adolescence and emerging adulthood: a cultural approach by jeffrey jensen arnett. copyright © 2004...
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Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach by Jeffrey Jensen Arnett. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.
Adolescence and Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Emerging Adulthood: A
Cultural ApproachCultural Approach
Chapter 3 Chapter 3
Cognitive FoundationsCognitive Foundations
Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach by Jeffrey Jensen Arnett. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.
Change in thinkingChange in thinking
Problem solvingProblem solving
Memory and attentionMemory and attention
Cognitive developmentCognitive development
Theories of cognitionTheories of cognition
Role of cultureRole of culture
Chapter OverviewChapter Overview
Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach by Jeffrey Jensen Arnett. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.
Piaget’s TheoryPiaget’s Theory
Children of different Children of different agesages think differently think differently
Changes in cognitive development proceed in Changes in cognitive development proceed in distinct stages distinct stages (e.g. discontinuous)(e.g. discontinuous)
Each person’s cognitive abilities are organized into Each person’s cognitive abilities are organized into one coherent one coherent mental structuremental structure
His approach is known as the His approach is known as the cognitive-cognitive-developmental approachdevelopmental approach
The driving forces behind development from one The driving forces behind development from one stage to the next isstage to the next is maturation maturation
Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach by Jeffrey Jensen Arnett. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.
MaturationMaturation Piaget portrayed maturation as an Piaget portrayed maturation as an
activeactive process process
Children seek out information and Children seek out information and stimulation in the environment that stimulation in the environment that matches the maturity of their matches the maturity of their thinkingthinking
This is in contrast with other theories such as behaviorism who viewed the environment as acting
on the child through rewards and punishments
Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach by Jeffrey Jensen Arnett. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.
Piagetian SchemasPiagetian Schemas
Schemas
Assimilation
Occurs when new information is
altered to fit an existing scheme
Accommodation
Entails changing the scheme to
adapt to the new information
Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach by Jeffrey Jensen Arnett. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.
Piagetian StagesPiagetian Stages
StagesStages AgeAge Brief DescriptionBrief Description
SensorimotorSensorimotor 0-20-2 Cognitive development involves learning how Cognitive development involves learning how to coordinate activities of the sense with to coordinate activities of the sense with motor activitiesmotor activities
PreoperationalPreoperational 2-72-7 Capable of representing the world Capable of representing the world symbolically (e.g. language)symbolically (e.g. language)
Concrete Concrete OperationsOperations
7-117-11 Become more adept at using mental Become more adept at using mental operations which leads to a more advanced operations which leads to a more advanced understanding of the worldunderstanding of the world
Formal Formal OperationsOperations
11-15+11-15+ Allows adolescents to reason about more Allows adolescents to reason about more complex tasks and problems involving complex tasks and problems involving multiple variablesmultiple variables
Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach by Jeffrey Jensen Arnett. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.
Adolescents are aware of their thinking processes.
The capacity for “thinking about thinking” enables adolescents to learn and solve
problems more efficiently
This is called ……
… Metacognition!
Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach by Jeffrey Jensen Arnett. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.
Limitations of Piaget’s TheoryLimitations of Piaget’s Theory
The stage of formal operations has been The stage of formal operations has been the most critiquedthe most critiqued
The limitations of Piaget’s theory of The limitations of Piaget’s theory of formal operations fall into two formal operations fall into two categories:categories:• Individual differences in the attainment of formal operationsIndividual differences in the attainment of formal operations• Cultural basis of adolescent cognitive developmentCultural basis of adolescent cognitive development
Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach by Jeffrey Jensen Arnett. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.
Limitations - Limitations - Individual DifferencesIndividual Differences
A great range of individual differences exist in the A great range of individual differences exist in the extent to which people use formal operationsextent to which people use formal operations
Even in emerging adulthood and beyond, a large Even in emerging adulthood and beyond, a large proportion of people use formal operations either proportion of people use formal operations either inconsistently or not at allinconsistently or not at all
Adolescents who have had courses in math and Adolescents who have had courses in math and science tend to exhibit formal operational thoughtscience tend to exhibit formal operational thought
Concrete operations are sufficient for most daily Concrete operations are sufficient for most daily tasks and problemstasks and problems
Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach by Jeffrey Jensen Arnett. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.
Limitations – Limitations – Cultural BasisCultural Basis
While formal operations may be a universal While formal operations may be a universal potential the form it takes in each culture is potential the form it takes in each culture is derived from the kinds of cognition requirements derived from the kinds of cognition requirements people facepeople face
There is likely to be considerable variation in the There is likely to be considerable variation in the extent to which adolescents and adults display extent to which adolescents and adults display formal operational thoughtformal operational thought
Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach by Jeffrey Jensen Arnett. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.
Post-formal thinkingPost-formal thinking
Piaget’s research has inspired theories of cognitive development beyond formal operations known as:
PragmatismPragmatism Reflective Reflective JudgmentJudgment
… … Beyond PiagetBeyond Piaget
Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach by Jeffrey Jensen Arnett. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.
PragmatismPragmatism
Involves adapting logical thinking to the Involves adapting logical thinking to the practical constraints of practical constraints of real-life situationsreal-life situations
Cognitive development in the early Cognitive development in the early twenties is distinguished from adolescent twenties is distinguished from adolescent development by a greater recognition and development by a greater recognition and incorporation of incorporation of practical limitationspractical limitations to to logical thinkinglogical thinking
Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach by Jeffrey Jensen Arnett. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.
ReflectiveReflectiveJudgmentJudgment
The capacity to evaluate the accuracy and The capacity to evaluate the accuracy and logical coherence of logical coherence of evidence evidence and and argumentsarguments
Perry (1970; 1999) investigated reflection in Perry (1970; 1999) investigated reflection in adolescence and emerging adulthood which adolescence and emerging adulthood which included:included:• Dualistic thinkingDualistic thinking• Multiple thinkingMultiple thinking• RelativismRelativism • CommitmentCommitment
NOTE: Formal operations is a necessary but not sufficient condition
for reflective thinking
Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach by Jeffrey Jensen Arnett. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.
Information-Processing ApproachInformation-Processing Approach
Views cognitive change as Views cognitive change as continuouscontinuous – – gradual and steadygradual and steady
Focus is on the Focus is on the thinking processesthinking processes that that exist at all agesexist at all ages
The original model for this approach was The original model for this approach was the the computercomputer
The computer analogy was to try to break The computer analogy was to try to break down human thinking into separate down human thinking into separate capacities of capacities of attentionattention, , processingprocessing, and , and memorymemory
Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach by Jeffrey Jensen Arnett. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.
Information ProcessingInformation Processing
Recent models have moved away from a
simple computer
analogy and recognized the brain is more complex than any computer
In human thinking the different components
operate simultaneously
Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach by Jeffrey Jensen Arnett. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.
Information ProcessingInformation Processing
Information processing begins with Stimulus Information that enters the senses
Much of what you see, hear and touch is processed no further
Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach by Jeffrey Jensen Arnett. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.
Information ProcessingInformation Processing
Long Term Memory – memory forInformation that is committed
to longer-term storage
The capacity of long term memoryis unlimited and information
is retained indefinitely
Short Term Memory – memory for information that is currently the focus of your attention
Two types of short term memory: 1) input and storage and
2) working memory
Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach by Jeffrey Jensen Arnett. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.
Processing InformationProcessing Information SpeedSpeed
• Adolescents are Adolescents are faster than children faster than children at processing at processing informationinformation
• There is an increase There is an increase in speed of in speed of processing from age processing from age 10 through the late 10 through the late teensteens
AutomaticityAutomaticity• This is how much This is how much
cognitive effort the person cognitive effort the person needs to devote to needs to devote to processing the processing the informationinformation
• Adolescents show greater Adolescents show greater automaticity of processing automaticity of processing than pre-adolescentsthan pre-adolescents
• Automaticity depends Automaticity depends more on experience than more on experience than on age aloneon age alone
Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach by Jeffrey Jensen Arnett. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.
Limitation of Information ProcessingLimitation of Information Processing
ReductionismReductionism• Breaking up a phenomenon into separate parts to such an Breaking up a phenomenon into separate parts to such an
extent that the meaning and coherence of the phenomenon as extent that the meaning and coherence of the phenomenon as a whole becomes losta whole becomes lost
Holistic PerspectiveHolistic Perspective• Information processing scholars have those the holistic Information processing scholars have those the holistic
perspective that characterized Piaget’s workperspective that characterized Piaget’s work
Computer AnalogyComputer Analogy• Computers have no capacity for self-reflection, no awareness Computers have no capacity for self-reflection, no awareness
of how their cognitive processes are integrated, organized and of how their cognitive processes are integrated, organized and monitored – which leaves the analogy insufficient and monitored – which leaves the analogy insufficient and inadequateinadequate
Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach by Jeffrey Jensen Arnett. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.
The potential for critical thinkingThe potential for critical thinking …Daniel Keating’s perspective…Daniel Keating’s perspective
According to Keating adolescence provides the potential for According to Keating adolescence provides the potential for critical thinking in several wayscritical thinking in several ways
1.1. A A wider rangewider range of knowledge is available in long-term memory, of knowledge is available in long-term memory, across a variety of domainsacross a variety of domains
2.2. The ability to consider The ability to consider different kindsdifferent kinds of knowledge of knowledge simultaneously is increasedsimultaneously is increased
3.3. MoreMore cognitive strategiescognitive strategies are available for applying or gaining are available for applying or gaining knowledgeknowledge
CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS DO NOT DEVELOP AUTOMATICALLY!
Critical thinking requires a basis of skills and knowledge obtained in Critical thinking requires a basis of skills and knowledge obtained in childhood along with an educational environment in adolescence childhood along with an educational environment in adolescence that promotes and values critical thinkingthat promotes and values critical thinking
The American educational system does a poor job of promoting critical thinking
Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach by Jeffrey Jensen Arnett. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.
Social CognitionSocial Cognition
Social cognition is the tem used to describe the way
we think about other people, social relationships
and social institutions
Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach by Jeffrey Jensen Arnett. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.
Three aspects of social cognitionThree aspects of social cognition
1.1. Perspective takingPerspective taking- - Selman’s researchSelman’s research
2.2. Implicit personal theoriesImplicit personal theories- - Barenboim’s researchBarenboim’s research
3.3. Adolescent egocentrismAdolescent egocentrism- Elkind’s research- Elkind’s research
Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach by Jeffrey Jensen Arnett. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.
Perspective TakingPerspective Taking
Is the ability to understand the thoughts Is the ability to understand the thoughts and and feelings of othersfeelings of others
Selman’s theory of perspective taking is Selman’s theory of perspective taking is based on a based on a stage approachstage approach that children that children and adolescents go throughand adolescents go through
The The egocentrismegocentrism of childhood gradually of childhood gradually develops into the mature perspective-develops into the mature perspective-taking ability of adolescencetaking ability of adolescence
Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach by Jeffrey Jensen Arnett. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.
Perspective Taking in AdolescencePerspective Taking in Adolescence
In In early early adolescence (ages 10-12) adolescence (ages 10-12) children become capable for the first time children become capable for the first time of of mutual perspective takingmutual perspective taking
Just as you understand that another person has a
perspective that is different from you own, you also realize that other persons understand that you have a perspective that is
different from theirs
Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach by Jeffrey Jensen Arnett. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.
Perspective Taking in AdolescencePerspective Taking in Adolescence
In In late late adolescence children become adolescence children become capable of capable of social and conventional social and conventional perspective takingperspective taking
Adolescents come to realize that their social perspectives and
those of others are influenced not just by their interaction with each other but also by their roles
in the larger society
Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach by Jeffrey Jensen Arnett. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.
Implicit Personality TheoriesImplicit Personality Theories
Making judgments about what other Making judgments about what other persons are like and why they persons are like and why they behave the way they dobehave the way they do
How would this 7 year-old describe her best friend?How would this 7 year-old describe her best friend?
She is a kind girl but is naughty and silly
most of the time
She is very nice because she gives
me toffee
Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach by Jeffrey Jensen Arnett. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.
Adolescent EgocentrismAdolescent Egocentrism
Imaginary AudienceImaginary Audience• Results from Results from
adolescents’ limited adolescents’ limited capacity to capacity to distinguish between distinguish between their thinking about their thinking about themselves and their themselves and their thinking about the thinking about the thoughts of othersthoughts of others
Personal FablePersonal Fable• The belief in an The belief in an
imaginary audience imaginary audience that is highly that is highly conscious of how you conscious of how you look and act leads to look and act leads to the belief that there the belief that there must be something must be something special, something special, something unique about youunique about you
These diminish with age but never disappear entirely for most of us
Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach by Jeffrey Jensen Arnett. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.
Optimistic BiasOptimistic Bias A concept related to the personal fableA concept related to the personal fable
Comes from health psychology researchComes from health psychology research
The tendency to assume that accidents, diseases The tendency to assume that accidents, diseases and other misfortunes are more likely to happen and other misfortunes are more likely to happen to others than ourselvesto others than ourselves
Both adolescents and adults have an optimistic Both adolescents and adults have an optimistic bias with regard to health risk behaviour bias with regard to health risk behaviour
Adolescents tend to have a strong optimistic bias Adolescents tend to have a strong optimistic bias than adultsthan adults
Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach by Jeffrey Jensen Arnett. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.
Studying Optimistic Bias: SmokingStudying Optimistic Bias: SmokingStrong majorities of both adolescents and adults,
both smokers and non-smokers, believed that smoking is addictive and deadly “for most people”
Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach by Jeffrey Jensen Arnett. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.
Brief Facts about Intelligence Testing Brief Facts about Intelligence Testing
Attempting to understand human cognition by evaluating Attempting to understand human cognition by evaluating cognitive ability with intelligence tests is known as the cognitive ability with intelligence tests is known as the psychometric approachpsychometric approach
The first intelligence test was developed in 1905 by a The first intelligence test was developed in 1905 by a French psychologist named French psychologist named Alfred BinetAlfred Binet• It was just 30 items and assessed performance in areas such It was just 30 items and assessed performance in areas such
as memory and abstract thinkingas memory and abstract thinking
Louis Terman of Stanford University made some of the most Louis Terman of Stanford University made some of the most important revisions to the original test and the test is now important revisions to the original test and the test is now known as the known as the Stanford-BinetStanford-Binet• This test results in an overall score called the This test results in an overall score called the IQIQ (intelligence (intelligence
quotient)quotient)
Other widely used tests include: 1) Wechsler Intelligence Other widely used tests include: 1) Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (Scale for Children (WISC-IIIWISC-III); and 2) Wechsler Adult ); and 2) Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (Intelligence Scale (WAIS-IIIWAIS-III))
Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach by Jeffrey Jensen Arnett. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.
““Intelligent” DistinctionsIntelligent” Distinctions Fluid IntelligenceFluid Intelligence
Refers to mental abilities Refers to mental abilities that involve speed of that involve speed of analyzing, processing, and analyzing, processing, and reacting to informationreacting to information
These are the kinds of These are the kinds of abilities tapped by the abilities tapped by the Performance subtests on Performance subtests on IQ testsIQ tests
This kind of intelligence This kind of intelligence peaks in emerging peaks in emerging adulthoodadulthood
Crystallized IntelligenceCrystallized Intelligence
Refers to accumulated Refers to accumulated knowledge and enhance knowledge and enhance judgment based on experiencejudgment based on experience
Subtests like Information, Subtests like Information, Comprehension and Comprehension and Vocabulary assess this kind of Vocabulary assess this kind of intelligenceintelligence
This kind of intelligence tends This kind of intelligence tends to improve through the to improve through the twenties and thirtiestwenties and thirties
Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach by Jeffrey Jensen Arnett. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.
Absolute vs. Relative PerformanceAbsolute vs. Relative Performance
Relative performanceRelative performance on IQ tests is very on IQ tests is very stablestable• For example, people who score higher than For example, people who score higher than
average in childhood tend to score higher than average in childhood tend to score higher than average as adolescents and adultsaverage as adolescents and adults
Absolute performanceAbsolute performance on IQ tests is not as on IQ tests is not as stablestable• For example, absolute scores on Verbal sub-For example, absolute scores on Verbal sub-
tests generally improve from age 16 to 38tests generally improve from age 16 to 38Check out the graph that illustrates this ‘absolute’ point
Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach by Jeffrey Jensen Arnett. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.
Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT)Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) Most American college students have taken the Most American college students have taken the
SAT as a requirement for applying to colleges and SAT as a requirement for applying to colleges and universitiesuniversities
The SAT started out as an IQ test in the 1920sThe SAT started out as an IQ test in the 1920s• The original goal was to test innate intelligence rather The original goal was to test innate intelligence rather
than what had been learned in schoolthan what had been learned in school• It was hoped that this would make it possible to identify It was hoped that this would make it possible to identify
bright young people from humble backgrounds bright young people from humble backgrounds • It was thought that this would help colleges identify It was thought that this would help colleges identify
people with the greatest natural intelligence rather than people with the greatest natural intelligence rather than those from the most privileged familiesthose from the most privileged families
Do you think the SAT is true to its original purpose?
Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach by Jeffrey Jensen Arnett. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.
The truth about the SATThe truth about the SAT Its ability to predict success in college has always Its ability to predict success in college has always
been modestbeen modest
It has been accused of discriminating against It has been accused of discriminating against minorities and against femalesminorities and against females
It has been accused of favoring the elite It has been accused of favoring the elite
Because performance can be enhanced by Because performance can be enhanced by learning test taking strategies, wealthier students learning test taking strategies, wealthier students are more likely to affect test preparation coursesare more likely to affect test preparation courses
In response to these criticisms the SAT has recentlybeen dramatically revised to be an achievement test
rather than an intelligence test.The new SAT will be used in 2005!
Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach by Jeffrey Jensen Arnett. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.
Other Conceptions of IntelligenceOther Conceptions of Intelligence
Alternative theories of intelligence have Alternative theories of intelligence have been proposed to present a conception of been proposed to present a conception of intelligence that is much broader than the intelligence that is much broader than the traditional onetraditional one
Two of the most important alternative Two of the most important alternative theories have been presented by:theories have been presented by:
1.1. Robert Sternberg – Robert Sternberg – Triarchic TheoryTriarchic Theory
2.2. Howard Gardner – Howard Gardner – Theory of Multiple IntelligencesTheory of Multiple Intelligences
Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach by Jeffrey Jensen Arnett. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.
Triarchic TheoryTriarchic Theory Includes three distinct but related forms of intelligenceIncludes three distinct but related forms of intelligence
1.1. Componential intelligence Componential intelligence –– the kind of intelligence that the kind of intelligence that IQ tests measures which involves acquiring, storing, IQ tests measures which involves acquiring, storing, analyzing, and retrieving informationanalyzing, and retrieving information
2.2. Experiential intelligenceExperiential intelligence – – involves the ability to combine involves the ability to combine information in creative ways to produce new insights, ideas, information in creative ways to produce new insights, ideas, and problem-solving strategiesand problem-solving strategies
3.3. Contextual intelligenceContextual intelligence – – is practical intelligence, the is practical intelligence, the ability to apply information to the kinds of problems faced in ability to apply information to the kinds of problems faced in everyday life, including the capacity to evaluate social everyday life, including the capacity to evaluate social situationssituations
Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach by Jeffrey Jensen Arnett. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.
Theory of Multiple IntelligencesTheory of Multiple Intelligences
Includes eight types of intelligenceIncludes eight types of intelligence1.1. LinguisticLinguistic2.2. Logical-mathematicalLogical-mathematical3.3. Spatial Spatial 4.4. MusicalMusical5.5. Bodily-kinestheticBodily-kinesthetic6.6. NaturalistNaturalist7.7. InterpersonalInterpersonal8.8. IntrapersonalIntrapersonal
Gardner argues that school show give more attention to the development ofall eight kinds of intelligence and develop programs that would be tailored
to each child’s individual profile of intelligence
Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach by Jeffrey Jensen Arnett. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural TheoryVygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
According to this theory, cognitive According to this theory, cognitive development is inherently both a development is inherently both a social social and and culturalcultural process process
• It is It is social social because children learn through because children learn through interactions with others and require assistance interactions with others and require assistance from others in order to learn what they need to from others in order to learn what they need to knowknow
• It is It is culturalcultural because what children need to because what children need to know is determined by the culture they live inknow is determined by the culture they live in
Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach by Jeffrey Jensen Arnett. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.
Vygotsky’s Most Influential IdeasVygotsky’s Most Influential Ideas
ScaffoldingScaffolding• Refers to the degree of assistance provided to the Refers to the degree of assistance provided to the
adolescent in the zone of proximal developmentadolescent in the zone of proximal development
• Scaffolding should gradually decrease as children Scaffolding should gradually decrease as children become more competent at a taskbecome more competent at a task
Zone of Proximal DevelopmentZone of Proximal Development• Is the gap between what adolescents can accomplish Is the gap between what adolescents can accomplish
along and what they are capable of doing if guided by an along and what they are capable of doing if guided by an adult or a more competent peeradult or a more competent peer
Social Process of Learning
Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach by Jeffrey Jensen Arnett. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.
Building on Vygotsky’s LegacyBuilding on Vygotsky’s Legacy
Barbara Rogoff has extending Vygotsky’s Barbara Rogoff has extending Vygotsky’s theory with the idea of theory with the idea of Guided ParticipationGuided Participation
• Refers to the teaching interaction between two Refers to the teaching interaction between two people as they participate in a culturally value people as they participate in a culturally value activityactivity
• This guidance is “the direction offered by cultural This guidance is “the direction offered by cultural and social values, as well as social partnersand social values, as well as social partners
Research shows! Despite the rise of a cultural approach to studying psychology far more research is conducted using the cognitive-developmental, information processing and psychometric approaches