adult educational psychology: diverse perspectives from an emerging field. introductory comments

8/14/2019 Adult Educational Psychology: Diverse Perspectives from an Emerging Field. Introductory Comments

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Adult Educational Psychology: Diverse Perspectives from an Emerging Field

Introductory Comments

M Cecil Smith

Northern Illinois University

4/21/99

Presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Montreal.

April, 1999.


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The purpose of this mini-symposium is to introduce and discuss adult educational

psychology. Several presentations will pertain to topics that are considered to be relevant to this

subfield of educational psychology. These presentations will address the following issues:

Introduction: What is adult educational psychology? (M Cecil Smith).

Developing learning in adult problem-solving (Nira Granott).

Adults epistemological beliefs and implications for educating adults (Marlo Schommer).

Adult readers implicit beliefs about reading: Some implications for adult learning (Gregg

Schraw).

Identifying adult educational psychology in adult development textbooks (Peggy

Gallagher)

Discussant response: Do we need an adult educational psychology? (Steve Reder).

Where Does Adult Educational Psychology Come From?

Figure 1 illustrates the locus of the subfield of adult educational psychology, as it is

derived from, and is assumed to contribute to, the larger disciplines of educational psychology ,

adult education, and developmental psychology. Research on adult development, learning and

instruction, and cognition contribute to the knowledge base in adult educational psychology.

Rationale for an Adult Educational Psychology

The casual student of adult education might believe that educational psychology and adult

education have little in common. After all, adult educators have generally concerned themselves

with the advancement of adult learning in a wide variety of institutions and settings such as


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schools, churches, labor unions, libraries, and perhaps to less extent, formal learning within

colleges and universities. Educational psychologists, on the other hand, have traditionally studied

the instruction and learning of younger students in public schools. Thus, one might be surprised to

learn that the father of educational psychology, Edward L. Thorndike published, in 1928, a

book on adult learning which claimed that the ability to learn in adulthood was undiminished with

age (Thorndike, Bregman, Tilton, & Woodyard, 1928). Despite Thorndikes contribution,

historically, there has been little explicit connection between psychology and adult education--

although adult educators typically have some exposure to some theoretical perspectives on human

development or principles of learning (Tennant, 1997). The Handbook of Adult and Continuing

Education (Merriam & Cunningham, 1991), however, has no mention of psychology within its

topic index. This omission suggests that psychological findings pertinent to learning are perceived

as either irrelevant or unimportant to adult educators. As our (Smith & Gallagher, 1999) analyses

of adult development textbooks will show, developmental psychologists have largely ignored the

application of adult development research to adult education practice. Among the reasons for the

lack of interactions between these disciplines are:

(a) philosophical differences about the nature of knowledge and methods of inquiry in

regards to learning (Collins, 1991).

(b) adult educations focus on the roles of social and group processes in learning (Griffin,

1987) contrasted with psychologys concern with individual differences (Horn & Hofer, 1992);

(c) psychologys historical emphasis on standardization and measurement of variables

(which imply institutional- and teacher control over what is learned and what is known)

contrasted with adult educations acknowledgement of the unpredictability of students learning,

and students control over their own learning (Robinson & Taylor, 1983).


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(d) developmental psychologys traditional emphasis on child development (Baltes &

Goulet, 1970) contrasted with adult educations focus on learning and maturity in adulthood; and,

(e) psychologys tendency to study developmental and learning processes among primarily

white, middle class populations contrasted with adult educations attention to socially

disadvantaged populations and racial and cultural diversity (Brookfield, 1986).

It is time, however, to move beyond these disciplinary boundaries and barriers and seek to

establish a dialogue that leads to exchange of ideas, interaction of scholars, and increased

attention to improving the lives and livelihood of adults through educational services and

programs that attend to the psychological dimensions of adult learning. Several reasons can be

offered for identifying the subfield of adult educational psychology and these reasons provide a

basis for establishing a discourse that acknowledges the mutual interplay of developmental and

educational psychology and adult education.

First, there are growing numbers of adults in educational programs that range from adult

basic education (ABE) and workplace literacy programs to corporate training seminars and

university classes. The economic boom of the 1990s has led to the widespread recognition that

workers need to be prepared to adapt to rapid changes in the work environment (U.S.

Department of Education, 1997). As businesses, industries, and corporate concerns prosper,

workers may be impacted in a number of ways. Some employees will be downsized, while

others will be offered opportunities for advancement. In both of these scenarios, adults may seek

job retraining or advanced training to meet new occupational demands. Non-English speaking

mmigrants seeking new and better lives in the United States need to become literate in English in

order to secure good jobs and to take advantage of the social and cultural opportunities available

to them and to assist their children in school (Wagner & Venezky, 1999).


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Second, corresponding to the growth of adult education, the numbers of non-traditional,

older students (age 25 and up) in undergraduate 2- and 4-year colleges continues to increase,

reflecting demographic changes as the large population of baby boomers ages. Universities and

colleges have been somewhat slow to respond to these demographic changes because of their

historical focus on the 18-22 year old population. Increasingly, however, student services are

being made available to non-traditional students, including weekend classes, short courses (e.g., 2,

4, 6 weeks), credit for life experiences, and so on. Because the average life span is increasing,

older adults have increasingly greater opportunities for recreation and leisure, and desire for life-

long learning. Therefore, adult educators need to be aware of the characteristics and capacities of

senior adult learners and to understand their motives for learning and the difficulties they face in

returning to formal educational settings (Scala, 1996).

Third, given the rapid expansion of the adult education population, there is a need for a

discipline that integrates, generates, and applies knowledge from studies in adult development,

cognitive aging, and educational psychology to adult learning and education. Practitioners can

benefit from having access to a knowledge base that will inform them about effective ways to

stage instruction for learners with diverse needs, interests, skills, and backgrounds. Policymakers

can benefit from theoretical and research bases that suggest how programs might be best

developed to meet the learning needs of diverse populations. Researchers can benefit from having

access to a readily-defined body of knowledge and scholarship.

Fourth, although a few recent adult education textbooks have attended to psychological

development in adulthood (Merriam & Caffarella, 1991; Tennant, 1997; Tennant & Pogson,

1995), these are the exception rather than the rule. While adult educators talk about learning

and intellectual transformation, (Mezirow & Associates, 1990) there is little description of what


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the cognitive processes are that underlie learning and transformation, how these processes

develop, and how they might be influenced by educational experiences in adulthood. Adult

development textbooks, on the other hand, devote little attention to adult education issues and the

ways in which adult education can contribute to learning and development in adulthood.

Thus, there is a need for a discourse that enables developmentalists, educational

psychologists, and adult educators to, first, acknowledge that one another exist and may have

something to offer to them; and, second, begin to communicate and collaborate in ways that

increase our knowledge of adult development and learning in educational settings.

Adult educational psychologists are concerned with improving adult learning, methods of

instruction and assessment of adult learning, and promoting development across the life span.

Rather than imposing a set of principles or correct procedures for analysis and assessment of

adult learning and instruction, adult educational psychologists seek to dialogue with adult

educators in ways that support what adult educators do, increase psychologists knowledge of

adult learning, and contribute to advancement of the discipline. Adult educational psychologists

recognize that other disciplines and areas of study (e.g., sociology, history, gender studies,

philosophy) are equally important to the well-prepared adult educator as is basic knowledge of

psychology and human development.

Some Premises of Adult Educational Psychology

Establishing a discourse, if not a subdiscipline, requires some level of understanding and

agreement about what constitutes the playing field for subsequent cross-boundary interactions

and communications. The following premises provide a foundation upon which to establish a

discourse of adult educational psychology.


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The character and quality of learning in adulthood contributes to development across the

adult life span.

The task(s) of adult educational psychology is to specify the type and nature of these

learning-development connections.

Exploration into how life-span developmental processes (e.g., social, cognitive,

intellectual) take shape in educational institutions and settings is a basic activity of the field. While

recognizing that adult learning and development occurs in multiple, interacting contexts and

settings, the primary focus of study is in educational settings.

Adults expertise and life experience are vital to understanding how adults learn and

develop.

Adult educational psychology contributes to adult education through its emphasis on

generating, testing and applying learning theories, but is distinct from the applied practice of adult

education.

The unique characteristics of adults as learners is acknowledged and adult educational

psychologists assist adult educators in finding the right fit between instructional practices and

procedures and learner characteristics.

Research efforts should be interdisciplinary, involving developmentalists, including those

concerned with aging and gerontology, educational psychologists, cognitive and social

psychologists, and adult education experts--including those who plan and those who provide

instruction to adults.


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References

Baltes, P.B., & Goulet, L.R. (1970). Status and issues of a life-span developmental

psychology. In L.R. Goulet & P.B. Baltes (Eds.). Life-span developmental psychology: Research

and theory (pp. 3-21). New York: Academic.

Brookfield, S. (1986). Understanding and facilitating adult learning. San Francisco:

Jossey-Bass.

Collins, M. (1991). Adult education as vocation: A critical role for the adult educator.

London: Routledge.

Griffin, C. (1987). Adult education and social policy. London: Croom Helm.

Horn, J.L., & Hofer, S.M. (1992). Major abilities and development in the adult period. In

R.J. Sternberg & C.A. Berg (Eds.), Intellectual development (pp. 44-99). Cambridge, UK:

Cambridge University press.

Merriam, S., & Cafarella, R. (1991). Learning in adulthood. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Merriam, S., & Cunningham, P. (1991). Handbook of adult and continuing education. San

Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Mezirow, J. (1994). Understanding transformation theory. Adult Education Quarterly, 44,

222-232.

Robinson, J., & Taylor, D. (1983). Behavioural objectives in training for adult education.

International Journal of Lifelong Education, 2, 355-370.

Scala, M.A. (1996). Going back to school: Participation motives and experiences of older

adults in an undergraduate classroom. Educational Gerontology, 22, 747-773.

Tennant, M. (1997). Psychology and adult learning (2nd ed.). London: Routledge.

Tennant, M., & Pogson, P. (1995). Learning and change in the adult years: A

developmental perspective. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Thorndike, E.L., Bregman, E.O., Tilton, J.W., & Woodyard, E. (1928). Adult learning.

New York: Macmillan.

U.S. Department of Education. (1997). Strategic plan, 1998-2002. Washington, DC: U.S.

Department of Education.

Wagner, D.A., & Venezky, R.L. (1999). Adult literacy: The next generation. Educational

Researcher, 28(1), 21-29.


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Premises of Adult Educational Psychology

The character and quality of learning in adulthoodcontributes to development across the adult life span.

The task of adult educational psychology is to specify

the type and nature of these learning-development

connections.

Exploration into how life-span developmental processestake shape in educational settings is a basic activity of the

field.

Adults expertise and life experiences are vital to

understanding how adults learn and develop.

Adult educational psychology contributes to adult

education through generating, testing and applying

learning theories.

Adult educational psychologists assist adult educators in

finding the right fit between instructional practices and

procedures and learner characteristics.

Research is interdisciplinary.

Distinct from the applied practice of adult education.


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