Barr; (2) The Criterion of TeacherEffectiveness, by A. S. Barr; (3) Methodology of theInvestigations Here Summarized, by A. S. Barr; (4) TheData-Gathering Devices Employed, by Clarence Beecher;(5) The Use and Abuse of Correlational and RegressionTechniques in the Evaluation and Prediction of TeacherEffectiveness, by Alan Abell; (6) Factor Analysis of theTeaching Complex, by John Schmid; (7) A Non-AdditiveApproach to the Measure of Teacher Effectiveness, byLeland E. Jensen; (8) Patterns of Effectiveness andIneffectiveness in Teachers, by Archie L. Peronto;(9) Personal Prerequisites to Teacher Effectiveness, byA. S. Barr; (10) Motivation a Factor in Teacher Effec-tiveness, by Thomas A. Ringness; (11) Some Assump-tions, Explicitly and Implicitly Made, in the Investiga-tions Here Summarized, by D. A. Worcester; and

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(12) Teaching Ability and Its Correlates, by A. S. Barr.A list of studies summarized is included. (294)

BELLACK, ARNO A. (ed.). Theory and research inteaching. New York: Columbia University,Teachers College Press, 1963. 122 pp.

Nine contemporary research studies emphasizingsystematic observation of the classroom activities ofstudents and teachers are presented. Attention is focusedon verbal and nonverbal behavior of students andteachers in the classroom with special attention directedto the roles, functions, and activities of teachers. Thepaper sets forth the conceptual framework within whichthe studies were planned and carried out. The studiesreported are: Toward a Theory of Teaching, by B.Othanel Smith; The Evaluating Operation in the Class-room, by Milton Meux; Utah Study of the Assessment ofTeaching, by Marie M. Hughes; Teacher Influence in theClassroom, by Ned A. Flanders; The Analysis of VerbalInteraction in the Classroom, by Mary Aschner; TheScientific Study of Teacher Behavior, by D. M. Medleyand H. E. Mitzel; Study of Children, Through Observa-tion of Classroom Behavior, by Edna Shapiro; Analysisof Two Kindergarten Settings, by Martin Kohn; Class-room Process Study, by Eleanor Leacock. A bibliog-raphy is included. (295)

BROADWELL, MARTIN M. The supervisor as aninstructor; a guide for classroom training. Read-ing, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1968. 138 pp.

On the premise that not all instruction is goodinstruction, this book was written to: "(1) cause theinstructor to develop a concern for the results of histeaching efforts; (2) provide a practical guide which willenable the instructor to develop his own teachingtechniques; (3) answer the questions most often askedby the prospective, untrained instructor; (4) providespecific examples and tests by which the industrialinstructor can measure his efforts; (5) create in theinstructor an awareness of the problems industrialstudents bring to the classroom, and enable him to copewith these problems in the learning situation." Chaptertitles indicate content and organization: (1) Looking atthe Instructor; (2) The Teaching Process; (3) The Learn-ing Process; (4) Looking at the Student; (5) Communica-tion: Tool of the Trade; (6) Student Objectives; (7) Stu-dent Motivation; (8) Interesting the Student; (9) In-volving the Student; (10) Visual Aids; (11) Testing;(12) Effective Speaking; (13) Classroom Techniques;(14) Learning Theory and the Instructor; (15) The Useof Programmed Instruction; (16) Advance Planning.There is a subject index. (296)

BROADWELL, MARTIN M. Training the trainers. Per-sonnel 43:5, September-October 1966. pp.50-55.

The article suggests methods for improving theinstruction in industry, covering class schedules, types ofinstruction, the trainer's job and responsibilities, thetrainer's attitude toward the learner, especially directedtoward on-the-job problems. It concludes that thereshould be a constant analysis of the program's effective-ness. (USCSC 1, edited) (297)

BROWNELL, JOHN A. and TAYLOR BROWNELL.Theoretical perspectives for teaching teams. PhiDelta Kappan 43:3, December 1961. pp.150-157.

The authors seek to develop a theory of teamteaching that will serve as a bridge between existing andpossible team models, and between data and potentialdata. Their discussion is ordered as follows: statement ofassumptions, definition of key terms, statement ofhypothetical advantages and difficulties of teams, arationale for models, and conjecture about their opera-tion within existing school situations. Models are sche-matically represented. (298)

DePHILLIPS, FRANK A., WILLIAM M. BERLINERand JAMES J. CRIBBIN. Requirements forinstruction, some practical problems in instruc-tion, and questions in action. IN THEIR Manage-ment of training programs. Homewood, Ill.:Richard D. Irwin, 1960. pp. 131-152.

Effective instruction is a function of sevenfactors discussed in this section: job knowledge, teachingskills, experience, acceptable trainer personality, specialattitudes, communication skills, and management skills.Practical problems in instruction which are discussedare: problems of speaking (18 evaluative questions arelisted) and problems of asking questions (21 uses ofquestions, 22 types of questions, and 23 hints on askingquestions are listed). Other classroom problems brieflydiscussed are: restlessness, boredom, lateness, side con-versation, inappropriate humor, sleep, emotional antag-onism, unofficial session endings, inattention, boister-ousness, coping with delicate topics, keeping the discus-sion moving, passivity, wide range of experience, person-ality problems in trainees (11 discussed), and how todisagree agreeably (9 specific suggestions are offered).

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DYER, WILLIAM G. An inventory of trainer interven-tions. Human relations training news 7:1, Spring1963. pp. 4-5.

A human relations trainer has certain responsibil-ities in group discussions. There are several types oftrainer interventions that can help a group: (1) contentintervention is mention of an experience, research dataor opinion to give legitimacy to the discussion; (2) pro-cess intervention attempts to shift focus to what ishappening in the group itself; (3) asking for feelingshelps individuals learn how others feel about theirbehavior; (4) direction giving can help a group workthrough an impasse; (5) direct feedback lets groupmembers know the reactions of the trainer; (6) bycognitive orientations, the trainer provides theory orinformation; (7) by performing group functions, thetrainer can help the group maintain itself; (8) diagnosticintervention indicates to the group what they are doing;and (9) protective intervention protects individual mem-bers from "over-exposure." By studying the nature oftrainer interventions and their effects, trainers candetermine what style and strategies produce maximumlearning. (300)

FILLEY, ALAN C. and FRANKLIN C. JESSE. Trainingleadership style: a survey of research. Personneladministration 28:3, May-June 1965. pp. 14-21.

The article addresses itself to the role of leader-ship style in achieving training program effectiveness.The goal is to suggest the proper balance to bemaintained by the trainer between the leader-centeredand the group-centered training approaches. Variousmeaningful patterns which may be used in the selectionof an optimal style for prescribed needs are suggested bythis review of pertinent research. Studies reported arenot biased toward any particular form of leadership.(ASTD) (301)

FLANDERS, NED A. Personal-social anxiety as a factorin experimental learning situations. Journal ofeducational research 45:2, October 1951. pp.100-110.

The teacher's behavior to a large extent deter-mines teacher-student interaction and, in turn, thenature of the learning. When all the data in thisexperiment were organized and analyzed, the followingconclusions were made: (1) student behavior associatedwith interpersonal anxiety takes priority over behaviororiented toward the achievement problem; (2) teacherbehavior characterized as directive, demanding, anddeprecating by the use of private criteria and, in general,teacher supporting, elicits student behaviors of hostilitytoward self or the teacher, withdrawal, apathy, aggres-siveness, and even emotional disintegration; (3) teacher

behavior characterized as acceptant, problem-oriented,evaluative or critical by way of public criteria and, ingeneral, student supportive, elicits student behaviors ofproblem orientation, decreased interpersonal anxiety,integration, and even emotional readjustment; and(4) systematic role analysis is possible by methods whichallow the introduction of controlled psychological forcesinto a spontaneous behavior situation. (302)

HERBERT, EVAN. A special report on technology foreducation. International science and technology,no. 68, August 1967. pp. 28-35.

The new technology for education attempts toengineer an entire environment for the learning process.One promise of the new techniques is that teaching canbe matched more effectively to individual capabilitiesfor learning. Devices and techniques that facilitateself-instruction can turn the teacher into a manager oflearning resources for each student. With programmedinstruction the student is guided through materials underthe control of self-testing procedures. The criterion forprogress is not how much material is covered but howwell it is learned. One form of programmed instructionwhich provides immediate feedback to both student andteacher is the EDEX response system made by RaytheonLearning Systems. There are also immediate-access infor-mation systems that bring all kinds of curriculummaterials to the classroom from a central source viaelectronics. Oklahoma Christian College has a system ofdial-access to a library-based file. Oral Roberts Univer-sity has a somewhat different system of pre-recordedcurriculum materials to be used as a supplementarymeans of instruction. These systems require the teacherto make all decisions about substantive content and toexecute the sequence of presentation. Computer-aidedinstruction (CM) is an almost complete surrogate for theteacher. One attempt to let the teacher shape his owncomputer program is PLANIT, or Programming Lan-guage for Interactive Teaching. Preparing a computercourse with presently available, comparatively clumsyprogramming tools requires an inordinate amount of theteacher's time and is prohibitively expensive. RCAInstructional Systems offers a "package" which includesan entire computer system with prepared curriculummaterial. Despite the new technology, teachers are stillneeded to bring perception, affection, and improvisationthat no machine provides. (303)

HIGHET, GILBERT. The art of teaching. New York:Alfred Knopf, 1951. 291 pp.

Teaching is here conceived of as an art asopposed to a science and is approached from thatdirection. Subjects of instruction are not discussed, themethods of teaching being the author's primary concern.The book is divided into five parts. The introduction

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outlines the plan and purpose of the book. The secondpart considers the character and abilities that make agood professional teacher, and an analysis and discussionof his methods are presented in the third part. Anexamination of the great teachers of the past is offeredin Part Four, and the final part discusses teaching bynonprofessionals in everyday life. The contents are: PartI, Introduction; Part II, The TeacherHis Rewards andDifficulties; The Qualities of a Good Teacher: Knowingthe Subject, Liking the Subject, Knowing the Pupils,Liking the Pupils, Knowing Other Things; The Abilitiesof a Good Teacher; Part III, The Teaching MethodsPreparationPlanning, Renewal of Material; Communi-cationThe Three Methods: Lecturing, Tutoring, Recita-tion; Fixing the Impression; Part IV, Great Teachers andTheir PupilsThe Sophists, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle,and Alexander; Good Teachers and Bad Pupils; Renais-sance Teachers; The Jesuit Teachers;. Teachers of theNineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries; Fathers ofGreat Men; Part V, Teaching in Everyday LifeFathersand Mothers, Husbands and Wives; Executives; Doctors;Psychiatrists; Clergymen and Priests; Advertisers, Public-ists, Propagandists; Authors and Artists; Principles ofEveryday Teaching. An index is included. (304)

HULIT, DARL. Team teaching in industrial education,Parts I and II. Industrial arts and vocationaleducation 55:5, May 1966. pp. 22-23; and 55:6,June 1966. pp. 20-22.

A treatment of team teaching, particularly as itapplies to industrial education, is presented in theframework of a four-step lesson plan. The review of theplan suggests combinations of usage which will id inachieving the goals of the planned steps. (ASTD) (305)

ISAACSON, ROBERT L., WILBERT J. McKEACHIE,JOHN E. MILHOLLAND, YI G. LIN, MARGA-RET HOFELLER, JAMES W. BAERWALDTand KARL L. ZINN. Dimensions of studentevaluations of teaching. Journal of educationalpsychology 55:6, December 1964. pp. 344-351.

The purpose of this study was to identifydimensions of teacher behavior, a knowledge of which isimportant in the effective selection and training ofteachers. "Two groups of students in introductorypsychology (601 in the fall semester and 569 in thespring semester) rated their teachers on a 46-itemquestionnaire derived largely from factor analysis of 145items that had been used in previous studies elsewhere.The results were factor analyzed separately by sex andsemester, and factor similarities obtained by Kaiser'smethod. Six factors appeared which were consistent overthe two administrations, in different semesters, withdifferent students and teachers. They were labeled Skill,

Overload, Structure, Feedback, Group Interaction, andStudent-Teacher Rapport."(ASTD) (306)

KNIGHT, JAMES A. The impact of confrontation inlearning. Journal of medical education 41:7, July1966. pp. 670-678.

The teacher of young adults has opportunitiesfor creative encounter by confrontationa face-to-facestruggle which shows the relatedness between persons.Student identity moves toward fulfillment when met bymature and benevolent authority. Young adults areflexible and pliable because of the complex and multipledemands stemming from their surroundings. Confronta-tion at crucial moments may bring about change andmay help in emotional integration on a more maturelevel. (307)

LEE, CALVIN B. T. (ed.). Improving college teaching.Washington, D.C.: American Council on Educa-tion, 1967. 407 pp.

This collection of 49 essays by various academicauthorities includes data-gathering articles, reviews ofpractice, critical essays, commentaries of opinion, anal-yses of the academic community, and probing about thepresent nature of the teaching profession. The essays aregrouped in the following six parts: (1) The AcademicCommunity; (2) The Academic Man; (3) College Teach-ers: Quantity and Quality; (4) Teaching and Learning;(5) The Evaluation of Teaching Performance; (6) Curric-ulum Reform and Re-Formation. (308)

LeFEVRE, CAROL. Teacher characteristics and careers.Review of educational research 37:4, October1967. pp. 433-447.

Studies regarding teacher effectiveness are pre-sented under the large categories of ratings, attitudetoward teaching, predicting teaching success, rigidity-flexibility, and special teachers. Studies of personalitycharacteristics of teachers include those of teacherimages and motives for teaching. Further studies re-ported are those of beginning teachers, teacher percep-tions of children, teacher employment and turnover, andadministrator-teacher interaction. A bibliography is in-cluded. (309)

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LIPPITT, GORDON L. and LESLIE E. THIS. Leadersfor laboratory training: selected guidelines forgroup trainers utilizing the laboratory method.Training and development journal 21:3, March1967. pp. 2-13.

Some of the significant roles, problems, andqualifications of an effective group trainer are suggested.Factors affecting the trainer's roles include the purposesand design of training; length of training program; groupcomposition; practicing philosophy of the trainer; expec-tations of participants; expectations of the trainingplanners; organizational or personal needs which initi-ated the program; influence of the trainer's peers and hisprofession; current state of research and experience; andneeds of the trainer. The group trainer has multipleroles; he is initiator of diagnostic training concepts;diagnostic, observer at appropriate time and level; Inno-vator of learning experience; standards protector; initi-ator of selected group standards for learning; and agroup member. Special problems and pitfalls result if:(1) the trainer becomes too directive; (2) the trainer andgroup become too clinical; (3) the trainer becomes toopersonally involved in the group; (4) the training groupis used in an inappropriate way; and (5) frustration andfloundering are mistaken for learning. Several guidelinesto assist the trainer in making decisions about traininginterventions are enumerated. Qualifications of labora-tory trainers are self-understanding; personal security;previous group experience; professional training; abilityin verbal communication; and training skills. (310)

LYNTON, ROLF P. and UDAI PAREEK. Developingthe group and the climate. IN THEIR Trainingfor development. Homewood, Ill.: Richard D.Irwin, Inc. and The Dorsey Press, 1967. pp.226-273.

The article discusses: (1) three aspects of thesocial process in group development (establishing com-mon tasks, developing common ways or norms ofattaining them, and building realistic relationships withone another); (2) indicators of group development;(3) the trainer's direct and indirect influence when thetask is not clear to participants, when the task is clearand attractive, and when the task is clear but unattrac-tive; and (4) the roots and effects of the training climate.

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LYNTON, ROLF P. and UDAI PAREEK. The trainer.IN THEIR Training for development. Home-wood, Ill.: Richard D. Irwin, Inc. and TheDorsey Press, 1967. pp. 275-292.

The basic requirement of a trainer is thoroughknowledge of the subject matter of his field. With thatrequirement met, his actual behavior during training can

be considered. Every trainer develops a personal trainingstyle. He grows to prefer certain kinds of training eventsand methods and is also most effective using these.However, neither training events nor methods nortrainer's actions tell much about a trainer's effectiveness.Several studies have shown that there is a wide variety oftraining goals and styles through which trainers canpromote learning. These studies showed that the effec-tive trainers, whatever their style, were very flexible andwere able to vary their roles and methods to suit thechanging needs. The nature, quality, and effectiveness ofthe interaction we call training depends primarily on thefeelings that the trainer communicates to the partici-pants through his behavior. The kinds of feeling thatmatter for a favorable climate include an absorbinginterest and feeling of excitement in his subject and hiswork of training; eagerness to share the task and help theparticipants grow into taking more responsibility for it;acceptance of the participants as people with differingneeds and personalities, and responsiveness to them; andtrust in himself and in others. Any basic flaws the trainerhas will show under pressure when he acts spontaneous-ly. The most common pressures are those of time andquantity of work. Three dilemmas present in mosttraining situations create, other pressures: (1) discrepan-cies between participants' expectancies and the trainer'sintention; (2) discrepancies between needs of individualsand needs of the group; and (3) discrepancies betweenthe trainer's need to behave flexibly in order to meetneeds of individual participants and the group's need forconsistent, predictable trainer behavior. A trainer knows,or can find out how to reduce the pressures arising fromthese dilemmas if he feels like it, if it is in hisdisposition. If his disposition is not in line with effectivetraining, then he adds a fourth dilemma which really isunmanageable: discrepancies between the needs of thetrainer and the needs of the participants. Pressures fromthis basic dilemma are at the root of much ineffectivetraining. (312)

McGEHEE, WILLIAM and PAUL W. THAYER. Thetrainer. IN THEIR Training in business andindustry. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1961.pp. 225-255.

Four phases of responsibility for training arediscussed: responsibility for planning, organizing, coordi-nating, and evaluating training; responsibility for execu-tion of approved training plans; responsibility for teach-ing; and the supervisor's special role in maintainingbehavior. Past studies on the functions of trainers and onwhat makes a good instructor are discussed, and specificduties, tasks, traits, and abilities are listed. Suggestedtraining content for trainers of four major types isoutlined: supervisors responsible for overall training butwho delegate the majority of training to others; super-visors responsible for overall training and who instructemployees; employees assigned duties of on-the-job

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training of other employees over whom they have noline authority; and employees who instruct in more orless formal classroom situations. Suggested procedures, adetailed outline of sixteen sessions, and trainee assign-ments for a course for supervisors of the second typementioned above are presented. The need for moreresearch on instructor tasks, selection, and training isemphasized. (313)

McKEACHIE, W. J. The instructor. IN Finch, Glen (ed.).Educational and training media: a symposium(Publ. no. 789). Washington, D.C.: NationalResearch Council, 1960. pp. 22-33.

With the advent of television, teaching machines,simulators, and other teaching media, the role of theinstructor must be examined. It seems that instructorsshould be concerned not only with trainee's knowledgeand skills, but also with his motivation to learn moreafter his formal education, his feelings about the groupswith whom he works, and his commitment to his goals.Assessment of the instructor will become clearer if weconsider some of his usual roles and compare hiseffectiveness with that of other teaching instruments inrelation to these objectives. Teachers probably spendmore time lecturing than in any other role. Summing upthe liabilities of the lecture method, we can concludethat it is a slower method of presenting information thanreading or television, that the student in a lecture usuallyplays a passive role, and when the desired learninginvolves perceptual-motor responses, we would expectverbal descriptions to be less effective than visual or realexperiences. On the positive side, however, a liveinstructor can respond to students and the lecturer mayhave some motivational value beyond that of othertechniques of instruction. A second common role of theclassroom instructor is the discussion leader, most ofwhom admit that they cover less ground than lecturers.Though the evidence is scanty, it seems that discussionscan be effective in enabling the students to better applythe material if they have discussed it. Analysis of therole of the instructor is further complicated by the factthat some students do well with one type of test, whileothers do well with others. Further complications areundoubtedly introduced by the probability that the bestmethod of instruction may depend on the instructor, oron the content or goals of instruction. References areincluded. (314)

MILLER, GEORGE E. (ed.), HAROLD P. GRASER,STEPHEN ABRAHAMSON, ROBERT S. HAR-NACK, IRA S. COHEN and ADELLE LAND.Student-teacher planning. IN THEIR Teachingand learning in medical school. Cambridge,Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1962. pp.145-151.

Student-teacher planning, a cooperative effort todefine an area of work and the means by which it can beaccomplished, leads to mutual decisions and jointchoices. The student's motivation to learn is used tostimulate his interest. Objectives are to design programsthat can accommodate to individual differences and tocreate an atmosphere of learning instead of teaching.Because students often expect direction, initiative mayneed prodding; queries about the problem usuallysuffice. Suggestions should be appraised from the stand-points of goals. Pitfalls of this approach are thatsubject-oriented faculty may regard it as pointless orthat some instructors may hesitate to disagree withstudent plans even though they are not productive.

(315)

REISEL, JEROME. Observations on the trainer role: acase study. IN Tannenbaum, Robert, Irving R.Wechsler and Fred Massanik. Leadership andorganization: a behavioral science approach. NewYork: McGraw-Hill, 1961. pp. 188-205.

This study presents a way of looking at thetrainer role to identify and describe problems which aremost likely to be encountered, particularly by those whoundertake a sensitivity training assignment, and todemonstrate the basic premise that the trainer is apotent factor in the total interaction of his group. Inobserving two trainers, five major problems were un-covered, each a potential source (or consequence) oftrainer anxiety and difficulties: (1) time limitation;(2) group composition; (3) exposure and vulnerability;(4) reconciling behavior and theory about group func-tions; and (5) content vs. process orientation. Personswho serve as sensitivity trainers have a vital interest indeveloping and utilizing their ability to exercise influ-ence (leadership) in order to help people be moresensitive and skillful in the handling of interpersonalrelations. These are not the ordinary goals of leadershipactivity. There are strong overtones of social responsibil-ity in this kind of teaching-leadership function. (316)

ROSE, HOMER C. The instructor and his job. IN HISThe instructor and his job. Chicago: AmericanTechnical Society, 1961. pp. 1-14.

"The competent instructor in the classroom andon the job is the builder of bridges between expandingand changing subject matter on one side and a wide

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range of personalities on the other, personalities ofpeople who must learn, new theories, new attitudes, andnew skills." Six essential broad qualities for a personwho wants to become an instructor are discussed:(1) competence in the subject being taught; (2) masteryof the techniques of instruction; (3) resourcefulness andcreativeness; (4) the habit of evaluation; (5) the desire toteach; (6) ability to develop good personal relationships.Seventeen questions and suggested assignments concludethe chapter. (317)

SKINNER, B. F. Why teachers fail. Saturday review48:42, October 16, 1965. pp. 80-81, 98-102.

Corporal punishment, ridicule, and other formsof aversive control cause students to escape, counter-attack, or withdraw; any of these reactions hinderlearning. If the student is to learn efficiently, the teachermust not be a threat. Providing an opportunity to learnin a natural way is one way to teach, but simply showingor telling will not alone induce learning; there must alsobe positive reinforcement. The proper arrangement ofreinforcement contingencies under which behavior willchange is necessary to successful teaching. The failure ofshowing and telling is attributed to lack of attention,which teachers try to combat by eliminating distractionsor by making materials more attractive and attention-compelling. Audiovisual aids are often misused in thisway. In the discovery method, the teacher arranges theenvironment in which discovery is to take place, suggestslines of inquiry, and keeps the student within bounds,but tells him nothing. The student then learns from theworld of things. But "discovery" is not the solution tothe problems of educationthe accumulated knowledgeand wisdom of a culture must be transmitted. Researchin behavioral science is contributing to a technology ofteaching which will offer effective alternatives to currentpractices. (318)

SMITH, B. OTHANEL. A concept of teaching. Teacherscollege record 61:5, February 1960. pp.229-241.

Teaching is activity intended to induce learning.Teaching and learning are different processes. Teachingdoes not necessarily induce learning, but learning mayresult from teaching activity and interactions of teacherand pupil. Learning, being an acquired disposition tobehave in particular ways in particular circumstances, isneither activity nor behavior, though it is manifested byactivity. All the variables of teaching activity are of threecategories: independent variables (teachers), interveningvariables (pupils), and dependent variables (pupils). Theindependent variables consist of linguistic, performative,and expressive behaviors. The intervening variables con-

sist of constructs or postulated entities and processeswhich stand between the independent and dependentvariables, and are functionally related to them. Thedependent variables are behaviors identified with theacts of receiving instruction and are functionally associ-ated with learning. Certain groups of teaching actions areperformed with language. Didactic verbal behavior in-cludes: defining, classifying, explaining, conditional in-ferring, comparing and contrasting, evaluating, anddesignating. A second group that instructs the pupilincludes didactic actions. Finally, the teacher performsadmonitory acts. Nonverbal actions include: performa-tive actions and expressive behavior. A parallel betweenthese teaching actions and the pupil actions (dependentvariables) constitutes the instruction-taking part of theteaching cycle. (319)

SOAR, ROBERT S. An integrative approach to class-room learning. Philadelphia: Temple University,1966. 325 pp.

Past research (reviewed in Chapter Two) on theidentification of effective teaching in relationship todifferent sets of educational goals (subject-matterachievement and intellectual, emotional, and socialgrowth) has had difficulty in measuring complex pro-cesses and interrelationships. This study attempted toovercome these difficulties by using some new tools:new systems for observing teacher-pupil interaction, avariety of measures of pupil characteristics, and com-puters for complex data analysis. The broad purpose ofthe study was to identify a common core of teacherskills associated with different aspects of pupil growth.It was hypothesized that teacher-pupil sharing of plan-ning, directing, and control, and effective group inter-action were parts of this core pattern. It was furtherhypothesized that these skills could be taught. Subjectswere teachers and pupils in 57 classrooms, grades 3through 6, in 4 elementary schools from 2 metropoli-tan systems in South Carolina. Several aspects of pupilgrowth were measured; teacher-pupil classroom behav-ior was observed using Flanders Interaction Analysisand the South Carolina Observation Record; sensitivitytraining for a subgroup of the teachers was providedthe summer between the two project years; and anumber of teacher characteristics, including personal-ity, were measured and related to composites of teach-er-pupil behavior and pupil change. The findings sug-gested that emotional climate of the classroom is animportant factor in pupil growth, with the expressionof hostility having deleterious effects even in a general-ly supportive atmosphere, and that the processes whichfacilitate pupil change are compatible; however, onelevel of teacher control is needed for optimal pupilgrowth in vocabulary and arithmetic concepts, a sec-

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and level is needed in reading and arithmetic problem-solving, while a third level is required for optimalgrowth in creativity. It was concluded that teaching isso complex that no single aspect best supports theachievement of every educational goal. A nine andone-half page bibliography is included. (320)

TABA, HILDA and FREEMAN F. ELZEY. Teachingstrategies and thought processes. Teachers col-lege record 65:6, March 1964. pp. 524-534.

The study of thinking in elementary schoolchildren, of which t lis paper is a report, set out toexamine the processes of thought in the classroom interms capable of pointing out the significance of thelearning and teaching of certain cognitive skills in theschool setting. The fundamental assumption was thatthought consists of specific, describable processes thatare subject to training, not of some category of powersthat are inherent in the individual. Therefore the studysought to create categories for analyzing thought thatdescribed learnable, and therefore teachable, processes.Specific processes in three cognitive tasks were identi-fied: (1) concept formation; (2) the making of infer-ences and the induction of generalizations from inter-pretation of specific data; and (3) the application ofgeneralizations to explain new phenomena and topredict the consequences of certain events and condi-tions. Twenty elementary classrooms involved in thestudy followed a social studies curriculum centered ona series of basic ideas and organized for an inductivediscovery and development of these ideas. In addition,the curriculum outline included a planned sequence oflearning experiences designed to enhance the develop-ment of generalizations and their application to solvingproblems. The study also provided for special trainingof the teachers in the analysis of thought processes andin devising effective teaching strategies for their devel-opment. Analysis of the results of the study indicatethat teacher behavior greatly influences student think-ing and that the level of thought attained by studentsseems to be determined by the whole pattern ofteaching strategies. The findings so far suggest that ifthe acquisition of skills in autonomous thinking is tobe a realistic objective, a much more thorough studyof and experimentation with the appropriate teachingstrategies for the development of thinking is called for.

(321)

THELEN, HERBERT A. Classroom grouping for teach-ability. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1967.274 pp.

The research investigation of which this book isthe account sought to answer the following question:How can the "resources" of teachers and students be

utilized more effectively for educational purposes inthe classroom? Chapter titles describe the contents:(1) Context: Social Issues and Educational Alternatives;(2) Knowledge: Scientific Research and EducationalPractice; (3) Objectives: From Student Types to Teach-able Classes; (4) Outcomes: Educational Achievementand Personal Satisfactions; (5) Teachability: The Gen-eral Factor and Its Variability Among Teachers; (6) Fa-cilitation: The General Tendencies and Their Variabil-ity; (7) Congruence: The Fit Between One Teacher'sStyle and His Teachable Students; (8) Patterns: FourAdditional Styles and Compatibilities; (9) Change: OneClassroom's Dynamics of Mutual Accommodation;(10) Reflections: Conclusions and Strategies. Thirteen

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appendices on methods, techniques, and various dataof the study are included, along with an index. (322)

WIDGERSON, HARRY I. (ed.). Team teaching. Educa-tion 85:6, February 1965. pp. 323-35.3.

The feature section of this issue of Educationcontains six articles on team teaching. The articlesinclude: (1) Team Teaching in American Education;(2) What Is Team Teaching?; (3) Planning for TeamTeaching; (4) Team Teaching in the ElementarySchool; (5) Team Teaching in the High School; and(6) A Current Appraisal of Team Teaching. (323)

TRAINING PROGRAMFUNCTIONS, ORGANIZATION, ADMINISTRATION

ARZIGIAN, SIMON. On-the-job training costs: an anal-ysis. Washington, D.C.: Naval Personnel SupportActivity, Personnel Research Laboratory, June1967. 36 pp.

The purpose of the study is to determine thefeasibility of computing the cost of on-the-job trainingwhich an enlisted man, in a given rating, receives to bringhim up to the journeyman level, a point in hisdevelopment when he is able to perform his duties witha minimum of supervision. Four basic questions werefound to be central in arriving at an estimate ofon-the-job training costs: (1) what is the journeymanlevel?; (2) what is the rate of learning?; (3) how muchtime is spent by the supervisor?; and (4) what are thecost elements involved? Section headings indicate con-tents: Summary and Conclusions; Introduction; Purpose;Scope of Study; On-the-Job Training Objectives; PriorStudies; Discussion: Journeyman Level, Rate of Learn-ing, Supervision Time, Cost Elements; System Develop-ment; Conclusions and Recommendations; Appendix A,Relative Effectiveness; Appendix B, Concepts of PayGrade Assignments; Appendix C, Definitions of Man-Machine Trade-Off Functional (Occupational) Categoriesand Distributions of Navy Sea-Going and AviationRatings by Such Categories. (324)

BELBIN, R. M. Training older workers. Training inbusiness and industry 3:6, June 1966. pp. 29-33.

Several experiments in training older workers arereviewed and analyzed in an effort to illustrate the valueof adapting the method of teaching an industrial skill tothe age of the trainees concerned. Three stages oflearning in adult training are discussed: (1) discoveringthe adult trainee is induced to range over the parametersof the situation, discovering the facts for himself byactive participation; (2) understanding thy trainee en-deavors to give expression to the understanding createdby his own activities; and (3) considerationthe traineeengages in practice and rehearsal in learning sessionssufficiently long to allow for ample consolidation ofskills and competencies. Argument is made that whentraining methods are adjusted to the requirements ofolder workers, traditional barriers in recruitment ofolder personnel are invalid. The article concludes with adiscussion of the cost differential of training youngerand older workers, and it is maintained that the

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difference may be a good deal smaller than is

normally supposed. (325)

BELMAN, HARRY S. and JOHN E. BLIEK. Theinternal organization of the training function.Journal of the American Society of TrainingDirectors 13:9, September 1959. pp. 26-30.

The article covers how a training unit is staffed,what subdivisions are currently found in such units ordepartments, what they are called, what purposes theyserve, and how many are employed. (ASTD) (326)

BELMAN, HARRY S. and JOHN E. BLIEK. The natureof current training function activities. Journal ofthe American Society of Training Directors 5:2,February 1961. pp. 31-46.

This is the final report of the series "A Survey ofthe Status and Functions of Training Departments inBusiness, Industry, and Government." Data are reportednumerically and with interpretations. They cover per-sons responsible for determining training needs, objec-tives of training functions, training function and manage-ment development, types of training, and maintainingactivities. Evidence points up the fact that there iswinter need for the study of training function activities,personnel, and relationships. (USCSC 4, edited) (327)

BIENVENU, BERNARD J. What kind of training fortomorrow? Personnel 8:6, November-December1961. pp. 8-17.

In view of recent and rapid changes in industrialprocesses, a critical re-examination of the trainingfunction is in order. Alterations in skill requirements,making the physical realm subordinate to the intellec-tual, have outdated some former assumptions. Trainingwill not cure all ills; orientation should not be confusedwith development of executives; human relations train-ing may be definitely hazardous. The author urgestraining concerned with flexibility and adaptability andwith the development of conceptual skill, imagination,and judgment, and makes recommendations on how thenew training might be developed. (USCSC 4, edited)

(328)

BOYNTON, RALPH E. Budgeting and controlling train-ing costs. IN Craig, Robert L. and Lester R.Bittel (eds.). Training and development hand-book. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967. pp.593-604.

The training director must accept responsibilityfor the financial administration of his position. Aspectsof budgeting discussed include a general discussion,types of budgets, budget preparation, and indirectexpenses. Cost control aspects treated include specialexpenses, plan of operation, and the importance of thebudget to the training director and his program. Thechapter concludes with a brief discussion of the econom-ics of training. Sample budget and cost control forms areincluded. (329)

BUCHANAN, PAUL C. The function of training in anorganization; using a model or conceptual frame-work approach to personnel development. Jour-nal of the American Society of Training Direc-tors 14:4, April 1960. pp. 53-63.

A conceptual framework for planned socialchange is presented with training viewed as one aspect ofthis change. Answers to questions regarding the functionof training, goals the program should have, and themethods that should be used are discussed. (USCSC 4,edited) (330)

BUTTON, WILLIAM H. Employee training in smallbusiness organizations (Bulletin 42). Ithaca,N.Y.: Cornell University, State School of Indus-trial and Labor Relations, 1964. 43 pp.

This is a guide to establishing training activities.It discusses objectives, policy, and needs; supervisor andtraining; principles of learning and steps of job instruc-tion; and evaluation. (USCSC 4, edited) (331)

CALDWELL, LYNTON K. Improving the public servicethrough training. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Agencyfor International Development, Public Admini-stration Division, 1962. 129 pp.

The function of training in present-day govern-ment is explained and principles and concepts funda-mental to extension of human resources necessary fornational development are offered. The emphasis is ontraining in its broad sense, which includes learning andeducation, rather than on techniques. Contents: Train-ingKey to National Development; The Training Ele-ment in Administration; Determining Training Needs;Organizing Training Facilities; Utilizing Training Meth-ods and Materials; Building Support for Training;Measuring and Evaluating Training Effectiveness; Educa-

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tional Resources for Public Service Training; TechnicalAssistance in Public Service Training; Selective Guide toInformation on Training. (USCSC 4, edited) (332)

DeCARLO, CHARLES R. and ORMSBEE W. ROBIN-SON. Education in business and industry. NewYork: Center for Applied Research in Education,1966. 118 pp.

The book deals with the responsibility of busi-ness and industry in educating and training the laborforce, and with the measures adopted and planned formeeting this responsibility. The history of education inbusiness is traced from the apprenticeship of the MiddleAges to the large-scale and complex corporate trainingprograms of the present. The educational philosophyand practices in business and industry are compared withthose of schools and universities. The business environ-ment within which these programs are pursued isdescribed. Not only the general educational endeavor inbusiness, but also the problems and objectives whichaccompany a particular type of program, are examined.The current issues in education in business and industryand the patterns of possible future trends are analyzed.Chapters include: (1) A Perspective; (2) Education inBusiness and in School: A Comparison; (3) The Natureof Modern Business: Problems and Goals; (4) Educa-tional and Training Programs for the Individual; (5} Edu-cational Programs for Managers; (6) Evaluations andProjections. A bibliography and index are appended.

(333)

DePHILLIPS, FRANK A., WILLIAM M. BERLINERand JAMES J. CRIBBIN. The organization andadministration of training programs. IN THEIRManagement of training programs. Homewood,Ill.: Richard D. Irwin, 1960. pp. 229-359.

This is the third unit of four in the book andcontains chapters and sections entitled: The Organiza-tional StructureHelp or Hindrance to Training (Re-sponsibility for T r a i n i n g, Line-Staff Relationships,Training and the Size of the Company, The TrainingDivision, Training Organization Relative to Type ofTraining); Establishing Training ProgramsGetting theMost for Your Money (Why Have a Program forTraining?, Determining the Need for Formal TrainingPrograms, The Role of the Training Division); Job, Skill,and Special Training ProgramsGetting Off on the RightFoot; Supervisory and Management Development Pro-gramsCapitalizing on Leadership Abilities (Leadershipand Business Survival, The Nature of Supervisory andManagement Positions, Supervisory Training Programs).

(334)

DOYLE, ROBERT J. A recommendation for a corporatetraining and development policy. Management ofpersonnel quarterly 6:3, Fall 1967. pp. 7-11.

A training and development policy is a guideprepared by responsible company officials to be used byline and staff managers and specialists. The first elementof the policy should be a statement of purpose, anoverall declaration of the need for training and theorganization's commitment to it. The second element isthe major objectives for the training and developmenteffort. The policy requires the coordinated efforts ofmany line and staff executives, managers, supervisors,and specialists; it should provide guidelines for everyonewho shares responsibility for implementation. The per-sonnel and groups who need specific training should beidentified in the policy. Basic administrative situationscan be handled expeditiously by having major guidelinesfor employees and management. It is not essential to listspecific programs in detail, but where a program isuniversal and permanent, it should be included in thepolicy. (335)

ENGSTROM, ELMER W. What top management expectsof the training function. Training and develop-ment journal 21:9, September 1967. pp. 48-50,52-54.

The author comments on the new technologieswhich require new skills. He speaks of the total cost oftraining for industry and of its upward spiral, ofadvances in communication, of the needs of trainers, andof the desirability of sharing knowledge with counter-parts abroad as the growth of enterprises becomesmulti-national. (USCSC 1, edited) (336)

HIGGINSON, MARGARET V. Management policies II;sourcebook of statements (AMA research study78). New York: American Management Associa-tion, 1966. 110 pp.

Included are policy statements on such subjectsas: Conflict of Interests; Consultants and Outside Ser-vices; Equality of Opportunity; Information, Re-lease . . .; Management Development; Performance Ap-praisals and Salary Adjustments; Personnel Relations;Selection and Placement of Management Personnel;Suggestions, Employee. (USCSC 1, edited) (337)

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KING, DAVID. The integration of training, organiza-tion, and policy. IN Heller, Frank A. Newdevelopments in training; five studies in theefficient communication of skills. London: Poly-technic Management Association, January 1959.pp. 65-80.

Training is an integral component of the lifeprocess of a firm; to be successful, it must relatecontinuously to policy and organization. When viewed inthis light, the introduction of training schools, atwhatever level, can and should lead to a continuingclarification of the firm's policy, and this to a steadyimprovement in its adaptation to its environment. Inpractice, this can be achieved by designing trainingprocedures which act as built-in self-regulating mechan-isms. (338)

KING, DAVID. Training within the organization: astudy of company policy and procedures for thesystematic training of operators and supervisors.Chicago: Educational Methods, 1965. 274 pp.

The book is designed as a guide for practicingmanagementthe director, the manager, and the trainingstaffwho are all concerned in their different roles withthe long- and short-term problems of training. Much ofthe material is drawn from the author's experience as aconsultant and research worker attempting to bridge theindustrial and academic worlds. The aim is to convey theresults of that experience to those who are concernedwith training within an organization. instructional tech-niques and also the process by which a person adapts tohis role in a company organization are covered. Part I,Case Studies and Commentaries, consists of case descrip-tions of establishing systematic training schemes foroperators and supervisors, together with commentaryand background material. Included in this part arechapters entitled: Systematic Training for OperatorsACase Study; Systematic Training in Perspective; Sys-tematic Training for SupervisorsA Case; Some Com-ments on Supervisor Training. Part II, Some BasicQuestions in Training, raises fundamental issues inestablishing training within a company, concerning thenature of training and its relationship to companyorganization and policy. The chapters are: What IsLearning?; How Can Learning Be Assisted?; OptimumConditions for Learning; What Is Training?; Delegationof Training; Is a Training Policy Necessary? Part III,Designing a Company Policy for Operator Training,presents a guide to the formation of a company policyon training. The chapters are: What Is Needed forTraining?; What Are the Company's Training Aims andPrinciples?; What Organization and Procedures DoesTraining Require?; Selection and Training of InstructionStaff; How Effective Is Training? Part IV, Designing

Procedures for Operator Training, describes a set ofprocedures for establishing systematic training for opera-tors. Partial details are given on how to design trainingaids, how to analyze a job, how to produce a trainingprogram and handbook, and how to train instructors.Chapters are: Outline of Procedures; How to Study theJob; How to Prepare Selection Procedures; DevisingTraining Methods; Designing a Training Handbook;Administering Training, Reviewing the Effectiveness ofTraining. References, recommended reading, and anindex are included. (339)

KIRKPATRICK, DONALD L. The most neglected re-sponsibilities of the training department. Journalof the American Society of Training Directors13:4, April 1959. pp. 32-35.

The author lists and discusses three duties of thetraining department which are usually neglected: (1) in-forming managers of available training opportunities andencouraging participation; (2) stimulating on-the-job useof information and techniques learned in training pro-grams; (3) evaluating training programs and making useof findings. (USCSC 3, edited) (340)

LOTT, 0. C. Evaluating to reduce training costs. Train-ing and development journal 21:1, January 1967.pp. 38-41.

Many training courses could be taught as well or

better in a shorter time if properly evaluated andrestructured. Though evaluation is expensive, it can payits way by cutting training costs. (USCSC 1, edited)

(341)

LOVELAND, EDWARD H. Some questions useful to atraining man's conscience. Journal of the Ameri-

can Society of Training Directors 11:2, March-April 1957. pp. 11-16.

The author discusses certain questions that areessential to an efficient training program: Is training thesolution to your problem?; What are the objectives ofthe program?; What is the content and how will it bepresented?; How are the trainees and the instructorselected?; and How effective is the training program?

(USCSC 3, edited) (342)

LYNTON, ROLF P. and UDAI PAREEK. The traininginstitution and the future. IN THEIR Training fordevelopment. Homewood, Ill.: Richard D. Irwin,Inc. and The Dorsey Press, 1967. pp. 324-381.

The necessity for applying learning principles tothe training institution (the place and program offering

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training) as well as recommending them to participantsand their organizations is illustrated and discussed.Differences between current reality and the ideal train-ing institution are noted. The ideal would contribute toparticipants by being staffed by competent, flexible

trainers and administrators; by providing them with aprogram and an environment to consistently promotelearning relevant to more effective behavior at work; andby being a live model of organizational standards such asparticipants hope will shape their work at home. For thetrainers, the institution would provide collaboration ofcolleagues; supporting services, easy of access; and astimulating, satisfying climate. For the society in whichit works, the institution would be an agent for develop-ment, permeating the social fabric with qualities ofinquiry, active response, evaluation of effectiveness, andenthusiastic and skillful engagement in society and itstasks. This theory provides a framework within whichthe main dilemmas encountered in practice, and esti-mates of the main directions, the minimum support, andthe working methods which would help develop suchtraining institutions are discussed in subsequent sectionsof the chapter, which are entitled: A Consistent TrainingEnvironment for Participants(1) Between a Trainer'sStatements and His Behavior; (2) Between DifferentTrainers in the Same Program; (3) Between TrainingObjectives and the Physical Environment; (4) BetweenTraining Objectives and Institutional Administration:The Institutional "Climate" for the Trainers(1) AnUnfavorable Climate; (2) A Tolerant Climate; (3) AFavorable Climate (sharing routine responsibilities in-cluding discipline; gearing the internal organization tofunction; diversifying the trainer's functions; improving

the professional competence of trainers; developinginstitution-wide responsibility for plans and programs);The Languages of Resistance; Crises, Dilemmas, andResolutions in Institutional Development; The Institu-tion as an Agent for General Development. Two readings

are reprinted: Building Trainers into a Team, by R. P.

Lynton; and Organizational Health of a Training Institu-tion, by Matthew B. Miles. Various special exhibitsconsisting of excerpts from other publications supportthe text. (343)

LYNTON, ROLF P. and UDAI PAREEK. What istraining? IN THEIR Training for development.Homewood, Ill.: Richard D. Irwin, Inc. and TheDorsey Press, 1967. pp. 3-13.

The importance of improving training (education

of people-on-jobs-in-organizations) is discussed in terms

of national expenditures for it, the disillusionment ofmany individuals with it, the relation of impatience and

lack of skill to this disillusionment, and the reality oflimited resources in rapidly developing countries. Com-parisons between prevailing assumptions on which train-ing is based and new concepts of training are made forrelationships among the following factors: (1) knowl-

edge, motivation, skill, practice, and action; (2) learningand training; (3) learning and action: the participant andhis organization; (4) responsibility for training (thetraining institution and the organization as a whole). Thecontrasting behaviors and underlying philosophies ofindividuals who subscribe to action through training oraction through force (both historically and currently)are discussed in the final section. (344)

MALI, PAUL. The training confidence index: a newapproach to industrial training. Training directorsjournal 17:11, November 1963. pp. 19-25.

The "Training Confidence Index" (TCI) is ex-pressed as the ratio of the ability of a worker (which is afunction of his training) to the ability required toperform a particular task. It is asserted that the TCI canindicate whether or not current training needs are beingsatisfied, can reveal the degree of need for upgrading andupdating existing programs, can point up where over-training exists and where curtailing an existing programwould produce undesirable results, and can form amatrix out of which well-planned training programs mayevolve to meet the shifting skill requirements within acompany. The assumptions that must be made in orderto use the TCI are presented as well as a step-by-stepexplanation of the index itself. A bibliography isincluded. (345)

McGEHEE, WILLIAM. Cutting training waste. Personnelpsychology, vol. 1, Autumn i948. pp. 331-340.

Employee progress records based on workerproductivity, if properly analyzed, can be of definiteassistance in training industrial workers. When therelationship of early performance on a job at someultimate level of achievement can be established, thecurves are of definite assistance to the supervisor inconsidering whether or not to retain an employee intraining. A method of determining the relationshipbetween early performance and the time required toreach a standard of acceptable job performance ispresented. (346)

McKEON, JESSE C. Training records and informationsystems. IN Craig, Robert L. and Lester R. Bittel(eds.). Training and development handbook. NewYork: McGraw-Hill, 1967. pp. 605-625.

The aim of this chapter is to develop a systematicapproach to the function of providing essential informa-tion for managing the training activity. Aspects discussedare: the purpose of records, the information lag, centralpermanent records (personnel information), and a sys-tems view of the training function (the phases andpertinent records of a training management cycle involv-

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ing planning, organizing, implementing, reviewing, andfeedback are discussed, and sample record forms areincluded). There is a need for better use of availableinformation, better information, and better systems ofproviding access to essential information in developingand managing people. "The quality of the personnelinformation systems and the level of the skills ofprofessional management are closely related in anorganization." (347)

MINCER, JACOB. On-the-job training: costs, returnsand some implications. Journal of political econ-omy, supplement 5, part 2, October 1962. pp.50-74.

The cost of investing in training is considered,comparing on-the-job training with the formal educa-tional system. An equation for computing rate of returnis provided, and on-the-job training is considered as anelement in income and employment behavior in popula-tion subgroups. (USCSC 4, edited) (348)

MOORE, WILLIAM R. Training evaluationit used tobe so simple. Training directors journal 18:4,April 1964. pp. 45-50.

A two-pronged approach to improving trainingevaluation is recommended: continued refinement andmore thorough application of the research and measure-ment approach, and a greater effort to make evaluation apart of the management system carried out by linemanagers and program staff. In implementing the secondaspect, three elements are suggested: (1) effective andcontinuing supervisor-employee relationship; (2) periodi-cal employee development interviews; and (3) programinspection. The role of the supervisor in determiningtraining needs, establishing a climate for the applicationof training, and determining the effectiveness of thetraining is stressed. (349)

MORRISON, JAMES M. Planning and scheduling. INCraig, Robert L. and Lester R. Bittel (eds.).Training and development handbook. New York:McGraw-Hill, 1967. pp. 593-604.

Aspects of selecting and organizing the person-nel, tools, and techniques of training into a program arediscussed. Specifically covered are individual personalfactors in the training director which affect programdecisions; the establishment of program objectives;determination of basic training approaches; securingmanagement approval; preparing the program; trying outthe program; setting detailed schedules and communicat-ing to those affected; administering the program; specialproblems in planning and scheduling (pre- and post-

training activities, refresher and/or advancedself-development opportunities). Referenceseluded.

training,are in-

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MULLIGAN, J. KENNETH. Federal training movesahead. Civil service journal 7:4, April-June 1967.pp. 9-13.

The 1966 Presidential Task Force on CareerAdvancement analyzed federal employee training andrecommended changes. It was found that progress hasbeen made since the 1958 Government EmployeesTraining Act, but that improvement is still needed,especially in smaller agencies at the local level and in thefield. Training demands will be increased by newprograms, shifting occupational requirements, advancesin technology, and the 90,000 new employees hired eachyear. The need for training before assignment toleadership responsibilities is emphasized. ExecutiveOrder 11315 (1966) created the Executive AssignmentSystem. The President directed the Civil Service Com-mission to recommend to him a training program forcareer executives, including special training facilities.The Commission proposed establishment of full-timeresidential training for career executives. The Task Forceconcurred with this plan and recommended that agencyheads designate a high-ranking official to activate anexecutive development program and provide resources toimplement it. Executives, when trained, are to trainmanagers who will in turn provide more on-the-jobtraining and guidance for supervisors. Agencies are alsoto set up systems to review the needs of specialists,arrange for job rotation and inservice courses to meetsuch needs, and give the best experienced professionalsfull-time and residential training. Executive Order 11348(1967) sets government training policy and calls forleadership and guidance from the Civil Service Commis-sion. The Commission has established the Bureau ofTraining to plan and promote the development, improve-ment, and evaluation of training, and to provide consul-tation, assistance, and an information system on nation-wide federal training needs. Cooperation among agenciesand between agencies and the Commission will permitinteragency training efforts, thus lowering costs, im-proving quality, and reducing duplication. The TaskForce recommended that the agencies be required toprovide interagency training whenever it will save moneyor produce better service. The Task Force also recom-mended that agency heads clarify their policies todistinguish between education and training which shouldbe government conducted and that which should beprovided in universities at government expense. (351)

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MURDICK, ROBERT G. Measuring the profit in indus-try training programs; here are methods andexamples for calculating training profits. Journalof the American Society of Training Directors14:4, April 1960. pp. 23-29.

The article presents methods for calculating thedollar value of training, examines types of programs andtheir costs, and explains breakeven analysis. (USCSC 4,edited) (352)

ODIORNE, GEORGE S. Are training costs justified?Journal of the American Society of TrainingDirectors 8:4, July-August 1954. pp. 9-11,36-37.

Techniques for selling training programs on thebasis of cost are discussed. The author suggests findinggenuine training needs and situations where training willsolve production headaches and lower costs. (USCSC 4,edited) (353)

ODIORNE, GEORGE S. The need for an economicapproach to training. Training directors journal18:3, March 1964. pp. 3-12.

"A case for capital budgeting for investment inhuman capital" is presented, including a work sheet foreconomic classification of training programs and adiagram of economic measures of organization perfor-mance. Among the author's conclusions are warningsagainst tampering with managers' personalities and aboutapplication of behavioral science research in changingmanagement behavior. (USCSC 4, edited) (354)

ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATIONAND DEVELOPMENT. The employment ofolder workers (International seminars 1965-4;regional seminar, Heidelberg, 7th-9th December,1965; final report). Paris, 1966. 54 pp.

Practices in Germany, Austria, the Netherlands,Luxembourg and Switzerland are summarized, followedby discussions on adapting jobs to older workers andthen training them. (USCSC 4, edited) (355)

PRESIDENTIAL TASK FORCE ON CAREER AD-VANCEMENT. Investment for tomorrow. Wash-ington, D.C.: U.S. Civil Service Commission,1967.69 pp.

The President appointed a task force to reviewcritically the post-entry training and educational pro-grams for federal employees in professional, administra-tive, and technical occupations. He charged the members

with responsibility for recommending action that wouldexploit to the maximum the best methods for learningand for renewal in a time of changing technology. In asummary chapter, key recommendations and findings incertain areas are presented: government-wide policy;programs for managers; programs for specialists; inter-agency training; education; the Civil Service Commis-sion; and agency operations. Other chapters are entitled:Sharing an Investment; The Individual and the Organiza-tion; A Forecast; Development for Administration;Development for Specialization; Interagency Training;Education; Planning, Programming and Operating; Au-thority and' Responsibility (including an appendix indi-cating the pattern of responsibilities); and Next Steps.

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PRESIDENTIAL TASK FORCE ON CAREER AD-VANCEMENT. Self and service enrichmentthrough federal training: selections from studies,reports, and papers submitted to the PresidentialTask Force on Career Advancement (Annex tothe report of the Presidential Task Force onCareer Advancement). Washington, D.C.: U.S.Civil Service Commission, 1967.577 pp.

The Presidential Task Force on Career Advance-ment attempted to make its study of the best educationand training practices in industry, in the universities, andin other governments truly searching and constructive.Consultations, interviews, and correspondence providedbroad base information. Specific projects were set up.The Task Force also invited papers from outside thegovernment. The accumulated materials represent aninvaluable collection useful to people concerned withprofessional, administrative, and technical education andtraining. Significant selections are assembled in thisannex. Topics included are: (1) Change and Its Influenceon Training Needs; (2) A Philosophy for Training;(3) Training for Administration and Management;(4) Training for Specialization; (5) University Trainingand Education; (6) Interagency Training; (7) Govern-ment In-Service Training Centers; (8) The Problem ofEvaluation; (9) Experimentation and Innovation;(10) The Employee Development Officer; (11) The Mili-tary and Foreign Countries; and (12) Ari Overview ofFederal Training and Education. An appendix includescopies of the Government Employees Training Act of1958 (which provides the means for keeping keyemployees well abreast of scientific, professional, techni-cal, and management developments both in and out ofgovernment), and Executive Order 10800 (1959) whichimplements the 1958 Act. (357)

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PROCTOR, JOHN H. and WILLIAM M. THORNTON.Analyzing a training report. IN THEIR Training:a handbook for line managers. New York:American Management Association, 1961. pp.164-182.

Factors to be considered by the line managerwhen analyzing a training report are discussed: organiza-tion, clarity, units of measurement, adequacy of sampl-ing, cause and effect discussions, and novel or grandiosefindings. Statistical procedures used by training special-ists in reports are briefly explained (frequency distribu-tions, measures of central tendency, measures of varia-tion, comparable scores, correlation, expectancy charts,and measures of confidence). Results reported onindividuals who have completed training may be eval-uated by consideration of six areas briefly delineated atthe conclusion of the chapter. (358)

REITH, JOHN L. Organization of training. IN Craig,Robert L. and Lester R. Bittel (eds.). Trainingand development handbook. New York: Mc-Graw-Hill, 1967. pp.. 493-506.

Factors which affect the establishment of thetraining function, the growth of the training function,and resultant needs for organization, policies, andprocedures are discussed. Alternative organizationalstructures of a large training department are presented,and changes which take place in the training director'sjob as he becomes a line manager in his own right, withthe need for applying sound principles of management,are examined. Decentralized training, policy administra-tion, and the importance of long-range planning arereviewed. (359)

ROSE, HOMER C. Management functions in a trainingprogram. IN HIS The development and super-vision of training programs. Chicago: AmericanTechnical Society, 1964. pp. 74-104.

Management functions are completely integrated,and each affects the other. For purposes of clarification,specific aspects of the five major functions of manage-ment within a training program are discussed separately:planning, organizing, directing,' coordinating, and con-trolling. Illustrations and diagrams support the text.

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ROSE, HOMER C. Planning and directing the trainingprogram. IN HIS The development and super-vision of training programs. Chicago: AmericanTechnical Society, 1964. pp. 136-171.

In this chapter three major elements in planningand directing training programs (after the three aspects

of determining needs) are discussed in detail: assessingavailable training resources; planning detailed programsto develop required skills; and directing and evaluatingthe training program in operation. Training resources areconsidered under the headings of Staffing (instructorqualifications and loads); Budget (steps in preparationand guides to administration), and Training Materials. Achart relates resources (audiovisual aids) to instructionalmethods (lecture-discussion, demonstration, written ma-terials, application of tools and equipment) and studentactivities (listening, discussing, looking, manipulating,reading, working problems, designing, for example). Theimportance of a system of controls to insure againstduplication and omission and to facilitate proper empha-sis is discussed under Plan of Instruction. The need forspecific objectives is emphasized and examples of spe-cific objectives and performance standards are given.Several guides for curriculum development are discussedand a five-point review of the specific steps in developinga curriculum or lesson plan is presented. Three chartsillustrate the total process of developing courses ofinstruction, selecting and assigning students, providingtraining, evaluating students' progress, and making post-training job assignments. In the section entitled Direct-ing the Process of Training, attention is called to theneed for considering fundamentals of the learning-teaching process (covered in Part II of this book) and ofsound human relations, effective communication, andmanagement principles essential to the process of direct-ing (also discussed elsewhere). In this particular sectionthe following elements are added and discussed: theorientation of new instructors and staff members;aspects of evaluation which are an inherent part of thetraining program (student motivation, amount of stu-dent guidance, standards for student achievement, andevidence of creative effort); the supervisor's use of time;and general evaluation of the training supervisor (ordirector). A self-evaluation checklist considering plan-ning, personal relations, development of instructors,personal habits, and attitude is included, as well as atime analysis form listing methods for improving plan-ning and organizing, directing, evaluating, staff develop-ment, and self-development. (361)

ROSENBERGER, HOMER T. How to organize andadminister an employee training program. Wash-ington, D.C.: Society for Personnel Administra-tion, 1956. 35 pp.

The author discusses some goals that are basic indeveloping a large staff by means of training andattempts to assist executives and training directors toanticipate problems which occur frequently in planningand conducting employee training. (USCSC 4, edited)

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SERBEIN, OSCAR N. Educational activities of business.Washington, D.C.: American Council on Educa-tion, 1961. 180 pp.

A report is presented of a research projectconducted by the Graduate School of Business ofColumbia University to determine the extent, pattern,and content of the training and educational activitiesnow conducted within business organizations in theUnited States. Chapter titles describe the contents:(1) Contributions of Business to Education; (2) Admin-istrative Aspects of Educational Activities of Business;(3) Structure of Major In-Company Educational Pro-grams; (4) Examples of Major In-Company EducationalPrograms; (5) Other Educational Programs; (6) Out-of-Company Training; (7) A Case Study; (8) Business andthe Traditional System of Education. (363)

SHAFFER, DALE E. Control through measurement:meeting objectives as a means to justify training.Training directors journal 18:9, September 1964.pp. 39-50.

The activity of measurement as a managementcontrol device for use by the training director injustifying training programs (primarily existing programsrather than new ones) is discussed. The purpose of thearticle is to describe certain factors and methodsapplicable in the controlling of training programs and toshow how the results of effective measurement can beused to defend these programs. The following basicquestions about training programs are discussed first:(1) What are the specific objectives of the training?;(2) What changes in the individual is it designed to bringabout?; (3) How will these changes benefit the organiza-tion in both the short run and long run?; (4) Whatorganizational inefficiencies will occur if such training isnot given?; (5) What proof do you have that the trainingwill improve individuals and do the things you say it willdo?; (6) What evidence do you have that the results ofthe training will more than compensate for the costinvolved? The article concludes with a discussion ongathering information for control of training throughdevices to measure and to check on what is beingaccomplished. The topics discussed are: opinion as afactor of control, including sample questionnaires; andquiz results as a factor of control, including suggestedsteps for using tests: (1) establish specific changesdesired; (2) measure group knowledge and understandingat the start of training; (3) conduct training; (4) measureat the conclusion of training; (5) compare the results ofthe two measures. (364)

Should the training function be located within thepersonnel office, or should it report directly tomanagement? Personnel administration 24:4,July-August 1961. pp. 57-60.

Opinions from persons associated with govern-ment, industry, and a university are provided. (USCSC 4,edited) (365)

STATON, THOMAS F. Designing and administering atraining program. IN HIS How to instruct suc-cessfully: modern teaching methods in adulteducation. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1960. pp.267-286.

Types of training programs, how to determinethe type suited to the needs of a particular organization,and some guides for designing and administering trainingprograms are presented. Supervisor-conducted on-the-jobtraining programs, apprentice training programs, andtraining courses are covered; brief comments on follow-up training are included. Suggested readings are cited.

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TARAL, NICK L. Reference files for training directors:the fundamentals of organizing reference materi-als for training use. Training directors journal17:1, January 1963. pp. 14-19.

This is a step-by-step guide to reference filing.Major topic headings describe the contents: What Is aReference File?; Getting Started (six preliminary steps);Putting the Plan in Operation; The Filing System(creating your own system); Cross-Reference Filing;Filing the Material; Checking Materials In and Out;Filing Other Materials; Personnel Files; Conclusion.

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U. S. CIVIL SERVICE COMMISSION LIBRARY. Plan-ning, organizing, and evaluating training pro-grams (Personnel bibliography series no. 18).Washington, D.C.: The Library, January 1966.87 pp.

References are listed in this annotated bibliog-raphy under the following headings: Training Programsand Activities in the Federal Government; Philosophy,Policies, and Objectives of Training; Organization forTraining (qualifications, responsibilities and status of thetraining staff, and developing and evaluating the instruc-tor); Program Development and Implementation; Deter-mining Needs for Training; Evaluation of Training;Surveys of Training Programs and Activities in Businessand Industry; Training Programs and Activities in thePublic Service; Selected Research Studies on Training.

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U. S. MANPOWER ADMINISTRATION. The ManpowerDevelopment and Training Act; a review oftraining activities. Washington: U.S. Govt. Print.Office, 1967. 22 pp.

The booklet summarizes the history and accom-plishments of the Manpower Development and TrainingAct, including reference to related legislation, trainingresults, characteristics of MDTA trainees, new programs,and the outlook for the future. A bibliography listingmore detailed material is included. (USCSC 1, edited)

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WAGNER, ALAN B. A new pattern in employeedevelopment: participation at International Min-erals for organization development. Training anddevelopment journal 21:4, April 1967. pp.56-60.

A distinction is made between.training as it hastraditionally functioned and employee development as itis used in modern organizations. The responsibility ofthe employment development staff to act as internalconsultants, and hence as organizational change agents,is focused on. The employment development personnelare seen as working not only with individual needs butwith the climate in which the individuals function andthe organizational system. Through the establishment ofhelping relationships with key persons among manage-ment, the employment development staff is seen as(1) discovering the organization's objectives, its prob-lems, and the importance given to each problem;(2) determining individual needs for acquiring technicalknowledge and developing organizational skills; (3) col-laborating with the part of the organization affected todevelop a strategy for meeting individual needs simul-taneously with solving organizational problems; (4) pro-viding specific skill and management development pro-grams based on the strategy developed; and (5) using anorganizational problem-solving approach to follow upthe individual development programs. It is recommendedthat a problem-solving team be established to developproblem-solving strategies and implementation tech-niques and to reevaluate individual and organizationalneeds. The teams would be composed of a cross-sectionof the part of the organization affected, and anemployment development person would act only as aconsultant to the team. Such an approach would developin members of the organization the capacity to analyzetheir own problems and to design strategies to solvethem; it would also leave the employment developmentstaff free to create specific programs and to offerassistance to other parts of the organization. Thus, thetotal influence of employment development would bemultiplied. (370)

WALSH, JOHN. Legal aspects of training. IN Craig,Robert L. and Lester R. Bittel (eds.). Trainingand development handbook. New York: Mc-Graw-Hill, 1967. pp. 626-633.

Legal matters which the training director may becalled upon to understand because of his position as anadministrator of training activities are discussed in the

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areas of wages and hours, apprenticeship, federal traininglegislation, and reproducing copyrighted material. Alsocovered are company policy and union agreements. Thecontinued growth of training nationally and internation-ally will increase the amount of legislation pertaining toit. The training director is a logical person to helpfashion local and broad legislation within his specialfield. (371)

TRAINING DIRECTORROLE AND TRAINING

BELMAN, HARRY S. and JOHN E. BLIEK. The headof the training function. Training directors jour-nal 13:2, February 19A. pp. 42-53.

The activities, relationships, and responsibilitiesof the head of the training activity were analyzed byreplies to questionnaires. Titles assigned to the head oftraining are discussed: director, supervisor, manager, incharge of, and coordinator. The duties of the positionare defined: instruction, development and preparation ofprograms, training evaluation, advising, administration,general professional activities, and related and unrelatednontraining activities. Responses to questionnaires alsoshow that the duties shown in job descriptions do notreflect the total activities. The content of job descrip-tions should be examined. (372)

BROWN, DAVID S. Some vital new dimensions fortraining. Training and development journal 20:3,March 1966. pp. 21-27.

This paper underlines the important role of thetraining staff in complex organizations. The trainer isseen as an agent of change; this change is brought aboutin different ways, not only through the classroom orcareer-planning, but through the insight the trainer hasinto problems of organization and system. The trainermay be seen as a consultant to high-level management,an arranger for the consultation of others, and even as asystems analyst. He is also an important link in theinformation-giving process. (373)

CASSTEVENS, E. REBER. The training director's job.Training directors journal 19:7, July 1965. pp.18-20.

The job of the training director is changing. Itcalls for more managing and less practicing. The directornow should be ". . a change agent, a policy molder, aplanner, an effective management consultant." (USCSC4, edited) (374)

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CUNNINGHAM, J. W. Enlargement and professionaliza-tion of the training function. Journal of theAmerican Society of Training Directors 14:6,June 1960. pp. 11-15.

The article briefly reviews training history duringthe past 25 years and explains the increase in emphasison management training as being due to differentrequirements of management jobs on various levels anddynamic conditions of management jobs. It leads up tothe importance of the training director, his duties andresponsibilities, and stresses that he should "belong tomanagement." (USCSC 4, edited) (375)

DEVINE, DONALD W. The critical requirements oftraining directors (Doctoral dissertation). Phila-delphia: University of Pennsylvania, School ofEducation, 1962. 231 pp.

The purposes of this study were: (1) to deter-mine the nature of the effective and ineffective criticalbehaviors of training directors as reported by trainingdirectors and their superiors; and (2) to determine thecritical requirements for training directors as stated inbehavioral terms. Interviews were conducted with train-ing directors and their superiors in 92 business organiza-tions located in ten states. The method of research wasthe critical incident technique. Interview informationwas transferred from interview forms to analysis cardsand sorted according to effective or ineffective behav-iors. Thereafter, incidents were examined to insure thatthe necessary amount of detail had been given. Fourmajor areas of classification were inductively derivedfrom an analysis of the reported critical incidents. Theywere: (1) the training director and his relationship to hisstaff; (2) the training director and his relationship tomanagement; (3) the training director himself; and(4) the training director and his relationship to trainingprograms and trainees. In concluding, the author listsseveral implications of the study. (ASTD) (376)

DEVINE, DONALD W. What to look for in selecting atraining director.. Personnel 41:2, March-April1964. pp. 57-61.

The author draws a profile of the good trainingdirector and offers guidance on how to identify him.(USCSC 4, edited) (377)

GARDNER, NEELY D. Mr. Training directorhis job.Journal of the American Society of TrainingDirectors 14:8, August 1960. pp. 16-23.

The article examines ten propositions relating tothe training director's job which may be used to developa theory of training and provide a guide against whichthe training director can examine his activities. (USCSC3, edited) (378)

GILL, THOMAS W. The trainer as an administrator.Training and development journal 21:3, March1967. pp. 32-34.

The training director functions much like anadministrator. He is more interested in the growth andefficiency of the training office than in actually teach-ing. His functions are integrated; he (1) tries to assist indetermining training needs; (2) becomes involved incareer development; (3) meshes training with employ-ment; and (4) helps to establish the necessary proceduresto carry out the training policies. In administeringpolicies he must be open to new and must havethe courage to withhold promotions and to shift peopleon his staff. The most important thing he does is teach;he seldom teaches classes, but he will constantly beteaching by example. (379)

HURTADO, TOMAS L. P. What management expects oftraining advisors. Training directors journal 18:6,June 1964. pp. 29-31.

The article presents guidelines on what trainingdirectors should be, know, and do, and amplifies thesestatements by way of explanation. (USCSC 4, edited)

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IVANCEVICH, JOHN M. and JAMES H. DONNELLY.Steps toward professionalization of training di-rectors. Personnel journal 45:11, December1966. pp. 662-667.

Training directors must be able to evaluatetraining programs to ascertain whether they are achiev-ing their goals. The author discusses methods of improv-ing the knowledge or learning capacity of trainees. Healso reports on a preliminary survey of training directors'opinions about these methods. He finds that as far asknowledge is concerned, training directors have a fairlyaccurate picture of the most and least effective methodsof its acquisition. Further research is required, however.(USCSC 1, edited) (381)

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LERDA, LOUIS W. and LESLIE W. CROSS. Perfor-mance-oriented trainingprogram implementa-tion. Journal of the American Society of Train-ing Directors 16:6, June 1962. pp. 22-29.

The article discusses the role of the trainingdirector in obtaining the active support and participationof management in setting up a training program andpoints out specific areas of his responsibility: pilotgroups, training facilities and equipment, preparation ofleaders and instructors, coordination of training activi-ties, and application of newly acquired knowledge. Asample schedule for implementing a program is included.(USCSC 4, edited) (382)

LIVINGSTON, ROBERT T. New horizons for trainingdirectors. Journal of the American Society ofTraining Directors 14:3, March 1960. pp. 16-25.

The author sees the training job as a fourfoldprogram: training, educating, developing, and intercom-municating, with emphasis on the last, which the authorexamines and explains in greater detail. (USCSC 4,edited) c' (383)

LYNTON, ROLF P. and UDAI PAREEK. Research topromote training. IN THEIR Training for devel-opment. Homewood, Ill.: Richard D. Irwin, Inc.and The Dorsey Press, 1967. pp. 383-398.

The essential role of the professional trainer asaction researcher is discussed. A general treatment ofresearch, including action research, is followed byexamples of questions that trainers might study, groupedaccording to various phases of the training process. Somespecific steps for action are suggested. Two readings(reprinted) conclude the chapter: The Process of ActionResearch, by Udai Pareek and Adarsh Khanna; andWorkshop for Action Research Trainers, by Stephen M.Corey and Udai Pareek. (The latter contains a sampleagenda of an action research workshop for trainers.)

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MAGER, ROBERT F. The instructional technologist.Educational technology 7:9, May 15, 1967. pp.1-4.

A brief description of some of the techniquesand procedures which should be at the command of th.,instructional technologist are presented under the fol-lowing headings: (1) task analysis; (2) objectives specifi-cation; (3) target population specification; (4) criteriondevelopment; (5) process development; (6) material se-lection; (7) system improvement; (8) implementationanalysis; (9) change induction; (10) technologic1 ad-vancement; and (11) instructor training. (385)

PROCTOR, JOHN H. and WILLIAM M. THORNTON.Preparing a training program. IN THEIR Train-ing: a handbook for line managers. New York:American Management Association, 1961. pp.101-122.

The functions of the line manager in trainingadministration are discussed. Before preparing a trainingprogram, it must first be determined whether trainingwill solve a particular problem or problems. Steps inpreparing a training program are discussed: setting goalsand objectives; determining whether to use outsideagencies and facilities or developing in-company pro-grams by preparing a program syllabus; selecting meth-ods of instruction; selecting instructors; having instruc-tors prepare in-depth (lesson plans, selection of aids,rehearsals); and administering the program (schedulingequipment, space, and participants; measuring results;maintaining records; notifying participants of coursedetails; and attending kick-off meetings). The linemanager must also administer man-to-man or on-the-jobinstruction. (386)

REYNOLDS, HELEN EVANS, with JOHN C. DRAKE.Eight years as director of inservice education.Nursing outlook 11:2, February 1963. pp.98-101.

Ten principles around which an inservice pro-gram should be built, based on the author's experiencein administering such a program at Research Hospital inKansas City are: (1) know what the Department ofNursing is trying to do in your particular hospital;(2) make sure others in the department are clear on youraims and your place and function in the total scheme ofthings; (3) keep all courses up to the minute and retainno course or program unless current needs justify havingit; (4) base all programs on the needs as pointed up bythe supervisory personnel working with staff day by day;(5) relate your work to the specific needs of theindividuals in the department; (6) keep long-range aimsin front of you so that occasional short-range frustra-tions will not be too discouraging; (7) let evaluationserve you as a continuous belt in an assembly line,constantly checking and rechecking results; (8) learn tofind pleasure in the achievements of others; (9) be readyfor tomorrow while busy with today; (10) constantlyask yourself: am I contributing directly or indirectly tothe improvement of the care of the patients? (387)

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SILVERN, LEONARD C. Professionalization of train-ing . . . the MS in training administration. Journalof the American Society of Training Directors15:8, August 1961. pp. 29-32.

This is a proposal for development of an MSprogram in training administration. It includes an exam-ple of a curriculum for the degree program. (USCSC 4,edited) (388)

WHITLOCK, GERALD H. Trainer education and train-ing. IN Craig, Robert L. and Lester R. Bittel(eds.). Training and development handbook. NewYork: McGraw-Hill, 1967. pp. 527-555.

The purpose of the chapter is to delineate theapproximate boundaries of the training director's posi-tion and to provide a basis for building specificpreparatory education programs. Toward these ends, thefollowing approach is used: (1) a review of attempts todelineate the scope of the job of training director; (2) apresentation and discussion of data concerning theeducational background of training directors; (3) a dis-cussion of educational prerequisites for training jobs;(4) a discussion of the results of a study of the current

zf course offerings in the field of training byinstitutions of higher learning; and (5) a discussion ofinservice training and self-development. Various tablessupport the discussion. References are included. (389)

INSTRUCTORSSELECTION AND TRAINING

ADAMS, WILLIAM R., THOMAS HALE HAM, BETTYM. MAWARDI, HENRY A. SCALI and RUS-SELL WEISMAN, JR. Participation of cliniciansin a study of teaching. Journal of medicaleducation 42:3, March 1967. p. 274.

This abstract is a report of a study of fiveclinicians chosen at random to participate in a study ofmethods of teaching in a clinical clerkship. Eachparticipant observed and recorded the presentation tothe preceptor of the case, the visit with the patient, andthe discussion of diagnosis and treatment. Eight two-hour seminars were held to review and discuss theseobservations. One conclusion drawn was that a coursebased on a naturalistic study of teaching leads toincreased self-awareness about one's style of teachingand about specific needs of students. (390)

AMIDON, EDMUND J. and NED A. FLANDERS. Therole of the teacher in the classroom. Minneapolis,Minn.: Association for Productive Teaching,1967. 102 pp.

Designed for teachers and supervisors directlyinvolved in the teaching-learning process, this pamphletoutlines conditions and tools required for understandingand improving teacher behavior in the classroom. Theassumption is that a teacher can be helped to define hisown concept of desirable or ideal teacher behavior andmodify his behavior in the direction of that ideal.Chapters include: (1) Introduction; (2) Interaction Anal-ysis as a Feedback System; (3) Using and InterpretingInteraction Analysis; (4) Research on Teacher Behavior;and (5) Interaction Analysis and Behavior Change. Ref-erences are appended. Percentage tables are interspersedthroughout. This manual is part of a training kit forinteraction analysis (a system for observing and analyz-ing teacher behavior in the classroom for use inunderstanding and changing this behavior). The kitincludes: (1) training tapes which allow the listener to sitin on live classroom situations; (2) training tapes man-uals consisting of completed tallies of the taped exercisefor comparison, blank tally sheets, analysis of exercises,and 31 packets of extra tally sheets and matrix forms.The kit comes in two levels. The level II kit contains, inaddition to the items in the first kit, a Teaching PatternAnalysis Manual (which focuses on description, identifi-cation, and interpretation of teaching patterns); andtransparencies to be used with it are available. (391)

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AMIDON, EDMUND and ELIZABETH HUNTER.Improving teaching; the analysis of classroomverbal interaction. New York: Holt, Rinehart &Winston, 1967. 221 pp.

Teaching is an interactive process, pr;marilyinvolving classroom talk which takes place betweenteacher and pupils during certain definable teachingactivities: motivating, planning, informing, leading dis-cussions, disciplining, counseling, and evaluating. AVerbal Interaction Category System (VICS) divides talkaccording to whether it consists of presenting informa-tion, asking questions, acceptance of or rejection ofideas or feelings, giving directions, or silence. Thus, theVICS and the teaching activities are two separate anddistinct entities, both used to describe teaching. Thebook presents situations that involve classroom talkduring teaching activities (a chapter is devoted to each ofthe above seven kinds of activities), and the VICS is usedto analyze the teacher-pupil talk. Situations includeexperiences in kindergarten through the 9th grade. Eachsituation is accompanied by an analysis and a skillsession. The analyses examine the talk that takes place,and the skill sessions give readers an opportunity topractice various kinds of verbal behavior so that theymay be more capable of selecting appropriate verbalbehavior for each of the teaching activities. Selectedreferences are included, and the appendix presents indetail the Verbal Interaction Category System. (392)

BLYTH, JOHN W. and M. ALTER. How to improveyour supervisory training skills. New York: Ar-gyle Publishing Corporation, 1966. 262 pp.

This self-instructional, programmed courseteaches the improvement of training skills. Upon com-pletion of the program, the supervisor will be able toprepare for training, to train individuals, and to maintainperformance. Problems and examples in the courserequire the supervisor to make decisions based ontraining principles rather than on a detailed knowledgeof the specific training problem. The program is designedto be used for independent study or as supervisedtraining; a leader's guide is available for the latter use.Chapter titles are: Why Good Training Matters; WhatThis Course Is About; Preparing to Train; TrainingIndividuals; Establishing Behavior; and MaintainingBehavior. (393)

CLAROS, THOMAS S. Tailor-made training at little orno cost. Public personnel review 25:4, October1964. pp. 225-227.

This article is of interest to training directors orpersonnel officers who have limited funds for trainingtheir employees. The Training Division of the PersonnelDepartment of the State of Connecticut was able toprepare a training program for all supervisory personnelof the Office of Jail Administration at a minimum cost.Many experts from various state agencies participated asleaders in a training conference at no charge. As a result,supervisory personnel of the Office of Jail Administra-tion received valuable training even though funds werelimited. The author summed up some of the thingstraining directors or personnel officers can do in gettingexperts at no cost. (ASTD) (394)

DALY, ANDREW A. Selecting and organizing thetraining staff. IN Craig, Robert L. and Lester R.Bittel (eds.). Training and development hand-book. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967. pp.507-526.

A training director must develop a staff that willmeet the needs peculiar to his organization. To deter-mine those needs he should analyze the organization interms of its purpose, size, and structure; the number andcomplexity of its products; its level of technology; itspast and present personnel policies, particularly withregard to training; the education and past experience ofits employees; and the attitudes of its key executivestoward training. Once he knows the nature and needs ofthe organization, he can estimate the training staffrequired, define staff positions, decide how to makeoptimal use of his budget, recruit and select trainers, andplan their orientation to the organization. All of theabove aspects of developing a training staff are discussedin detail in the chapter. (395)

DePHILLIPS, FRANK A., WILLIAM M. BERLINER andJAMES J. CRIBBIN. Check list for trainer self-evaluation. IN THEIR Management of trainingprograms. Homewood, Ill.: Richard D. Irwin,1960. pp. 161-163.

A checklist of 42 questions is presented forsystematically analyzing training sessions in toto fromrecordings. Questions are arranged under the followingheadings: (I) Preparationcontent, the environment, thetrainees; (II) Presentationintroduction, session meth-odology, conclusion. (396)

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DOYLE, ROBERT J. Instant faculty for supervisorytraining: using line people as trainers in smallbusiness. Training and development journal 21:3,March 1966. pp. 50-53.

Suggestions are made for setting up a trainingprogram which uses people within the organization astrainers. Staff and line managers, as well as specialists,would be brought into the training conference to helpthe students and conference leaders to understand theirroles and the dependency of one role upon another.Program objectives would include acquainting line andstaff supervisors with other company operations in orderto improve internal communication, coordination, andprofessional develop rent. One of the biggest obstaclesin such a program is stage fright on the part of thenovice trainers. This problem could be alleviated by(1) conducting the conference as an interview, or(2) helping the reticent ones prepare support material inthe form of handouts or visual aids. (397)

ERIC CLEARINGHOUSE ON EDUCATIONAL MEDIAAND TECHNOLOGY. A basic reference shelf onthe new media and teacher training, by Henry T.Ingle. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Insti-tute for Communication Research, May 1968. 11pp.

This publication contains annotated referenceson 18 sources arranged under the following headings:References Related to Trends on Teacher Education,Characteristics of New Media in Education, Methodolog-ical Issues in Teacher Training and New Media Research,Periodicals on Teacher Education and/or InstructionalTechnology (9 periodicals listed and described). There isalso a list of 9 organizations and associations concernedwith teacher education and instructional technology.

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FOREMAN, WAYNE J. Management training in largecorporations. Training and development journal21:5,May 1967. pp. 11-17.

The training director can select the most compe-tent trainers available if he: (1) becomes familiar withthe educational journals which report research onteacher competence; (2) can get a copy of WisconsinStudies of the Measurement and Prediction of TeacherEffectiveness, by A. S. Barr, et aL, one of the bestsummaries of research on teacher competence; and(3) can use methods and findings of research on teachercompetence to set up his own research on trainercompetence. These findings of studies on teacher compe-tence can be used 'as hypotheses to test in the businesssetting; the methods and techniques of evaluatingteacher competence can be adapted to the industrialsituation. (399)

JUNKER, ELMER S. Hiring, training, and evaluation ofinstructors, and a method of equating salary withperformance. Training directors journal 18:4,April 1964. pp. 23-30.

Techniques practiced and forms used in theTechnical Training Department of the Military FieldService Division of the Burroughs Corporation in thehiring, training, and evaluation of instructors are dis-cussed. The basic technique involves ratings of instruc-tors by their supervisors. Three evaluation forms andtwo charts comparing instructor ratings and salaries areincluded. (400)

KERSH, BERT Y. Classroom simulation: A new dimen-sion in teacher education. Monmouth, Ore.:Oregon State System of Higher Education,Teaching Research, June 30,1963.101 pp.

A simulated classroom setup for preservice teach-ers can allow them to practice new behaviors withoutembarrassment or censure, to learn how it feels to be"tested" by students, to try different ways of handlingproblem situations, to experience bored and confusedexpressions of students, and to learn to shift from onetopic to another at appropriate times. Research has beenundertaken to develop the principles, procedures, andskills needed to produce classroom simulation materialsfor preservice education of elementary school teachers,to develop techniques to carry out the procedures, andto determine whether "realism" is needed in such asimulation. The theoretical framework, the developmentof the materials, and the experiment itself are described.Appendices describe simulation facility equipment andcontrols, orientation materials, and Program I, Scriptsand Rating Standards. A bibliography is appended.

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KING, DAVID. Selection and training of instructionstaff. IN HIS Training within the organization.Chicago: Educational Methods, 1964. pp.173-181.

The subject is discussed under four headings:(1) Training of Line Managers in Instruction (the wayline managers can acquire a knowledge of the analysis ofskill, the design of training exercises, the setting oftraining targets, and the recording of performance);(2) Selection of a Training Officer (What are therequirements of the job?, What are the requirements ofthe person?, How will the post be advertised?, Whatselection procedures will be suitable?, How will theappointment be confirmed?); (3) Training a TrainingOfficer (What additional specialist knowledge of trainingis required?, What does the person need to know aboutthe company itself?); (4) Selection and Training ofInstructors (selection of instructors, training of instruc-

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tors, instructing techniques, and skills and content of thework to be taught). (402)

LYSAUGHT, JEROME P. A survey of industrial train-ing-for-trainers. Training directors journal 18:1,January 1964. pp. 3-11.

Results of a survey of seventeen major corpora-tions on selection, training, and evaluation of trainers arereported. (USCSC 4, edited) (403)

McMAHAN, MARIE. Teacher education and media.Audiovisual instruction 11:6, June-July 1966.pp. 447-449.

The problem of teacher education in media iscurrently compounded by numerous factors. The pur-pose of the Association of Organizations for TeacherEducation (AOTE) formed in 1960 by the AmericanAssociation of Colleges for Teacher Education is tocoordinate similar efforts of teacher-education organiza-tions so that their common objectives may be more fullyrealized and to facilitate cooperative and joint undertak-ings. A report being proposed by the Teacher Competen-cies Study will deal with the following broad areas ofcompetency in the media field: (1) theory, (2) messagedesign, and (3) skill area. Other developments andcontributions indicate a concern for improved efforts atteacher education in audiovisual media. (404)

.McMAHON, ERNEST E. University policies and trainingproblems. Training and development journal20:5, May 1966. pp. 30-33.

Some of the reasons friction may arise whentraining directors attempt to arrange courses throughuniversities are explained. Problems discussed includeorganization, costs, instruction, residence and meals,materials, faculty, workload, the big name, and thepart-time teacher. (405)

MICHIGAN UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF EDUCATION.Helping teachers change their behavior. AnnArbor, Mich.: The University, 1963.163 pp.

This publication describes an inservice trainingproject which uses sound filmstrips, interaction analysis,and self-directed experimentation. (USCSC 4, edited)

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MUNIZ, PETER. Empathy training for the managementdevelopment trainer. Training and developmentjournal 21:10, October 1967. pp. 24-28.

The technical trainer obtains his knowledge frombooks and other reference sources; the managementtrainer needs exposure as a supervisor before he candevelop empathy for his supervisor-trainees. The closer atrainer gets to "sensitivity"-based training, the greaterthe need for him to fulfill a tour of duty as a supervisor.Only as a supervisor can the trainer experience thesatisfaction, anxieties, frustrations, and problems ofleadership. The need for this type of experience is notstressed enough. Environmental factors which affect thesuccess of management development efforts are leader-ship climate, organizational climate, aril organizati ,nalculture. (407)

NATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR PUBLIC SCHOOLADULT EDUCATION. Adult basic education, aguide for teachers and teacher trainers. Wash-ington, D.C.: NAPSAE, April 1967. 212 pp.

A teacher training manual developed in threeadult basic education workshops sponsored by theNational Association for Public School Adult Education(NAPSAE) outlines a scheme applicable both to traineesand to their disadvantaged clientele. Teacher trainingmethods include role playing, talks by experts, demon-strations and exhibitions, field trips, films, small groupdiscussion, work groups, and individual study. The adultbasic curriculum includes re-ling skills, language arts,and concepts in mathematics, citizenship, family andcommunity life, and adjustment to the working world.To cope with such problems as low student motivationand self-image, economic and cultural deprivation, fearand hostility, and values and behavior at variance withmiddle-class and upper-class norms, the teacher needsabove-average resourcefulness and human understandingand must develop skill in selecting and using printedmaterials (notably the major sequential literacy sys-tems), audiovisual aids, classroom techniques, counselingactivities, and standardized tests. In working withnon-English-speaking adults, oral teaching should bestressed. (The document includes a sample one-weektraining session, evaluation sheets and other forms,suggested activities and resources, six appendixes, andnumerous references.) (ERIC 4) (408)

POPHAM, W. JAMES. Instructional product develop-ment: two approaches to training. AV communi-cation review 15:4, Winter 1967. pp. 402-411.

This article examines the instructional productdevelopment process and two divergent approaches tothe training of personnel competent to engage in thatprocess. An instructional product consists of any set of

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replicable instructional events which produce a con-sistent effect upon the intended learners. Among theseveral forces which have contributed to the recentattention given instructional product development arethe impact of the programmed instruction movement,the increased financial input into education on the partof the federal government, and a growing impatience onthe part of educational researchers and teachers with theimpact of their contributions on the field of education.Many organizations committed to the development ofinstructional products are forced either to postponetheir activities or to accept untrained personnel. Twodifferent approaches to training product developers aredescribed. The first is extended graduate-level trainingoccurring in a university setting; the second is acompressed program more suitable for on-the-job train-ing and takes place in a nonuniversity environment.

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ROMOSER, DAVID RICHARD CHARLES. Change inattitude and perception in teacher-educationstudents associated with instruction in inter-action analysis. Dissertation abstracts, vol. 25,1965. pp. 5770-5771.

The purpose of this study was to determinewhether three class periods of instruction in Flanders'System of Interaction Analysis (FSIA) would lead tochanges in attitude and in descriptions of a modelteacher. Factor analyses of the intercorrelations betweenthe various test scores revealed some interesting relation-ships. Permissive tolerance of non-conformity in childrenand favored leniency in the control of children wasrelated to radicalism, self-sufficiency, more ability,dislike for definiteness, and a slight tendency towardsdominance and reserve. Another pattern related strongersuperego, integration (adjustment), planful persistence,desire for definiteness and punitive intolerance ofnon-conformity in children. Scores describing the modelteacher as "ideal," "friendly," "motivating," and "self-assured" were associated with stronger superego, lessverbal ability, and approval of tolerance and leniency.This study demonstrated that three days' instruction inFSIA could change the attitudes of teacher-educationstudents toward lenient tolerance although it did notchange their perceptions of a model teacher. (410)

ROSE, HOMER C. Instructor training. IN HIS Thedevelopment and supervision of training pro-grams. Chicago: American Technical Society,1964. pp. 172-203.

Brief histories of several instructor training pro-grams in the Armed Forces and federal agencies arepresented to illustrate principles and concepts of value indeveloping instructors. The relative importance of thetwo aspects of instruction (content knowledge or skills,

and teaching competency) depends on the difficulty andlevel of the subject to be taught; the aptitude, age andability of students; and objectives of the course. Asimple analysis of the instructor's job is presented as thebasis for discussion of qualifications of instructor train-ers and instructor training curriculums (several sampleagendas are included). Specific aspects of pre-courseinstruction, evaluating student instructor progress, andfollow-up are discussed. Two examples of evaluationguides to be used in instructor training and 9 specificprocedures for evaluating the instructional process arepresented. (411)

SARASON, SEYMOUR B., KENNETH S. DAVIDSONand BURTON BLATT. The preparation of teach-ers. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1962. 124pp.

Two conclusions evolved from studies of elemen-tary teachers and their classes: (1) most teachers teach ina way that reflects the concept that education consistsprimarily of what we put into children rather than whatwe can get out of them; and (2) teacher-training pro-grams reinforce this conception. Remedies for this arerecommended. Chapters include: (1) Statement of theProblem, (2) The Current Controversy, (3) A ClassroomDay, (4) The Teacher as Observer: A Description of anObservational Seminar, (5) Implications and Recommen-dations, and (6) Some Final Comments. (412)

SCHUTTENBERG, ERNEST M. Yes, trainers can beresponsible for their own learning. Training inbusiness and industry 4:9, September 1967. pp.24-26.

An experiment in non-directive learning was heldwith a five-day twelve-man class in instructor training atAmerican Airlines. The final examination was dis-continued, the instructor presented himself as a co-learn-er rather than an authority figure, and the staffpresented its material as ideas for the students to use insolving their professional problems rather than as rulesto be followed slavishly. Most of the trainees' work wasdone alone or in pairs; however, there were also groupprojects, lectures, demonstrations, workshops, and dis-cussions. Each trainee gave two sample lessons duringthe last two days of the course, the quality of whichdemonstrated that the course's objectives had beenfulfilled. Conclusions were that instructor-trainees canoften learn more from each other than from a so-calledauthority, emotions are as important to significantlearning as are concepts and skills, and people will acceptthe responsibility for their own learning. (413)

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STATON, THOMAS F. Broadening your qualificationsas an instructor. IN HIS How to instruct success-fully: modern teaching methods in adult educa-tion. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1960. pp.252-266.

The best instruction occurs when an instructor isallowed the freedom of method and technique to leavethe imprint of his particular personality and talent on histeaching, but an instructor must also have certainwell-defined abilities, usually attainable only by disci-plined study and practice, in order to do the bestteaching of which he is capable. Areas in which theinstructor can study and practice in order to improve thequality of his teaching are discussed: knowledge ofpsychology; knowledge of the field of education (adulteducation, technical education, educational methods,evaluation, speech and language). Suggested readings arecited. (414)

TEXAS UNIVERSITY. DIVISION OF EXTENSION.INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION DEPARTMENT.The preparation of occupational instructors: asuggested course guide. Washington: U.S. Govt.Print. Office, 1965. 176 pp.

This manual contains lesson plans, guides, andhandout sheets required by a teacher trainer to teach abasic course in training techniques for the occupationalinstructor who must begin his assignment with aminimum of preparation. Following accepted trainingprinciples, the course provides an opportunity for eachprospective occupational instructor to present a demon-stration lesson and to benefit from evaluation of hisperformance. Four-step lessons on specific subjects arealternated with the teaching demonstrations, permittingthe occupational instructors to apply what they havelearned as the course proceeds. If a recommended classsize of 10 is maintained, the course should require 20hours, including approximately 30 minutes for onedemonstration lesson by each occupational instructor.

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TRACEY, WILLIAM R. Do instructors need first-handrating? Training in business and ...industry 2:3,May-June 1965. pp. 26-32.

According to this author, one of the mostimportant services a supervisor can provide an instructoris evaluation, the fundamental purpose of which is toimprove instruction. Classroom visitation a supervisorytechnique which is now in its demise, is emphasizedbecause it allows the supervisor to evaluate directly,identify needs, and plan and implement a program forimprovement. Several agreed-upon principles of evalua-tion are listed, procedures for classroom visitation aredelineated, and the followup conference is discussed.

Also included is a rating scale, "Guide to the Evaluationof InstructionRating Standards for Lecture, Demon-stration and Conference," which contains specific ob-servable items necessary for valid evaluation. (ASTD)

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TRADE AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION SERVICE.Instructor training for supervisory personnel;leaders manual. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio StateUniversity, College of Education, InstructionalMaterials Laboratory, Trade and Industrial Edu-cation Service, 1955.109 pp. + appendix.

Instruction plans, student handouts and illustra-tive charts for a complete course are presented. Thecourse consists of 12 units of instruction to be coveredin approximately 15 clock hours, with no more than 10learners enrolled. The stated basic objectives are: (1) toprovide the future tradesman-instructor with an ap-proved method of instruction based on the laws oflearning which will enable him to teach others therelated technology or the manipulative skills of his trade;and (2) to build a corps of qualified, trained instructorsfor trade, public service, and industrial occupations inthe adult training field. The first two units deal withbackground material and present an overview of thecourse, explain its rationale, demonstrate faulty andcorrect teaching methods, and discuss the preparation oflesson plans. The remaining 10 units are each dividedinto two parts, the first of which is devoted to a practiceinstruction demonstration lesson of how to teach alesson, a job and/or operation. This is organized andpresented by a member of the group, followed by groupevaluation and criticism. The second part of each unit isused by the instructor-trainer in presenting new phasesof instruction that are vital to the member's success asan instructor. Topics covered are: the instructor'spersonal qualities, the proper seating or positioning ofgroups assembled for instruction, the use of oralquestions in teaching, group and individual instruction,teaching aids, instruction sheets, the instructor as man-ager, the evaluation of teaching success. The appendixincludes: Hints and Suggestions to the Instructor Trainerfor the Improvement of the Instructor Training Course,19 handouts, and 9 charts. Student handouts andinstructional aids are available from the publisher inseparate folders. (417)

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VONTRESS, CLEMMONT E. In-service training sugges-tions for teachers of adults. Adult leadership8:10, April 1960. pp. 291-292,304-305.

After a brief discussion of adults as students andof adult instructor qualifications, suggestions are offeredfor inservice training of adult instructors. Assistanceshould be given the new instructor in principles ofteaching, record keeping, selecting and using instruc-tional material, and managing students. Methods sug-gested include tutorial conferences between the newinstructor and the supervisor (with coaching on develop-ment of lesson plans); observation of experiencedinstructors; all-school or all-department conferences; acommittee to arrange introductions and orientation fornew instructors; special bulletins, handbooks, and a staffmanual; access to the supervisor as needed; a profes-sional library; a directed reading program; and home-study courses. (418)

WARFIELD, J. W. Preparing personnel for instructionalTV. Audiovisual instruction 10:7, September1965. pp. 561-563.

An experiment was conducted in Las Vegas,Nevada, during which the author taught an eight-weekcourse on the utilization of radio-TV in audiovisualeducation at the Nevada Southern University. Thepurpose of the course was to provide understanding ofinstructional television and to allow for development ofsufficient skills to produce actual course segments. Thethirty participating teachers overcame their lack ofexperience in audiovisual education and produced asuccessful series of course segments within five weeks.While it should not be construed as the panacea for allinstructional television training, the experiment at LasVegas can serve as a very useful guideline. (ASTD) (419)

RESEARCH

BARNES, FRED P. Research for the practitioner ineducation. Washington, D.C.: National EducationAssociation, Department of Elementary SchoolPrincipals, 1964. 141 pp.

The book is intended primarily for administra-tors and teachers in elementary schools but is alsodesigned for use by future teachers and professors ineducation. It is meant to bridge the gap between theneed for research in schools and workable approaches toaccomplishing that research in reality. Chapter titlesindicate contents: (1) The Search for Knowledge (alter-native sources of knowledge); (2) The Research Process(characteristics of experimental research, two ways ofreasoning, seven steps in the research process); (3) Prob-lems and Hypotheses (researchable problems, develop-ment of hypotheses); (4) Populations and Samples (se-lecting a representative sample, special problems inschools); (5) Vaiiables and Probability (independent anddependent variables, statistical tests of probability, anillustration); (6) Designs and Decisions ("before-after"study with control groups, "after-only" study withcontrol group, "before-after" study with single group,"after-only" study without controls, ex post factoexperiment); (7) Analysis and Statistics (nonparametricand parametric methods, measurement scales, statingand evaluating the null hypothesis); (8) Statistical Tests;(9) Reporting Results; (10) The Research Literature(books, encyclopedias, literature guides, abstracting andindexing journals, review journals, research journals,general journals also containing research projects, mono-graphs); and (11) Staff Training and Follow-up (someexperiments in research training, planning for localresearch training). (420)

BLOOM, BENJAMIN S. Twenty-five years of educa-tional research. American educational researchjournal 3:3, May 1966. pp. 211-221.

Education has made significant contributions toresearch methods, especially in the use of statistics,computers, mapping of human characteristics, testing,and instructional procedures. Contributions that havechanged our thinking about education and learninginclude studies on: (1) the development of the individ-ual, by E. Erickson, A. Gesell, R. Havighurst, J. Piajet,Howard Growth Study, Berkeley Growth Study, Oak-land Growth Study, ind the Fels Institute); (2) effectsof environment (parents as models, by J. W. Douglas and

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J. Floud; teaching style of mothers, by R. Hess and S.Stodolsky; language learning in the home, by B. Bern-stein, D. McCarthy, and L. Vigotsky; effect of earlyenvironment on conceptual development and intelli-gence, by M. Deutsch, A. Jensen, J. McV. Hunt and R.Wolf; effects of parents and the home on attitudeformation in relation to the schools, by J. A. Kahl, D.McClelland, and S. Smilansky; peer group environment,by J. S. Coleman); (3) predictability of human character-istics, by A. Payne, F. Peters, and L. Tucker; (4) modi-fiability of human characteristics, by K. Kirk, S. Gray,M. Deutsch and M. Smilansky; (5) teaching methods andinstructional strategies (models by J. Carroll, J. Guntherand L. Siegel; dialectic approaches, by P. Dressel, H. M.Chauson, E. M. Glaser and R. Suchman); (6) effect ofindividual differences in learners, by T. M. Newcomb, N.Sanford, S. B. Sarason, G. G. Stern; independence vs.dependence in learners, by C. Houle, C. McCollough,W. J. McKeachie, H. Tilden, and E. L. Van Atta;(7) principles of learning, by J. S. Bruner, J. Dollard, E.Hilgard, N. E. Miller, B. F. Skinner, and R. W. White;and (8) sequence in learning, by N. A. Crowder, R. M.Gagne, and B. F. Skinner. A "strong inference" researchstrategy, important in education, would include a clearmap of the present state of the field, rapid communica-tion among researchers, a search for better ways ofasking questions and for research procedures that yieldclearer and more definitive results. Such a stronginference strategy would reduce the amount of redun-dant research, emphasize the research problems ofeducation rather than the methods of research, andnurture a rapid series of fundamental discoveries. (421)

BRUNNER, EDMUND de S., DAVID S. WILDER,CORRINE KIRCHNER and JOHN S.NEWBERRY, JR. (eds.). An overview of adulteducation research. Chicago: Adult EducationAssociation of the U.S.A., 1959. 274 pp.

The Bureau of Applied Research, ColumbiaUniversity, under the auspices of the Adult EducationAssociation, surveyed research in nonvociational adulteducation. After a general introduction, a major part ofthe report is given to matters pertaining to the educatee,such as learning, interests, participation, and motivation.The next major section is given to matters pertaining tothe educator; organization, program building, methodsand techniques, and the role of groups in adult educa-tion are discussed. A brief final section is on concerns

about education as such, chiefly in terms of evaluation.Suggestions about needed research are included in eachchapter. Chapter titles are: An Overview of AdultEducation Research; Adult Learning; Motivation toLearn; Attitudes; Adult Interests and Education; Partici-pants and Participation in Adult Education; Organiza-tion and Administration of Adult Education; Programsand Program Planning; Methods and Techniques in AdultEducation; The Use of Discussion; Leaders and Leader-ship: Lay and Professional; Group Research and AdultEducation; The Community and Its Institutions in AdultEducation; and Problems of Evaluation Research. Anindex is included. (422)

CAMPBELL, DONALD T. and JULIAN C. STANLEY.Experimental and quasi-experimental designs forresearch on teaching. IN Gage, N. L. (ed.).Handbook of research on teaching. Chicago:Rand McNally, 1963. pp. 171-246.

The experiment is considered "the only meansfor settling disputes regarding educational practice, theonly way of verifying educational improvements, andthe only way of establishing a cumulative tradition inwhich improvements can be introduced without thedanger of a faddish disregard of old wisdom in favor ofinferior novelties." The author's concern with experi-mental design is in the collection of data to control oreliminate factors that would lead to erroneous infer-ences. Sixteen designs are described, and the validity ofeach is examined against 12 factors that can jeopardizethe validity of inferences. There are 143 references.

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GAGE, N. L. (ed.). Handbook of research on teaching.Chicago: Rand. McNally, 1963. 1218 pp.

The two purposes of this handbook are: (1) tosummarize, critically analyze, and integrate the body ofpast research on teaching; and (2) to bring research onteaching into more fruitful contact with the behavioralsciences. Intended audiences are students (graduate andundergraduate) preparing to do research on teaching.Among others who the editor says may find the bookuseful are training specialists in industry and the ArmedForces. Four major divisions and selected chapterheadings are: Part I, Theoretical OrientationHistoricExamples of Teaching Method, by Harry S. Broudy;Logic and Scientific Method in Research on Teaching,by May Brodbeck; Paradigms for Research on Teaching,by N. L. Gage; Part II, Methodologies in Research onTeachingStatistics as an Aspect of Scientific Method inResearch on Teaching, by Maurice M. Tatsuoka andDavid V. Tiedeman; Experimental and Quasi-Experimen-tal Designs for Research on Teaching, by Donald T.Campbell and Julian C. Stanley; Measuring ClassroomBehavior by Systematic Observation, by Donald M.

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Medley and Harold E. Mitzel; Rating Methods inResearch on Teaching, by H. H. Remmers; TestingCognitive Ability and Achievement, by Benjamin S.Bloom; Measuring Noncognitive Variables in Researchon Teaching, by George G. Stern; Part III, MajorVariables and Areas of Research on TeachingAnalysisand Investigation of Teaching Methods, by Norman E.Wallen and Robert M. W. Travers; The Teacher's Person-ality and Characteristics, by J. W. Getzels and P. W.Jackson; Instruments and Media of Instruction, by A. A.Lumsdaine; Social Interaction in the Classroom; by JohnWithall and W. W. Lewis; The Social Background ofTeaching, by W. W. Charters, Jr.; Part IV, Research onTeaching Various Grade Levels and Subject Matters(including Research on Teaching at the College andUniversity Levels, by W. J. McKeachie). There arebibliographies at the end of each chapter. A name andsubject index is included. (424)

GAGE, N. L. Paradigms for research on teaching. IN HISHandbook of research on teaching. Chicago:Rand McNally, 1963. pp. 94-141.

This chapter displays some of the forms thattheoretical work has taken in research on teaching. Inthe first section, the nature of paradigms as workingtools in behavioral research, the place of research onteaching in the whole realm of educational research, andthe ways in which theorizing fits into the actual workingbehavior of behavioral scientists are considered. In thesecond section, a few paradigms in fields other thanresearch on teaching are considered for their illustrativevalue. (Some fields are psychopathology, administrativebehavior, and group dynamics.) In the third section,paradigms designed explicitly for research on teachingare described, and their implications are examined. Thelast section considers the possibility of developing atheory of teaching. References are included. (425)

GLASER, ROBERT (ed.). Training research and educa-tion. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press,1962. 592 pp.

Leading men in training research explore theimplications of psychological research for training andeducation under the following titles: (1) Psychology andInstructional Technology, by Robert Glaser; (2) Analysisand Specifications of Behavior for Training, by RobertB. Miller; (3) The Design of Correlational Studies inTraining, by Philip H. Dubois; (4) The Prediction ofSuccess in Intensive Foreign Language Training, by JohnB. Carroll; (5) The Description and Prediction of Percep-tual-Motor Skill Learning, by Edwin A. Fleishman;(6) Factors in Complex Skill Training, by Paul M. Fitts;(7) Skilled Performance and Conditions of Stress, byJames Deese; (8) Simulators, '1y Robert M. Gagne;(9) Instructional Materials and Devices, by Arthur A.

Lumsdaine; (10) The Training of Electronic MaintenanceTechnicians, by Glenn L. Bryan; (i 1) Proficiency Testsfor Training Evaluation, by Norman Frederiksen;(12) On-the-Job and Operational Criteria, by Clark L.Wilson; (13) Experimental Study of Team Training andTeam Functioning, by Murray Glanzer; (14) Exercisingthe Executive Decision-Making Function in Large Sys-tems, by Launor Carter; (15) Recent Developments inTraining Problems, by Alfred F. Smode; (16) IdentifyingTraining Needs and Translating Them into ResearchRequirements, by Theodore Valiance and MeredithCrawford; (17) A Study of the Relationship of Psycho-logical Research to Educational Practice, by RobertM. W. Travers; and (18) A Structure for a CoordinatedResearch and Development Laboratory, by Thomas F.Gilbert. References follow each chapter. There is anindex. (426)

HARRIS, CHESTER W. (ed.). Encyclopedia of educa-tional research. 3rd edition. New York: Macmil-lan, 1960. 1564 pp.

This indexed encyclopedia serves the purpose ofcritically evaluating, synthesizing, and interpreting stud-ies in education and related fields. Among types ofarticles included in this volume are those dealing withhuman development, those treating learning and itsmany related topics, those dealing with the milieu andits effects on or relations to variotr aspects of humanbehavior, and those describing they, rticular character-istics of groups of persons (such as physically handi-capped). Other sets of articles follow: (1) institutionali-zation of education, dealing with such topics as therelation of church and state, the character of thecommunity and of the family, and the dimensions ofpopulation change; (2) historical studies of education;(3) philosophy of education; (4) functions or majortasks of education, such as administration, curriculum,counseling, instruction, and evaluation; (5) various levelsof education; and (6) methods of research. Articles arelisted alphabetically in the front of the volume. Refer-ences are included after each article. (427)

HAUSDORFF, HENRY (ed.). American EducationalResearch Association paper abstracts (paper ses-sions of the 1968 annual meeting). Washington,D.C.: American Educational Research Associa-tion, 1968. 374 pp.

Abstracts of approximately 400 papers on allaspects of educational research by various members andinvited guests of the Association are presented. Thefollowing sampling of topics indicates the content:organizational theory and administrative behavior; re-search on classroom behavior; supervisory behavior andteacher motivation; verbal behavior; group character-istics; concept learning; decision-making and planning in

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educational organization; experimental design; curric-ulum development; development of educational measur-ing instruments; psycho-social development; variablesrelated to educational outcomes; empirical test research;studies of learning environments; curriculum evaluation;evaluation of teaching strategies; dimensions of individ-ual differences; learning and individual differences;programmed instruction; measurement of complex intel-lectual processes; micro-teaching; prediction of academicsuccess; special problems in administrative march;problem-solving and thinking; reinforcement; researchon special groups; statistical techniques; techniques forinterpretation of results; and research on testing. Anindex by topic and an index of participants are included.

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KOMOSKI, P. KENNETH. Assessing educational tech-nology. Educational technology 6:2, October 30,1966. pp. 1-6.

Particular strengths and weaknesses in devices ofeducational technology are pointed out. The first sourceof both strength and weakness is the research base fromwhich instructional programming has emerged. Corpora-tions, including IBM, GE, Westinghouse, RCA, CBC,Xerox, and the new industry they comprise, representthe second source of strength and weakness within thenew educational technology. Research is needed ontechniques to enaLle educators and producers of educa-tional materials to state instructional objectives in a waythat would increase the possibility that the new tech-nology can help learners achieve these objectives. (429)

MILLER, DELBERT. Handbook of research design andsocial measurement. New York: David McKayCompany, 1964. 332 pp.

The purpose of the book is to assist the socialscience researcher in finding information he needsquickly and in brief form when he is designing andconducting research. Guides are provided to accompanymost of the following stages of research design: (1) selec-tion and definition of a sociological problem; (2) de-scription of the relationship of the problem to atheoretical framework; (3) formulation of workinghypothesis; (4) design of the experiment or inquiry;(5) sampling procedures; (6) establishment of methodsof gathering data; (7) preparation of a working guide;(8) analysis of results; (9) interpretation of results; and(10) publication or reporting of results. Part and chaptertitles are: Part I, General Description of the Guide toResearch Design and Sampling(1) An Outline Guidefor the Design of a Social Research Problem; (2) AGeneral Statement to Guide the Basic Researcher in theFormulation of Research Problems; (3) The Bearing ofSociological Theory on Empirical Research; (4) Criteriafor Judging Useful Hypotheses; (5) Some Observations

on Study Design; (6) On the Decisions in VerificationalStudies; (7) General Considerations of Research Design;(8) The Shaping of Research Design in Large-ScaleGroup Research; (9) The Sampling Chart; and (10) ASelected Bibliography on Research Design; Part II,Guides to Statistical Analysis(1) The ImpertinentQuestioner: The Scientist's Guide to the Statistician'sMind; (2) A Note on Statistical Analysis in the AmericanSociological Review; (3) The Idea of Property-Space inSocial Research; (4) Summary of Common MeasuresAssociation; (5) Four Levels of Measurement and theStatistics Appropriate to Each Level; (6) NonparametricStatistical Tests Appropriate to Various Types of Scales;(7) Computation Guides; (8) A Bibliography of Statisti-cal Guides; and (9) A Specialized Bibliographic Sectionfor the Advanced Student; Part III, Selected SociometricScales and IndexesSection A, Social Status (6 entries);Section B, Group Structure and Dynamics (5 entries);Section C, Morale and Job Satisfaction (5 entries);Section D, Community (4 entries); Section E, SocialParticipation (5 entries); Section F, Leadership in theWork Organizations (3 entries); Section G, ImportantAttitude Scales (6 entries); Section H, Family andMarriage (1 entry); Section I, Personality Measurement(2 entries); and Section J, An Inventory of MeasuresUtilized in the American Sociological Review During1951-1960; Part IV, Research Costing and Reporting(1) Guide to Research Costing; (2) Specifications forSociological Report Writing; (3) Form for SociologicalReport Writing. (430)

Research and investigations in adult education, compiledby ERIC Clearinghouse in Adult Education,Roger DeCrow, Director. Adult education 18:4,Summer 1967. pp. 195-260.

This review contains 177 reports of researchcompleted since the last annual review in 1966. Reportsof research in progress are not included. Major categoriesof research are as follows: Learning Related to Abilities,Interests, Motives; Organization and Administration ofPrograms; Learning Environments and Formats; Methodsand Techniques; Adult Education Personnel; Educationof Clientele Groups; and Institutional Sponsors of AdultEducation. An author index is included. (431)

Research: the expanding concept (entire issue). Theoryinto practice 6:2, April 1967.

Nine related essays are presented: (1) A TrendThat Is Questionable, by Willavine Wolf (Recent trendsin educational research funding point to a playing downof basic research, and argument is made that both basicresearch and applied research may be equally valuable inthe long run and that equal support should be expendedon a continuous basis for both); (2) The ExpandingConcept of Research, by Egon G. Guba (Not only have

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the size and resources of educational research changedmarkedly, but the concept inself has undergone signifi-cant change. The shortcomings of traditional methods,definition of new roles, and trends toward more rigorousanalysis and definition of the research process arediscussed); (3) Experimentation in Education, by JulianC. Stanley (Experimental design procedures are dis-cussed along with a brief historical overview. Twoexamples are presented); The Value of Field Studies inEducation, by Sidney E. Eboch (The need for informa-tion on which to base decisions about adoption orrejection of results of field studies research is discussed.An example is given of how research can guide practice);(5) Developing the "D" in Educational R&D, by RichardE. Schutz (The reasons for lack of attention to develop-ment in the practical application of research anddevelopment and suggestions for remedying the situationare discussed); (6) ERIC and Dissemination of ResearchFindings, by Lee G. Burchinal (The makeup andrationale of the Educational Resources InformationCenter (ERIC) are examined); (7) Effective CurriculumChange Through Research, by Frank J. Zidonis (Theproblems of curriculum reform are discussed and anillustration of the utilization of research is presented);(8) Emerging Institutions Related to Research, by How-ard V. Hjelm (Historical and current overviews ofeducational research bureaus are presented); (9) ThePlace of School Personnel in Research, by Devon V.Bates (There is a need for personnel development foroperationalizing research goals, strategies, and conclu-sions, and for engineering product outcomes for applica-tion to practical educational situations). (432)

SHUMSKY, ABRAHAM and ROSE MUKERJI. Fromresearch idea to classroom practice. The elemen-tary school journal 63:2, November 1962. pp.83-86.

Recognizing the fact that research ideas are notpracticable in many actual classroom situations, a newresearch techniqueaction researchhas been developed.In action research, the individual teacher himself carriesout the research in his own laboratory or classroom.Though many reports of action research demonstratehow effectively curriculum changes have been put intopractice in specific situations, others indicate failure tobring about significant curriculum change. The primaryreason for failure is that new ways required by ateacher's action-research plan conflict with old patternsof his teaching behavior; the conflict is shown by hisambivalent feelings, inconsistent behavior, resistance tochange, insignificant or superficial change, or by vacilla-tion. This conflict is discussed, and suggestions areoffered on how curriculum consultants can approachthis problem, help to facilitate action research, and helpteachers to implement the findings of such research.

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SILBERMAN, HARRY and OTHERS. The effect ofeducational research on classroom instruction.Harvard educational review 36:3, 1966. pp.295-318.

Three charges against educational research wereanalyzed at a symposium. The charges were: (1) educa-tional research has made no contribution to instructionalpractice because researchers produce articles in journalsrather than well-engineered instructional products;(2) educational researchers are training teachers whosimply accept prevailing educational practices instead ofteachers who are able to experiment and evaluate; and(3) the educational researcher has no experimental toolsor laboratories. (434)

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TATSUOKA, MAURICE M. and DAVID V. TIEDE-MAN. Statistics as an aspect of scientific methodin research on teaching. IN Gage, N. L. (ed.).Handbook of research on teaching. Chicago:Rand-McNally, 1963. 142-170.

The function of statistics in scientific research isdiscussed. A number of statistical techniques are classi-fied according to the role (independent and dependent),number, and type (interval, ordinal, and nominal) of thevariables involved. There is a 78-item bibliography. (435)

GENERAL SOURCES

AMERICAN SOCIETY OF TRAINING DIRECTORS.Selected bibliographies covering twenty-seventraining subjects (Prepared by Training Brokersfor the Training Trading Post Session, 17thannual conference, 1961), Madison, Wis.: 1961.93 pp.

Topics covered include appraisal, case study,communication, creative thinking, evaluation, interview-ing, job instruction, leadership, listening, performancestandards, role-playing, sensitivity training, simulation,supervision, teaching machines, training manuals, univer-sity management programs, visual aids, and writing.(USCSC 2, edited) (436)

COUNCIL ON SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION. A sourcebook of readings on teaching in social work:reprints of selected articles (Doc. no. 65-58-3).New York: The Council, 1966. 228 pp.

Fifteen significant papers and articles are re-printed as enrichment for social work education at theundergraduate, Master's and post-Master's levels. Materi-als are grouped under four headings. Part I, ProfessionalEducation, contains articles entitled: Distinctive Attri-butes of Education for the Professions, by Ralph W.Tyler; The Distinctive Attributes of Education for SocialWork, by Charlotte Towle; Scholarship and Educationfor the Professions, by Ralph W. Tyler. Part II, TheTeacher, contains articles entitled: The Role of theTeacher in the Creation of an Integrated Curriculum, byGrace L. Coyle; Helping the Casework PractitionerBecome a Classroom Teacher, by Charlotte Towle. PartIII, Teaching Methodology, includes: Learning Theoryand Teaching Method, by G. Lester Anderson; Toward aMethodology of Teaching, by Marguerite V. Pohek; TheSmall Group in Learning and Teaching, by Mary LouiseSomers; Ego-Centered Teaching, by Bernard Band ler.Part IV, Teaching Methods and Techniques, contains:The Lecture as a Method in Teaching Casework, byHelen Harris Perlman; The Use of Audio-Visual Aids inTraining, by Eileen Blackey; An Experiment in TeachingSocial Casework, by Pauline D. Lide; Interview Observa-tion as a Teaching Device, by Alfred Kadushin; TheProcess of Group Deliberation, by Eileen Blackey;Teaching Casework by the Discussion Method, by HeienHarris Perlman. (437)

106

CRAIG, ROBERT L. and LESTER R. BITTEL (eds.).Training and development handbook (Sponsoredby the American Society for Training and Devel-opment), New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967. 650pp.

"This handbook is . . . the first comprehensivecollection of knowledge from leading practitioners in thefield of personnel training and development. Its purposeis to provide a broad reference source for thoseresponsible for developing human resources in anyorganization. . . . [It is] , in effect, a state-of-the-artreport on the subject." Material is included for both themanager of a large training staff and for the beginning orpart-time trainer. Chapter titles and authors are: (1) TheEvolution of Training, by Cloyd S. Steinmetz; (2) Deter-mining Training Needs, by Richard B. Johnson; (3) TheLearning Process, by John D. Folley, Jr.; (4) Testing forTraining and Development, by Charles V. Youmans;(5) Evaluation of Training, by Donald L. Kirkpatrick;(6) Job Instruction, by Samuel B. Magill and John E.Managhan; (7) Coaching, by Walter R. Mahler; (8) TheLecture, by Harold P. Zelko; (9) Conference Methods,by Louis W. Lerda; (10) Case Method, by Paul Pigors;(11) Role Playing, by Malcolm E. Shaw; (12) Program-med Instructit,:' by William E. Hawley; (13) HumanRelations Laboratory Training, by Leland P. Bradfordand Dorothy J. Mial; (14) Management Games, byClifford J. Craft; (15) Related Reading, by J. E. DonaldHastie; (16) Correspondence Study, by Hal V. Kelly;(17) Training Aids, by Louis S. Goodman; (18) Super-visor Development, by Harry S. Belman and Thomas F.Hull; (19) Management Development, by Robert B.Burr; (20) Vocational and Technical Education, byWalter M. Arnold and Edgar E. Stahl; (21) TrainingFacilities, by R. R. Faller; (22) Use of Consultants, byLester F. Zerfoss; (23) Universities and Their Exten-sions, by Ernest E. McMahon; (24) Special Programs, byGlenn L. Gardiner; (25) Scientific and Technical Person-nel Development. by Patrick C. Farbro; (26) Organiza-tion of Training, by John L. Reith; (27) Selecting andOrganizing the Training Staff, by Andrew A. Daly;(28) Trainer Education and Training, by Gerald H.Whitlock; (29) Planning and Scheduling, by James H.Morrison; (30) Budgeting and Controlling TrainingCosts, by Ralph E. Boynton; (31) Training Records andInformation Systems, by Jesse C. McKeon; (32) LegalAspects of Training, by John Walsh. There is a name andsubject index. (438)

ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult Education. Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University, n.d. 5 pp.

The ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult Education(ERIC/AE) has been established by the Library ofContinuing Education of Syracuse University in associa-tion with the Educational Resources Information Centerof the U.S. Office of Education to serve the adulteducation and training profession. The purpose ofERIC/AE is to provide easier access to informationuseful in the education, training, and retraining of adultsand out-of-school youths. Information about the ERICnetwork of clearinghouses, services of central ERIC,services of ERIC/AE, how the clearinghouse on adulteducation can be helped, information about the staff ofERIC/AE, and a list of 18 ERIC clearinghouses areincluded in this brochure. (439)

GOOD, CARTER V. (ed.). Dictionary of education. 2ndedition. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1959. 676 pp.

This dictionary is the first instrument of theeducational profession as a whole which is dedicated toexactness of specialized words and precision of meaning.The terms defined and cross-references total approxi-mately 25,000. In addition to the main dictionary, thereare sections defining educational terms used in Canada,England, France, Germany, and Italy. (440)

LYNTON, ROLF P. and UDAI PAREEK. Training fordevelopment. Homewood, Ill.: Richard D. Irwin,Inc. and The Dorsey Press, 1967. 408 pp.

Training is viewed as being concerned withpeople-in-jobs-in-organizations and as having the goal ofachieving a lasting improvement in on-the-job behavior.Not only the role of the trainer but also the roles of twoother partners in the training process are considered: theparticipants and the organizations in which they workand are to use their training. Focus is on the necessityfor training to use the total environment of theparticipants, both within the organic ition and within thetraining situation, so as to gain she participants' commit-ment to change and so as tr support them in theirattempts to express and maintain that change in theirjob behavior. Ideas are borrowed eclecticly from manysources. The book has five major divisions. Part Idistinguishes training from other instructional activitiesand examines the contribution of the participants andtheir organizations to the training process. Parts II, Ill,and IV look at training from the standpoint of thetrainer: Part II discusses the pretraining phase, includingdetermination of training needs, selection and prepara-tion of participants, choosing training methods, anddesigning the program; Part III takes up the trainingphase, emphasizing the development of group climateand the role and style of the trainer in interacting with

1-07

participants; and Part IV considers the posttrainingphase, including support of the participant in his workenvironment and evaluation of the training. The finalsection, Part V, deals with the training institution itselfand the development of training as a profession. Infor-mation and ideas are presented in six different formats:(1) the running text presents an organized view oftraining; (2) indented material within the running textpresents examples that illustrate the text; (3) tables andfigures present numerical data and graphs; (4) chartslabeled "exhibits" present summaries of conceptualmaterial presented in the text, sample forms, and otheraids designed to help the reader try out ideas mentionedin the text; (5) set-off "boxes" present summaries ofresearch findings only mentioned in the text; and(6) end-of-chapter readings discuss in detail ideasbrought out in the text or present differing points ofview. References are given in footnotes and in supportmaterial. (441)

MESICS, EMIL A. Training and education for manpowerdevelopment (Bibliography series no. 7). Ithica,N.Y.: New York State School of Industrial andLabor Relations, Cornell University, December1964. 99 pp.

This annotated bibliography, presenting sourcesof basic information on training, covers sources pub-lished before 1964. It revises and updates earlierbibliographies distributed by the school. Nine majorareas are covered: TrainingGeneral, Work Skill Train-ing, Technical and Vocational Training, SupervisoryTraining, Management Inventory and Executive Develop-ment, Training Methods and Techniques, Audio-VisualAids, Training Evaluation, and Bibliographies. Annota-tions cover 474 references. (442)

MURPHY, LIONEL V. A select bibliography of em-ployee development and training. Personnel ad-ministration 19:5, September-October 1956. pp.62-68.

Partial contents are: Sociology of Work; Train-ingGeneral; Determining Training Needs; ManagementTraining and Development; Training Methods and Tech-niques; Supervisory Training and Development; HumanRelations Training; Creative Thinking; Reading. (USCSC2, edited) (443)

U. S. CIVIL SERVICE COMMISSION. ATLANTAREGION. Interagency training programs; annualbulletin 1968-1969. Atlanta, Ga.: The Commis-sion, 1968. 56 pp..

The Conunission announces regional trainingcourses around the copntry in annual bulletins. Courses

in this bulletin are grouped under major headings:supervisory development; management development;communications and office skills training; personnelmanagement (including methods instruction); special-ized agency training; and other developmental training.

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U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Special pro-grams department: the graduate school1967-1968. Washington, D.C.: The Department,1967. 96 pp.

This is a catalog of special programs of theDepartment of Agriculture which are offered on twobases: public programs, regularly scheduled courses opento all qualified government personnel and announced inthis bulletin; and in-agency programs, specially designedcourses in consultation with the agency to fit the uniquerequirements of a particular agency. Major aspects of thecurriculum include: seminars and workshops on com-puters, seminars and workshops in management andprofessional development, and programmed instructionin various subject-matter fields such as communication,statistics, management, and computer programming.

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U. S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION,AND WELFARE. I UBLIC HEALTH SERVICE.NATIONAL COMMUNICABLE DISEASE CEN-TER. National Communicable Disease Centertraining bulletin January 1, 1968 to June 30,1969. Atlanta, Ga.: The Center, 1968, 131 pp.

In addition to courses in communicable diseasecontrol, this annual bulletin lists courses offered intraining methodology. Methodology courses listed in thecurrent bulletin are: Training MethodsGroup- andSelf-Instructional Techniques; Coaching Practices; Or-ganization of Inservice Training; Planning, Presenting,and Evaluating Inservice Training; Evaluation of Train-ing; Development of Training Courses; Preparation andUse of Training Aids; Training Aids ProductionAdvanced; Preparation of Overhead Transparencies;Training Methods and Aids; Training for Instructors;Involvement and Simulation Techniques; How to Selectand Use Programmed Self-Instructional Materials; Per-sonal Communications at Work; Training FacilitiesDesign and Equipment; Use of Automated Equipment inthe Classroom; Facilities for LearningDesign, Equip-ment, and Management; Consultation SkillsDevelop-ment and Use; Personal Skills Training. (446)

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION,AND WELFARE. OFFICE OF EDUCATION.Research in education. Washington: U.S. Govt.Print. Office. Monthly.

This is the monthly catalog published by theOffice of Education through the Educational ResourcesInformation Center (ERIC) announcing new projectssupported through its Bureau of Research, as well asfinal reports received from completed projects. It con-tains resumes from the 18 ERIC Clearninghouses,including the ERIC Clearninghouse on Adult Education.The resumes highlight the research information on eachreport and project, as well as indexes that cross-referencethe subjects, investigators, institutions, contracts andgrant numbers, and legislative authorizations for theresearch activities. In addition, every issue containsinformation on the general literature in the varioussubject areas. Indexes are cumulated and publishedseparately at the end of the year. (ERIC 1, edited) (447)

INDEX

ADAPTIVE PROGRAMMING94

ADJUNCT PROGRAMMING81, 91

ADMINISTRATION (GENERAL)249, 332, 338, 349, 425, 428

ADULT EDUCATION24, 44, 45, 56, 79, 160, 198, 217, 267, 276,285.289, 408, 422, 431, 439

ADULT LEARNING8, 44, 45, 56, 60, 69, 77, 276, 325, 418, 422

AGENDA (INSTRUCTIONAL AID)58, 65, 77, 313, 384, 408, 411

ANALYSIS (INSTRUCTIONAL PLANNING)22, 32, 33, 49, 52, 54, 55, 68, 69, 71, 80, 81,103, 104, 109, 112, 114.124, 133

APPRENTICESHIP (INSTRUCTIONAL METHOD)

ATTITUDES10. 12, 26, 28, 29, 35, 44, 102, 107, 146, 148,158, 161, 170, 174, 180, 185, 196, 212, 216,242, 247, 256, 258, 280, 297, 309, 361, 395,410, 421, 422, 430

AUDIOTAPE RECORDINGS63, 64, 71, 83, 146-148, 156, 199, 233, 391, 396

AUDIOVISUAL AIDS AND DEVICES IN INSTRUC-TION5, 7, 11, 13, 14, 16-18, 29, 42, 43, 48, 50, 53,54, 57, 61, 71, 135, 158, 161-167, 184, 203,260, 296, 303, 318, 339, 361, 397, 398, 404,408, 417, 424, 426, 437, 438, 442, 446

AUDIOVISUAL AIDS AND DEVICES-SELECTION16.18, 29, 48, 51, 56, 67, 81, 90, 161-167, 385,386, 418

AUTOINSTRUCTIONAL LABORATORIES268

AUTOMATION13, 18, 71, 160, 166, 223, 261, 268, 269, 271,303, 314, 419

160, 333, 366, 371

ASSIGNMENT (INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNIQUE)18, 33, 274, 277, 285, 288, 313, 317

ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING12, 17, 138

ATTENTION (LEARNING FACTOR)

BEHAVIORAL TECHNOLOGY13, 26, 32, 36

BIBLIOGRAPHIES10, 11, 16, 18, 19, 24, 26, 29, 32, 34, 36, 37, 40,50, 51, 54, 67, 68, 70-72,74, 76, 82, 84, 85, 92,94, 95, 103, 104, 108, 111, 113, 130, 138, 142,143, 149, 150, 157, 161, 166, 170, 171, 173,175, 177, 179, 180, 182, 186, 188, 189, 196,206, 208, 209, 219, 225, 232, 234-236, 246,247, 250, 255, 259, 270, 281, 283, 284, 291,295, 309, 314, 320, 333, 339, 345, 350, 366,368, 369, 389, 391, 392, 398, 401, 408, 414,

18, 40

109

424.427, 430, 435, 436, 442, 443, 447

BRAINSTORMING104

BRANCHING (INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN)81, 82, 85.87, 89, 92, 94

BUSINESS AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING2.4, 8, 12, 16, 22, 23, 27, 28, 31, 35, 40, 42,46-48, 58, 59, 61, 66, 69, 72, 78, 80, 91, 96-110,118, 120.122, 126, 128, 131.133, 137, 140, 151,153.155, 178.181, 185-187, 189-193, 195, 196,201, 203, 204, 214, 216, 220.222, 227, 236,244, 251, 252, 278-280, 282. 284, 296, 297, 300,301, 305, 310-314, 316, 317, 325.331, 333-350,352-355, 358.367, 370-384, 386, 388, 389, 393,395, 397, 399, 400, 402, 403, 405, 407, 411,413.417, 426, 436, 438, 441.443

BUZZ GROUP (INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNIQUE)104, 264

CARD SORT FOR DETERMINING TRAININGNEEDS104, 133

CASE RECORDS57, 104, 198, 339

CASE STUDY (INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNIQUE)95, 131, 158, 220, 224, 436, 438

CHAINING17, 81, 138, 157

CHARTS (INSTRUCTIONAL AID)166

CHECK LISTS77, 104, 107, 109, 119, 123, 131, 184, 198, 225,240, 249, 259, 396

CLASS (INSTRUCTIONAL METHOD)9, 18, 160, 261, 263, 264, 275-289

CLASSIFICATION SCHEMES, TAXONOMY17, 22, 117, 129, 130, 134, 137, 138, 141.144,148, 163, 164, 200, 258, 321, 392

110

CLASSROOM ARRANGEMENT279, 281, 284

CLASSROOM COMMUNICATION (VERBAL)11, 18, 44, 58, 285, 290-292, 294-296, 300, 304,306, 310, 314, 319, 320, 391, 392, 406, 410,415, 424, 428

CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENT260, 279, 284, 285, 290, 396, 428

CLASSROOM TECHNIQUES AND MANAGEMENT70, 261-268, 276-289, 296, 299, 322, 396, 408

COACHING (INSTRUCTIONAL METHOD)158, 438, 446

COMMUNICATION (THOUGHT TRANSFER)7, 10, 11, 22, 252, 288, 29' 436, 444.446

COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT (INSTRUCTIONALMETHOD)160

COMPUTER-ASSISTED INSTRUCTION71, 269, 303

CONCEPT LEARNING12, 17, 87, 138, 161, 242, 321, 428

CONDITIONED RESPONSE3, 24, 92, 138

CONFERENCE (INSTRUCTIONAL METHOD)56, 158, 159, 397, 438

CONSULTANTS, CONSULTATION104, 125, 351, 370, 373, 374, 433, 438, 445,446

CONTINUING EDUCATION127, 228, 273

CORRESPONDENCE STUDY (INSTRUCTIONALMETHOD)160,418,438

COSTS, BUDGET1, 16, 35, 38, 53, 71, 80, 98, 99, 116,125, 153,155, 227, 270, 280, 324, 325, 329, 336, 341,344, 346, 348, 351-354, 361, 364, 394, 395,400, 405, 430, 438

COUNSELING104, 192, 217, 247, 249, 283, 287, 362, 392,408, 427

COURSE ORGANIZATION49, 51, 55, 56, 58, 61, 65,66,68,69,71,72, 75,79, 150, 313, 361

CREATIVITY39, 317, 361, 436, 443

CRITICAL INCIDENT104, 129-131, 219, 225, 246-253, 376

CURRICULUM PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT5, 6, 11, 29, 49, 57, 67, 69, 73, 141, 142, 144,209, 210, 249, 272, 308, 361, 388, 389, 427,428, 432, 437

DECISION MAKING101, 170, 426, 428

DEMONSTRATION (INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNIQUE)31, 66, 77, 158, 160, 260, 275, 282, 361, 408,413, 415. 418, 437

DETERMINATION OF TRAINING NEEDS3, 16, 28, 47, 48, 50, 56, 67, 75, 77, 78, 96-133,179, 203, 211, 287, 327, 331, 332, 334, 345,349, 351, 353, 357, 362, 368, 370, 379, 387,395, 416, 426, 438, 441, 443

DEVELOPMENTAL TESTING (INSTRUCTIONAL DE-SIGN)51, 63, 64, 68, 71, 80, 81, 83, 84, 86, 89, 93,162, 211

DIAL-ACCESS RETRIEVAL SYSTEMS303

DIRECTED STUDY (INSTRUCTIONAL METHOD)160

111

DISCOVERY LEARNING21, 275,318, 321,325, 413

DISCRIMINATION LEARNING17

DISCUSSION (INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNIQUE)18, 58, 158, 160, 220, 275, 283, 299, 300, 314,361, 391, 392, 408, 413, 416, 422, 437

DRILL (INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNIQUE)40, 160

EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY6, 57, 322, 427

EMOTIONAL FACTORS IN LEARNING (CLIMATE,PSYCHOLOGICAL PATTERNS)4, 10, 26, 41, 44, 45, 56, 142, 143, 174, 205,258, 276, 279, 280, 285-289, 291, 292, 299,300, 302, 303, 311, 312, 314, 316, 318, 320,397, 413, 426

EVALUATION3, 10, 16, 18-20, 25, 26, 29, 33, 47, 49, 50, 53,56-58, 61, 65, 67.69, 71, 73, 77, 78, 80.84, 86,89, 93, 95, 104, 107, 108, 111, 113, 131, 134,136, 137, 140, 143, 146, 151, 165, 168-260,268, 276, 287, 292-297, 302, 308, 312-314, 317,331, 332, 339-343, 345, 349, 351, 357, 358,361, 362, 364, 368, 372, 381, 385-387, 392,397, 399, 400, 403, 408, 411, 413-417, 422,426-428, 436, 438, 441, 442, 446

EVALUATION DEVICES AND FORMS77, 198, 203, 217, 223, 224, 248, 251, 252254-260, 287, 361, 364, 401, 408, 416

FACILITIES AND EQUIPMENT58, 77, 153, 160, 161, 166, 247, 261, 279, 284,332, 343, 351, 382, 386, 401, 438, 446

FACTOR ANALYSIS294, 306

FEEDBACK, KNOWLEDGE OF RESULTS4, 13, 15, 16, 18, 27, 28, 31, 32, 35, 43, 48, 71,99, 214, 226, 232, 287, 300,303, 306, 338, 391

FIELD TRIP (INSTRUCTIONAL METHOD)66, 275, 408

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT6, 25, 41, 272, 421, 427, 428

FILMS-MOTION PICTURES (INSTRUCTIONAL AID) HUMAN FACTORS (HUMAN ENGINEERING)18, 71, 160, 166, 167, 231, 275, 408 149

FILMSTRIPS (INSTRUCTIONAL AID)167, 406

GAME (INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNIQUE)131, 438

GESTALT THEORY12, 36

GLOSSARIES, TERMINOLOGY52, 85, 168, 174, 440

GRADING29, 168, 172, 174, 176, 177, 218

GROUP DYNAMICS23, 25, 33, 35, 44, 160, 262, 263, 265, 275, 286,300, 306, 310-312, 316, 320, 322, 385, 422,424, 425, 428, 430, 437, 441

GROUP INSTRUCTION23, 25, 44, 58, 96, 160, 261-267, 274, 286, 311,316, 322, 417, 422, 437, 446

GROUPING-PURPOSES AND PROCEDURES54, 71, 261-267, 272, 274, 278, 322, 417

GUIDANCE (INSTRUCTIONAL)8, 18, 20, 25, 28, 40, 43, 48, 361

GUIDES, HANDBOOKS, MANUALS75, 77, 339, 391, 393, 408, 415, 418, 436, 438

HANDOUT MATERIALS (INSTRUCTIONAL AID)397,415,417

HIGHER EDUCATION29, 32, 333, 357, 389, 405, 424

112

HUMAN RELATIONS45, 158, 222, 249, 264, 316, 317, 361, 443, 446

IDENTIFICATION LEARNING138, 161

IMITATION (LEARNING)18, 26, 30, 40

IN-BASKET (EVALUATION DEVICE)104

INCIDENT PROCESS (INSTRUCTIONAL TECH-NIQUE)131

INDEPENDENT STUDY (INSTRUCTIONAL METH-OD)13,270

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES10, 14, 19, 20, 28, 29, 33, 38, 41, 71, 82, 86, 99,155, 157, 177, 204, 264, 266, 268-275, 278,285, 303, 314, 315, 322, 421, 428

INDIVIDUAL INSTRUCTION, INDIVIDUALIZINGINSTRUCTION38, 39, 50, 51, 58, 71, 160, 184, 261, 262,267-272, 274, 303, 312, 315, 333, 393, 417, 446

INFORMATION PROCESSING11, 30

INFORMATION SYSTEMS347, 351, 373, 438

INSERVICE EDUCATION AND TRAINING351, 357, 387, 389, 406, 418, 446

INSTITUTE (INSTRUCTIONAL METHOD)160

INSTRUCTOR (TEACHER, TRAINER)-SELECTIONAND TRAINING3, 22, 33, 41, 42, 63, 64, 68, 77, 92, 135,146-148, 156, 199, 202, 203, 210, 256, 257,

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN 270, 272, 291, 297, 306, 308, 310, 312, 313,3, 5, 10, 17-19, 21, 22, 29, 33, 44, 47-260, 266, 321, 326, 336, 339, 342-344, 361, 362, 368,268, 276, 296, 304-306, 310, 313, 315, 322, 379, 382, 384-386, 390-420, 428, 434, 437, 438,339, 341, 345, 350, 356, 359, 361, 362, 366, 444, 446368, 372, 374, 385, 386, 392, 396, 409, 415,417-419, 422, 438, 441, 446

INTERACTION PROCESS ANALYSIS11, 44, 290-292, 294, 295, 320, 391, 392, 396,

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS CENTERS268

INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS AND TECHNIQUES(GENERAL)3, 9, 11, 16, 17, 20, 29, 34, 48, 53, 54, 58, 61,63, 71, 153.160, 203, 216, 269, 276, 310, 312,317, 322, 332, 339, 390, 402, 408, 417, 421,422, 424, 431, 437, 442-444, 446

INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS AND TECHNIQUES-SELECTION16-18, 29, 48, 51, 56, 58, 61, 71, 72, 74, 77, 96,153,160, 385, 386, 441

INSTRUCTIONAL MODEL (THEORETICAL)11, 36, 57, 52, 71, 298, 319, 421

INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEMS11, 17, 48, 50-53, 64, 68, 70, 71, 77, 83

INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY11, 13, 20, 32, 36, 39, 47, 52, 56, 61, 303, 398,408, 426, 429

INSTRUCTOR (TEACHER, TRAINER) MOTIVATION294, 309, 310, 317, 428

406, 410, 424

INTERAGENCY TRAINING351, 356, 357, 444

INTERFERENCE, ERRORS IN LEARNING15, 19, 20, 45, 48, 99

INTERNSHIP (INSTRUCTIONAL METHOD)160

INTERVIEWS, INTERVIEWING97, 104-108, 110-112, 114, 123, 124, 127, 131,196, 204, 211, 225, 229, 230, 235, 246, 254,287, 376, 397, 436, 437

INVOLVEMENT, PARTICIPATION IN INSTRUCTION8, 23, 32, 58, 79, 159, 262, 275, 281, 285, 290,296, 310, 422, 446

JOB AND TASK ANALYSIS16, 19, 22, 32, 48, 50, 61, 68, 75, 104, 106-109,111, 114 -124,' 126, 149, 150, 203, 219, 339,362, 372, 385, 426

JOB DESCRIPTION61, 100, 114, 115, 150, 247, 372, 389

INSTRUCTOR (TEACHER, TRAINER)-ROLE ANDFUNCTIONS6, 9-12, 18, 23, 25, 29, 33, 36, 38, 39, 41, 42,

JOB INSTRUCTION TRAINING (JIT)-FOUR-STEPPLAN (INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNIQUE)77, 331, 415, 436, 438

44, 54, 57, 60, 63, 64, 71, 75, 79, 94, 135, 153, JOB ROTATION (INSTRUCTIONAL METHOD)154, 158, 160, 161, 165, 205, 213, 233, 234, 77, 351237, 238, 263, 270, 272, 275-279, 282, 283,285, 290-323, 343, 357, 361, 370, 373, 379,390, 391, 408, 410, 411, 424, 432, 433, 437, JUNIOR BOARD (INSTRUCTIONAL METHOD)441 158

113

KNOWLEDGE10, 29, 30, 35, 36, 52, 58, 62, 70, 99, 107, 114,118, 124, 134, 148-150, 158, 161, 163, 165,170, 185, 196, 212, 344

LABORATORY (INSTRUCTIONAL METHOD)18

LABORATORY METHOD OF SENSITIVITY TRAIN-ING13, 158, 227, 276, 310, 316, 407, 436, 438

LEARNER-CENTERED, LEARNER-DIRECTED IN-STRUCTION14, 25, 33, 56, 60, 62, 71, 135, 218, 271, 413

LEARNING CURVE36, 48

LEARNING MOTIVATION3-8, 10, 14, 17, 20, 28, 30, 31, 33, 35, 3941, 43,52, 60, 63, 65, 71, 184, 202, 285, 287, 296, 312,314, 315, 344, 361, 392, 408, 422, 431

LEARNING READINESS4, 5, 10, 20,56, 62

LEARNING THEORIES AND PROCESSES1.48, 58, 65, 68, 81, 84, 85, 87, 92, 94, 138,144, 155, 160, 163.165, 203, 225, 276, 280,296, 308, 319, 331, 339, 343, 344, 361, 381,382, 421, 422, 426428, 431, 432, 437, 438

LECTURE, SPEECH (INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNIQUE)13, 18, 66, 71, 77, 158-160, 167, 220, 260, 275,296, 299, 304, 314, 361, 392, 408, 413, 416,437, 438

LEGAL ASPECTS OF TRAINING102, 371, 438

LESSON PLANS (EXAMPLES, METHODS, WORK-SHEETS)33, 49, 52, 54, 58, 61, 63, 65, 66, 68, 69, 71-74,79, 126, 165, 203, 266, 282, 305, 313, 361, 362,386,415,417,418

114

LIBRARY-PROFESSIONAL, REFERENCE FILE367, 418

LINEAR PROGRAMMING85,86,89,92,94

MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT2, 9, 96, 102, 127, 158, 179, 220, 227, 243, 245,327, 333, 334, 337, 351, 354, 356, 357, 370,375, 399, 407, 436, 438, 442.445

MATHETICS (INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN)52

MEANINGFULNESS OF INSTRUCTION14, 28, 30, 33, 36, 40, 60, 62, 63, 71, 274, 275

MEASUREMENT (GENERAL)168-177

MILITARY TRAINING1, 20, 34, 42, 50, 55, 70, 71, 74, 77, 88, 114,115, 117, 119, 139, 149, 150, 166, 206, 207,215, 226, 239, 241, 249, 260, 277, 324, 357,411, 426

MODELS, MOCK-UPS, OBJECTS, SPECIMENS (IN-STRUCTIONAL DEVIC2)11, 18, 26, 30, 31, 36, 37, 40, 52, 71, 160, 166

MOTIVATION (GENERAL)10, 28, 41, 99, 252, 344

MULTIMEDIA INSTRUCTION13, 162-164

MULTIPLE-CHOICE TESTS86, 168, 171, 172, 177, 231

OBJECTIVES (INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN)3, 16, 20, 26, 27, 29, 47, 49-51, 53, 55-61.65-67, 73-75, 78, 80, 82, 84, 85, 88, 89, 99, 110,114, 115, 132, 134-152, 156, 161-167, 171, 174,177, 179, 188, 191, 192, 196-198, 202, 203,205, 208-210, 220, 223, 228, 242, 258, 260,269, 270, 285, 296, 322, 331, 335, 342, 343,350, 361, 364, 368, 370, 385-387, 411, 429

OBJECTIVES (INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN) -EXAMPLES26, 29, 63, 67, 77, 95, 115, 134, 140, 142, 143,145-148, 152, 156, 166, 199, 200, 220, 361,397, 417

OBSERVATION104, 105, 107, 108, 110, 123, 126, 129-131,185, 198, 202, 211, 225, 232 -234, 258, 290,295,310,412,416,418, 424,437

OLDER WORKERS325, 355

ON-THE-JOB TRAINING324, 386, 409

OPERATIONS RESEARCH104, 120, 132

ORGANIZATION ANALYSIS104, 111, 112, 132, 211, 370, 373, 395

ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT338, 370

ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE3, 23, 58, 132, 153, 196, 211, 216, 222, 280,310, 314, 332, 334, 339, 343, 344, 349, 350,370, 382, 393, 395, 407, 441

ORIENTATION280, 395, 418

OVERLEARNING15, 28

PACING IN INSTRUCTION13, 14, 28, 82, 271

PANEL (INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNIQUE)160

PART TRAINERS, PART TRAINING, WHOLE VS.PART LEARNING1, 14, 15, 28, 34, 41

115

PERCEPTION22, 28, 30, 303

PERCEPTUAL MOTOR LEARNING (SENSORYMOTOR LEARNING)12, 15, 17, 314, 426

PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL100, 104, 105, 107, 110-112, 128, 158, 204,214, 250, 251, 337, 349, 436, 444

PERFORMANCE TESTS29, 47, 48, 99, 131, 172, 173, 203, 204, 212,214, 215, 219, 221, 222, 259

PERSONALITY41, 430

PHOTOGRAPHY167

PICTORIAL ILLUSTRATIONS18

POSTTRAINING ACTIVITIES AND SUPPORT192, 340, 350, 361, 393, 441

PRACTICE1, 9, 15, 19, 20, 28, 30, 43, 48, 58, 70, 71, 82,86, 156, 158, 160, 344, 392, 401

PRE-TESTING, POST-TESTING62-64, 83, 146-148, 156, 180, 193, 199, 203,211, 217, 227, 242-245, 256, 259, 364, 420

PREVIEW OF INSTRUCTION62, 282, 396

PRINCIPLE LEARNING17, 138, 157, 161, 321

PROBLEM ANALYSIS104, 106, 108, Ill

PROBLEM-SOLVING LEARNING8, 11, 17, 28, 78, 79, 138, 321, 428

PROBLEM-SOLVING EXERCISE (INSTRUCTIONALTECHNIQUE)13, 217

PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION29, 32, 95, 219, 225, 229-232, 235, 238, 242,246, 248, 250, 253, 254, 258, 262, 273, 315,356, 387-390, 409, 437

PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION13, 14, 32, 49, 50, 52, 53, 61, 65, 68, 71, 80-95,144, 145, 162, 223, 271, 296, 303, 393, 428,429, 438, 445,446

READING-GUIDED, INDEPENDENT, SYSTEMATIC(INSTRUCTIONAL METHOD)66, 71, 220, 275, 288, 314, 361, 362, 418, 438,443

RECITATION (INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNIQUE)18, 304

RECORDS AND REPORTS48, 75, 77, 78, 104, 105, 111, 112, 114, 116,198, 346, 347, 358, 386, 418, 438

REFRESHER TRAINING350

PROGRAMMERS (INSTRUCTIONAL)92, 93 REINFORCEMENT

3, 7, 11, 14, 19-21, 28, 30, 38, 52, 71, 216, 242,318, 428

PROJECT (INSTRUCTIONAL METHOD)66, 275, 413

PROJECTORS (INSTRUCTIONAL DEVICE)13

PUBLIC SERVICE TRAINING, GOVERNMENTTRAINING75, 76, 243, 245, 332, 351, 356, 357, 365, 368,369, 371, 411, 444-446

Q-SORT241

QUESTIONING TECHNIQUES282, 290, 299, 417

QUESTIONNAIRES104-108, 111, 112, 114, 115, 118, 124, 127,131, 176, 189, 196, 198, 203, 204, 211, 216,224, 243, 306, 364

RADIO IN INSTRUCTION160, 419

RATINGS, SCALES131, 184, 196, 198, 204, 211, 214, 217, 225,227, 232, 235-241, 251, 254, 294, 306, 309,400, 416, 424

116

RESEARCH1-3, 5, 9, 20, 22, 24, 28, 34, 37, 42, 45,48, 50,53, 57, 71, 75, 95, 104, 155, 157, 170, 180, 188,189, 193, 196, 198, 203, 211, 212, 216, 220,228, 254, 271, 272, 290, 291, 293-295, 301,306, 309, 310, 320-322, 349, 357, 376, 384,391, 398, 399, 401, 420-435, 441, 447

RETENTION (LEARNING PROCESS)21, 242, 282, 288

REVIEW (REEXAMINATION)20, 58, 62, 86, 282

REWARD AND PUNISHMENT (LEARNING FAC-TORS)26, 28, 31, 41-44, 63, 82, 99

ROLE-PLAYING104, 131, 158, 160, 229, 275, 408, 436, 438

RULEG SYSTEM (INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN)94

SCHEDULING58, 66, 68, 77, 270, 297, 350, 382, 386.438

SELF-DEVELOPMENT75, 105, 273, 343, 350, 361, 362, 389, 396, 408

SELF-EVALUATION100, 104, 105, 112, 257, 285, 361

SEMINAR (INSTRUCTIONAL METHOD)159, 222, 281, 390, 445

SEQUENCING (INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN)1, 7, 13, 15, 17, 19, 21, 30, 32, 33, 35, 43, 47,49, 52, 58-62, 64-66, 68, 71, 73-75, 81, 87, 95,96, 163-165, 210, 242, 303, 321, 421

SIGNAL LEARNING17

SIMULATION IN DETERMINING TRAINING NEEDS104

SIMULATION IN EVALUATION203, 219, 229-231, 239

SIMULATION IN INSTRUCTION166, 401, 436, 446

SIMULATORS, TRAINERS48, 69, 166, 215, 426

SKILL DEVELOPMENT10, 12, 15, 29, 35, 38, 52,58, 62, 77, 107, 108,114, 115, 118, 124, 134, 148-150, 158, 161,196, 212, 344, 370, 426, 442, 444

SLIDES (INSTRUCTIONAL AID)167

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT275, 320

SOCIOMETRIC TECHNIQUES240, 265, 430

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS168, 172, 174, 176, 177, 181, 186, 198, 211,243-246, 358, 420, 424, 428,430, 435, 445

117

STIMULUS-RESPONSE IN INSTRUCTIONAL DE-SIGN1, 3, 13, 15-19, 27, 30, 41, 43, 52, 81, 82, 84,85, 87-89, 92, 94

STRUCTURE OF CONTENT (SUBJECT) FIELD5, 6, 17, 19, 32, 36, 52, 54, 57, 62

STUDENT (TRAINEE) CHARACTERISTICS AND SE-LECTION3, 4, 8-10, 16;20, 27-29, 39, 44, 49, 51, 53, 56,61, 71, 99, 242, 261-267, 273, 274, 282, 296,299, 310, 312, 315, 316, 345, 361, 362, 385,386, 396, 441, 428

STUDENT (TRAINEE) CRITIQUES, OPINIONS ASEVALUATION211, 212,260,364

STUDENT (TRAINEE) RESPONSE SYSTEMS303

STUDENT-TEACHER (TRAINEE-INSTRUCTOR) RE-LATIONSHIP44, 242, 273, 276, 278, 283, 285, 286, 288, 291,293-291, 299-304, 306, 307, 310-312, 314-322,376

STUDY GROUP, WORK GROUP264, 408

STUDY SKILLS282, 288

SUMMARIZING (INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNIQUE)282, 396

SUPERVISOR-ROLE, FUNCTIONS75, 280, 296, 313, 349, 361, 393

SUPERVIFORY METHODS75 32, 296, 349, 393, 417

SUPERVISORY TRAINING75,100, 112, 127, 211,334, 339, 351,394, 417,436, 438, 442-444

SURVEYS57, 67, 75, 97, 102, 104, 107-110, 112, 116,125, 127, 198, 227, 287, 368, 403

SYNTHESIS (INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN)52, 69

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS, SYSTEMS APPROACH11, 50, 51, 53, 54, 65, 68, 70, 71, 149, 150, 166,186, 347, 373, 385

TEACHING MACHINES18, 38, 39, 65, 68, 82, 94, 166, 436

TEACHING STYLES11, 63, 300, 301, 304, 312, 322, 390, 391, 414,421, 424, 428

TEAM TEACHING (INSTRUCTIONAL TEAM)14, 270, 298, 305, 323

TEAM TRAINING426

TELEVISED INSTRUCTION13, 18, 71, 160, 166, 223, 271, 314, 419

TEST RELIABILITY16, 168, 170, 172, 173, 177, 195, 197, 198, 214,230, 236

4

4.... . ,.

TEST VALIDITY16, 53, 168, 170, 172, 173, 177, 195, 197, 198,214, 230

TESTS AND TESTING10, 25, 53, 69, 104, 107, 108, 111, 124, 131,134, 140, 143, 145, 146, 168-177, 196, 198,199, 201, 203-207, 209, 210, 219, 255, 260,279, 282, 294, 296, 314, 3-64, 408, 413, 424,426, 428, 438

TEXTBOOKS, PRINTED LANGUAGE MEDIA13, 18, 66, 71

THOUGHT PROCESS5, 10, 18, 33, 39, 40, 321, 428

118

TIME FACTORS IN LEARNING AND INSTRUCTION43, 53, 58, 71, 77, 116, 153, 227, 279, 280, 289,310, 312, 316, 346, 362

TRAINING COMMITTEE, PANEL, TASK FORCE,TEAM78, 104, 105, 351, 370

TRAINING DIRECTOR-ROLE, FUNCTIONS, TRAIN-ING102, 313, 326, 327, 329, 334, 335, 339, 342,343, 350, 357, 359-362, 367, 368, 370-389, 395,399, 402, 420, 438

TRAINING LEGISLATION351, 357, 369, 371, 438

TRAINING PHILOSOPHY332, 333, 344, 357, 368, 441

TRAINING POLICY104, 331, 333, 335, 337-339, 351, 356, 357,359, 362, 368, 371, 374, 379, 387, 395

TRAINING PROGRAM ADMINISTRATION3, 48, 49, 77, 78, 112, 113, 332, 334, 335, 337,343, 344, 347, 350, 356, 359-363, 365, 366,368, 372, 379, 386.388, 405, 422, 427, 431, 438

TRAINING PROGRAM ORGANIZATION326, 334, 339, 350, 356, 359, 360, 362, 363,365, 368, 422,431, 438

TRAINING PROGRAM-ROLE AND FUNCTIONS59, 75, 326-328, 330-334, 336, 339, 340,342-344, 356, 359-361, 368, 370, 373-375, 378,387, 438, 441

TRANSFER OP TRAINING1, 10, Fr, 18, 20, 21, 28, 33, 35.41, 68, 71, 197

TRANSPARENCIES166, 391

TUTORIAL (INSTRUCTIONAL METHOD)18, 71, 86, 92, 287, 304, 418

UNDERSTUDN (INSTRUCTIONAL N11:11100)77

UNIVEIZSITY.SPONSOR11) COURSES, EATNSIONCOI .RSFS357, 405, .438

VARIVEY IN INSTRUC1 ION8, 48, 79, 264, 287

VERBAL. LEARNING17,24,36

VERTICALLY-STRUCEURED TRAINING GROUPS158

vocATtoNAL,TEcHNICAL TRAINING61, 6q, 356, 413, 438, 442

WORKS! IEETS , FORMS54, 61, 66, 6S, 71, 72, 74, 79, 98, 11(1. 118, 126,130, 150, 225, '248, 251. 252, 287, 32Q, 347.354, 361, 400,415.417, 441

WORKS110P (INsTmicTIONAL METHOD)160,'_56, 384, 413, 445

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