advances in environmental research, volume 13

8/9/2019 Advances in Environmental Research, Volume 13

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ADVANCES IN ENVIRONMENTAL R ESEARCH

ADVANCES IN ENVIRONMENTAL

R ESEARCH.

VOLUME 13

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ADVANCES IN ENVIRONMENTAL

R ESEARCH.

VOLUME 13

JUSTIN A. DANIELS

EDITOR

Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

New York


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Copyright © 2011 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

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Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. † New York


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CONTENTS

Preface vii

Short Commentary The Global Extent of Black C in Soils: Is It Everywhere? 3 Evelyn Krull, Johannes Lehmann, Jan Skjemstad,

Jeff Baldock and Leonie Spouncer

Research and Review Studies

Chapter 1 Current and Emerging Microbiology Issues of Potable Water inDeveloped Countries 11 William J. Snelling, Catherine D. Carrillo, Colm J. Lowery

John E. Moore, John P. Pezacki, James S. G. Dooley

and Roy D. Sleator

Chapter 2 Vermiculture Biotechnology: The Emerging Cost-Effective andSustainable Technology of the 21st Century for Waste and LandManagement to Safe and Sustainable Food Production 41 Rajiv K. Sinha, Sunil Herat, Gokul Bharambe, Swapnil Patil,

Uday Chaudhary, Priyadarshan Bapat, Ashish Brahambhatt,

David Ryan, Dalsukh Valani, Krunal Chauhan, R. K. Suhane

and P. K. Singh

Chapter 3 Human Waste - A Potential Resource: Converting Trash intoTreasure by Embracing the 5 R‘s Philosophy for Safe andSustainable Waste Management 111 Rajiv K. Sinha, Sunil Herat, Gokul Bharambe, Swapnil Patil,

Pryadarshan Bapat, Krunal Chauhan and Dalsukh Valani

Chapter 4 Effective Removal of Low Concentrations of Arsenic and Lead andthe Monitoring of Molecular Removal Mechanism at Surface 173 Yasuo Izumi

Chapter 5 On the Redistribution of Tissue Metal (Cadmium, Nickel and Lead)

Loads in Mink Accompanying Parasitic Infection by the GiantKidney Worm (Dioctophyme Renale) 187 Glenn H. Parker and Liane Capodagli


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Contentsvi

Chapter 6 Aerobically Biodegraded Fish-Meal Wastewater as a Fertilizer 219 Joong Kyun Kim and Geon Lee

Chapter 7 Equity of Access to Public Parks in Birmingham, England 237 Andrew P. Jones, Julii Brainard, Ian J. Bateman

and Andrew A. Lovett

Chapter 8 An Idea for Phenomenological Theory of Living Systems 257 Svetla E. Teodorova

Chapter 9 A New Trait of Gentoo Penguin: Possible Relation to AntarcticaEnvironmental State? 271

Roumiana Metcheva, Vladimir Bezrukov, Svetla E.Teodorova

and Yordan Yankov

Chapter 10 Assessing Population Viability of Focal Species Targets in the

Western Forest Complex, Thailand 285 Yongyut Trisurat and Anak Pattanavibool

Chapter 11 Protection of Riparian Landscapes in Israel 305 Tseira Maruani and Irit Amit-Cohen

Chapter 12 Hydraulic Characterization of Aquifer(s) and Pump Test DataAnalysis of Deep Aquifer in the Arsenic Affected Meghna RiverFloodplain of Bangladesh 325 Anwar Zahid, M. Qumrul Hassan, Jeff L. Imes and David W. Clark

Chapter 13 Application of DNA Microarrays to Microbial Ecology Research:History, Challenges, and Recent Developments 357 John J. Kelly

Chapter 14 Food Safety in India: Challenges and Opportunities 385 Wasim Aktar

Chapter 15 Impact of Pesticide Use in Indian Agriculture Their Benefits andHazards 423 Wasim Aktar

Chapter 16 Ozone Decomposition by Catalysts and its Application in WaterTreatment: An Overview 433 J. Rivera-Utrilla, M. Sánchez-Polo and J. D. Méndez-Díaz

Chapter 17 Use of Microarrays to Study Environmentally Relevant Organisms:A UK Perspective 465 Michael J. Allen, Andrew R. Cossins, Neil Hall,

Mark Blaxter,

Terry Burke and Dawn Field

Index 481


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PREFACE

Short Communication - The latest projections of the Intergovernmental Panel on ClimateChange (IPCC) estimate a 3°C increase in global temperatures within the next 100 years

(IPCC 4th Assessment Report, 2007), and global warming is seen as a major driver inaccelerating decomposition of soil organic matter, resulting in increased production of CO2(e.g. Davidson and Janssens, 2006). The 2007 IPCC report recommended coupling models ofterrestrial biogeochemical and atmospheric and oceanic processes in order to improve generalcirculation models and to recognize the quantitative value of soil organic carbon (SOC) in theglobal carbon cycle.

Estimates of CO2 emissions from soil rely on predictions of the response of differentSOC pools to global warming and correct estimation of the size of these pools. In comparisonto the pool representing the most stable and biologically unreactive fraction, commonlyreferred to as passive or inert organic carbon (IOC), the decomposition of labile C is expected

to be faster as a response to temperature increase. IOC is a fraction of the SOC pool that is notreadily available for microbial decomposition and has turnover times exceeding 100 years(e.g. Krull et al., 2003).

Black C (BC) is usually considered the most abundant form of IOC and is defined as the‗carbonaceous residue of incomplete combustion of biomass and fossil fuels‘ (Schmidt and Noack, 2000). BC is important to several biogeochemical processes; for example, BC potentially modifies climate by acting as a potential carbon sink for greenhouse gases(Kuhlbusch, 1998) and leads to increasing solar reflectance of the Earth‘s atmosphere, butalso to a heating of the atmosphere (Crutzen and Andreae, 1990). BC production from fossil

fuel combustion contributes to aerosol C, decreasing surface albedo and solar radiation (IPCC4th Assessment Report). Due to its condensed aromatic structure, BC has a low biochemicalreactivity. 14C ages of BC in soils vary between 1160 and 5040 years (e.g. Schmidt et al.2002).

Chapter 1 - Water is vital for life; for commercial and industrial purposes and for leisureactivities in the daily lives of the world‘s population. Diarrhoeal disease associated withconsumption of poor quality water is one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality indeveloping countries (especially in children


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A variety of human pathogens can be transmitted orally by water and in the developed worldwater quality regulations require that potable water contains no microbial pathogens.

Chlorine dioxide is a safe, relatively effective biocide that has been widely used fordrinking water disinfection for 40 years. Providing the water is of low turbidity, standard

chlorination procedures are sufficient to prevent the spread of planktonic bacteria along watermains. However, despite this, bacterial contamination of water distribution systems is welldocumented, with growth typically occuring on surfaces, including pipe walls and sediments.Rivers, streams and lakes are all important sources of drinking water and are used routinelyfor recreational purposes. However, due to fouling by farm and wild animals, these sourcescan be contaminated with microbes, e.g. chlorine resistant Cryptosporidium oocysts, nomatter how pristine the source or well maintained the water delivery system. The highincidence of Cryptosporidium in surface water sources underlines the need for frequentmonitoring of the parasite in drinking water. The use of coliforms as indicator organisms,although considered relevant to most cases, is not without limitations, and is thus not a

completely reliable parameter of water safety, e.g. Campylobacter contamination cannot beaccurately predicted by coliform enumeration. Furthermore, the presence of biofilms and bacterial interactions with protozoa in water facilitate increased resistance to antimicrobialagents and procedures such as disinfectants and heating, e.g. Legionnaires‘ disease caused byLegionella pneumophila.

The high cost of waterborne disease outbreaks should be considered in decisionsregarding water utility improvement and treatment plant construction. The control of humanillnesses associated with water would be aided by a greater understanding of the interactions between water-borne protozoa and bacterial pathogens, which until relatively recently have

been overlooked.Chapter 2 - A revolution is unfolding in vermiculture studies (rearing of usefulearthworms species) for multiple uses in environmental management and sustainabledevelopment. (Martin, 1976; Satchell, 1983; Bhawalkar and Bhawalkar, 1994; Sinha et.al2002; Fraser-Quick, 2002). Vermiculture biotechnology promises to provide cheapersolutions to following environmental and social problems plaguing the civilization –

Management of municipal and industrial solid wastes (organics) by biodegradation andstabilization and converting them into useful resource (vermicompost) – ‗THE VERMI-COMPOSTING TECHNOLOGY‘ (VCT) ;

Treatment of municipal and some industrial (food processing industries) wastewater,

purification and disinfection - ‗THE VERMI-FILTRATIO N TECHNOLOGY‘ (VFT); Removing chemical contaminations from soils (land decontamination) and reducing soil

salinity while improving soil properties- ‗THE VERMI-REMEDIATION TECHNOLOGY‘(VRT);

Restoring and improving soil fertility and boosting crop productivity by worm activityand use of vermicompost (miracle growth promoter) while eliminating the use of destructiveagro-chemicals - ‗THE VERMI-AGRO-PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY‘ (VAPT);

Vermi-composting, vermi-filtration, vermi-remediation and vermi-agro-production areself-promoted, self-regulated, self-improved and self-enhanced, low or no-energy requiringzero-waste technology, easy to construct, operate and maintain. It excels all ‗bio-conversion‘,‗bio-degradation‘ and ‗bio- production‘ technologies by the fact that it can utilize organics thatotherwise cannot be utilized by others. It excels all ‗bio-treatment‘ technologies because itachieves greater utilization than the rate of destruction achieved by other technologies. It


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involves about 100-1000 times higher ‗value addition‘ than other biological technologies.(Appeholf, 1997).

About 4,400 different species of earthworms have been identified, and quite a few ofthem are versatile waste eaters and bio-degraders and several of them are bio-accumulators

and bio-transformers of toxic chemicals from contaminated soils rendering the land fit for productive uses.Chapter 3 - Waste is being generated by the human societies since ancient times.

Ironically waste was not a problem for the environment when men were primitive anduncivilized. Waste is a problem of the modern civilized society. Materials used and wastegenerated by the traditional societies were little and ‗simple‘ while those by the modernhuman societies are large and ‗complex‘. With modernization in development drastic changescame in our consumer habits and life-style and in every activity like education, recreation,traveling, feeding, clothing and housing we are generating lots of wastes. The world todaygenerate about 2.4 billion tones of solid waste every year in which the Western World alone

contributes about 620 million tones / year.Discarded products arising from all human activities (cultural and developmental) and

those arising from the plants and animals, that are normally solid or semi-solid at roomtemperature are termed as solid wastes. Municipal solid waste (MSW) is a term used torepresent all the garbage created by households, commercial sites (restaurants, grocery andother stores, offices and public places etc.) and institutions (educational establishments,museums etc.). This also includes wastes from small and medium sized cottage industries.

We are facing the escalating economic and environmental cost of dealing with currentand future generation of mounting municipal solid wastes (MSW), specially the technological

(developmental) wastes which comprise the hazardous industrial wastes, and also the healthcost to the people suffering from it. Developmental wastes poses serious risk to human healthand environment at every stage – from generation to transportation and use, and duringtreatment for safe disposal. Another serious cause of concern is the emission of greenhousegases methane and nitrous oxides resulting from the disposal of MSW either in the landfills orfrom their management by composting.

Dealing with solid household waste in more sustainable ways involves changes not onlyto everyday personal habits, consumerist attitudes and practices, but also to the systems ofwaste management by local government and local industry and the retailers.

This chapter reviews the causes and consequences of escalating human waste, the

increasing complexity of the waste generated, and the policies and strategies of safe wastemanagement. It also provides ‗food for thought‘ for future policy decisions that governmentof nations may have to take to ‗reduce waste‘ and divert them from ending up in the landfills ,drawing experiences from both developed nation (Australia) and a developing nation (India).

Chapter 4 - New sorbents were investigated for the effective removal of lowconcentrations of arsenic and lead to adjust to modern worldwide environmental regulation ofdrinking water (10 ppb). Mesoporous Fe oxyhydroxide synthesized using dodecylsulfate wasmost effective for initial 200 ppb of As removal, especially for more hazardous arsenite forhuman's health. Hydrotalcite-like layered double hydroxide consisted of Fe and Mg was mosteffective for initial 55 ppb of Pb removal.

The molecular removal mechanism is critical for environmental problem and protection because valence state change upon removal of e.g. As on sorbent surface from environmentalwater may detoxify arsenite to less harmful arsenate. It is also because the evaluation of


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desorption rates is important to judge the efficiency of reuse of sorbents. To monitor the lowconcentrations of arsenic and lead on sorbent surface, selective X-ray absorption finestructure (XAFS) spectroscopy was applied for arsenic and lead species adsorbed, free fromthe interference of high concentrations of Fe sites contained in the sorbents and to selectively

detect toxic AsIII among the mixture of AsIII and AsV species in sample.Oxidative adsorption mechanism was demonstrated on Fe-montmorillonite andmesoporous Fe oxyhydroxide starting from AsIII species in aqueous solution to AsV bymaking complex with unsaturated FeOx(OH)y sites at sorbent surface. Coagulationmechanism was demonstrated on double hydroxide consisted of Fe and Mg from the initial 1 ppm of Pb2+ aqueous solution whereas the mechanism was simple ion exchange reactionwhen the initial Pb2+ concentrations were as low as 100 ppb.

Chapter 5 - Patterns of metal uptake and accumulation in mink living under conditions ofenvironmental pollution and simultaneously inflicted with the invasive giant kidney worm(Dioctophyme renale) parasite have not been examined, nor is the combined effect of these

dual insults on the health and physical condition of the animal known. Using animalscollected within the influence of the long-active ore-smelters at Sudbury, Ontario, anexamination was made of toxic metal (Cd, Ni and Pb) levels and their tissue distributionswithin adult male mink bearing different intensities of parasite infection. Higher metal burdens were indicated within infected specimens than those uninfected. Combined renal andhepatic nickel and lead burdens were highest for mink with multiple worm infections,although only lead accumulations reached statistical significance. Cadmium accumulated tothe greatest extent in the hypertrophied left kidney and liver, whereas nickel and lead weredeposited more readily in the bony spicule of the parasitized right kidney cyst. The relative

distribution of cadmium among renal, hepatic and renal cyst tissues (cast, spicule, worms)remained unchanged subsequent to D. renale infection, while the proportions of nickel andlead deposited in hepatic tissue were reduced. Metal burdens in female D. renale were three-fold higher than those of male worms, with the difference being attributable to thesubstantially greater size of the females. Canonical Correlation Analyses of conditionmeasures and body metal burdens failed to indicate a direct relationship between infectionintensity and body fat deposits but did confirm a positive association between metal loads andincreased fat levels, along with enhanced gonad weights, neck circumference and reducedspleen weights. Such associations may be productive aspects for future investigation into thecombined effects of increased metal loads and parasitic infection on the host system.

Chapter 6 - Reutilization of fish-meal wastewater (FMW) as a fertilizer was attempted,and aerobic biodegradation of the FMW were successfully achieved by microbial consortiumin a 1-ton bioreactor. During the large-scale biodegradation of FMW, the level of DO wasmaintained over 1.25 mg∙l-1, and a strong unpleasant smell remarkably disappeared in theend. Although the level of total amino acids and the concentrations of N, P and K in the biodegraded FMW were relatively lower than those in two commercial fertilizers, theconcentrations of noxious components in the biodegraded FMW were much lower than thestandard concentrations. The phytotoxicity of the biodegraded FMW was almost equal to thatof the commercial fertilizers. The fastest growth in hydroponic cultures of red bean and barley was achieved at 100-fold and 500-fold dilution, respectively, the growth of which wascomparable to those of 1,000-fold diluted commercial-fertilizers. From all above results, itwas concluded that a large-scale biodegradation of FMW was successful and the properties of


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Preface xi

FMW were acceptable. This is the first study to demonstrate aerobic production of liquid-fertilizer from FMW.

Chapter 7 - Provision of public parks has long been advocated as an equalising measure between different elements of society. This study assesses equity of park provision for

different ethnic and income-status populations in the urban area of Birmingham in centralEngland. Parks in Birmingham were categorized into a two group typology of green areassuited for more solitary and passive activities (amenity parks) or open spaces designed morefor informal sports or other physical and group activities (recreational parks). Using ageographical information system, measures of access to these green spaces were computedfor populations of different ethnicities and levels of material deprivation, derived from datafrom the 2001 UK Census and the 2004 Index of Multiple Deprivation. Distance-weightedaccess scores were calculated and compared for five population groups ranked by relativedeprivation, and for five ethnic groups; Bangladeshis, blacks, Indians, Pakistanis and whites.Statistical analysis found that there were strong disparities in access with respect to

deprivation whereby the most income-deprived groups were also the most deprived withregard to access to public parks. There was little evidence of unequal access between ethnicgroups. The implications of these findings are discussed.

Chapter 8 - An idea for developing of new science field, biodynamics, as biophysicalmacroscopic theory is propounded. The functioning of living organism as an organizedentirety is the main specificity of the life. Hence it is quite reasonable to describe behaviourof biological systems in terms of own theoretical basis. In this article a new state variablevitality as integral characteristic of biological object and measure unit bion are stated. Aquantity biological energy is introduced as energy form related to biological selfregulation.

Quantity synergy is suggested as measure of selfregulation quality. Biological principle formaximum synergy in healthy living systems is stated. On the basis of variational principle anequation describing recovery process of a biological object after disturbance is obtained. Thequantity optimal vitality, related to homeostasis, decreases in lifespan scale and its evolutionis described by ordinary differential equation. The potential lifespan maximum of severalspecies at different life conditions may be calculated at different parameters of the equation.A wide range of environmental influences on the living organism could be promptlyand easily assessed in the terms of the biodynamics approach. Such an approach could beused for a simple estimation of a patients‘ health status.

Chapter 9 - Some morphological traits of Antarctic animals could be considered in the

context of a trend to more direct relation between environmental conditions and possibleadaptive mechanisms of animal‘s organism. Penguins are excellent object for biomonitoring.Here a preliminarily report is presented regarding a new trait, a spot- like coloration (―yellowspot‖) of the bill, observed on the upper mandible of Gentoo penguin (subspecies Pygoscelis papua ellsworthii). The spot varied in size and colour. It was recorded among chicks over twomonths old and adult birds (normal and molting). The trait had no significant relationship tothe animal' s sex. Among all inspected females 31% and among all inspected males 27%exhibited beak spot. Three breeding colonies were investigated at three different geographicallocations at the Antarctic Peninsula – Livingston Island, South Shetlands (6238 S), Wiencke

Island (64o52 S), and Petermann Island (6510 S). Yellow spot was found with differentfrequencies at these three locations: 20%, 36%, and 30%, respectively. All spotted penguinsfrom the three colonies were 32% when compared to all non-spotted. The possible reasons forthe spot-like coloration are discussed. The trait could be a phenotypic characteristic. It could


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play some role in the mate choice. A possible connection to carotenoid pigments content doesnot be eliminated in the context of Gentoo diet. A probable cause for the beak spotappearance seems to be the increasing of ozone depletion above Antarctica. The ultravioletradiation enhances free radical production. Other studies reported an increase of the flux of

transsulfuration pathway as a defense reaction, resulting in elevated level of cysteine. Whencysteine concentration is raised, an attaching of cysteine to melanin synthesis pathway occursand this results in formation of reddish pigments.

Chapter 10 - The Western Forest Complex (WEFCOM) in Thailand coversapproximately 19,000 km2. This protected area complex comprises 11 national parks and 6wildlife sanctuaries. During 1999-2004, the Danish Government provided financial support tothe Royal Forest Department to manage this forest complex through the ecosystemmanagement approach. The WEFCOM Project employed rapid ecological assessment (REA)to determine the current distribution statuses of wildlife species, develop a GeographicInformation System (GIS), and define habitat uses of wildlife. This paper is based upon the

achievements of the WEFCOM Project. It aims to define suitable habitats of selected keywildlife species in the WEFCOM and to assess the current and desired statuses under a population viability estimate for those species. The focal wildlife species were sambar(Cervus unicolor), gaur (Bos gaurus), banteng (Bos javanicus), Asian elephant (Elephasmaximus), and tiger (Panthera tigris. The authors used logistic multiple regression todetermine habitat uses of wildlife and employed minimum dynamic area and landscapematrix surrounding suitable habitats as criteria to assess population viability. The resultsindicate the current suitable habitat mainly remains in Huai Kha Khaeng and Thung Yaiwildlife sanctuaries. In addition, the current viability condition is good for sambar, fair for

gaur, elephant and tiger; and poor for banteng. However, landscape matrices outside thesuitable habitats for all species range from moderate to high connection of native vegetation.If the project aims to upgrade the viabilities to the next level in the next 10 years, park rangersand multi-stakeholders have to increase the amount of suitable habitats for all species from12,630 km2 or 67% of the WEFCOM to 16,750 km2 or 89%. By doing this, the number ofsuitable patches would significantly decrease and the mean patch size would increasesubstantially, thereby indicating less fragmentation.

Chapter 11 - Riparian landscapes are natural habitats of unique ecological and scenicvalues, which are highly sensitive to human intervention and impact. Yet, due to theirqualities, and especially the presence of water, they are also usually attractive for recreation

purposes. This is more so in arid and semi-arid zones like Israel. Nevertheless, in the past, theimportance of riparian landscapes in Israel did not receive adequate attention in policy and planning. As a result, over the years they were exposed to various negative impacts, including pollution by industrial and agricultural effluents, exploitation of water for agricultural andother purposes, and land use conflicts. Although in recent years with the growing awarenessof their ecological and recreational potential, considerable efforts are being invested in therehabilitation of deteriorated riparian landscapes, their protection is still deficient.

This chapter reviews and examines policy tools used for the protection of riparianlandscapes in Israel, based mainly on regulations, reports and existing literature. It concludes by offering some lessons for policy-making in general and suggestions for improving the protection of riparian landscapes in Israel in particular.

Chapter 12 - To determine the hydraulic characteristics of aquifers and development potential of deep aquifer for sustainable long-term use, study was undertaken by assessing


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Preface xiii

water levels of different aquifer formations and conducting pumping test in deep aquiferunder Meghna floodplain area of southeastern Bangladesh. Because of arsenic contaminationin shallow groundwater, characterization of deeper aquifers and assess their hydraulicconnectivity is now an important issue in Bangladesh. Study shows that groundwater

pumping for irrigation and other uses cause large seasonal water level fluctuations that is between 2 and 4.5m, 6.5 and 11m and 6.5m in the shallow, main and deep aquifers,respectively. The trend of groundwater level fluctuations supports the hydraulic connectivityof these aquifers. Aquitards separating aquifers are not continuous regionally. This impliesthat uncontrolled development of deep aquifers may cause leakage of arsenic fromcontaminated shallow depths to aquifers below. Water levels dropping below sea level forover withdrawal may also cause saline water intrusion as well. However, during the constant-discharge pumping test for deep aquifer, water levels in observation wells open to the shallowand main aquifers showed no noticeable effect from pumping i.e. under conditions ofmoderate groundwater use for public supply, arsenic-rich groundwater in the shallow aquifer

are not likely to be drawn into the deep aquifer. The transmissivity values of the aquifer isgenerally favorable for groundwater development and ranged from about 1,070 m2/day to2,948 m2/day at a distance of 44 m from the pumped well. Transmissivity ranged between1,570 m2/day and 2,956 m2/day at a distance of 120m. Transmissivity was calculated as2,385 m2/day using recovery data. Estimated storage coefficient values ranged between0.0000375 and 0.00268, indicates that the aquifer is confined to leaky-confined or semi-confined in nature.

Chapter 13 - During the last three decades, molecular methods have dramaticallyexpanded the author view of microbial diversity in natural and engineered systems. A variety

of molecular approaches, including both PCR-based and hybridization-based techniques, have been applied extensively to the analysis of complex microbial communities and have yieldednew insights. However, the majority of molecular methods that are widely used in microbialecology are limited in their ability to encompass the incredible diversity of microbialcommunities. DNA microarrays, which were first introduced in the early 1990s, are one ofthe fastest growing technologies in biology, and they offer tremendous potential for microbialecologists. DNA microarrays consist of nucleic acids spotted within a very small area onsome solid support, and they enable the immobilization and simultaneous hybridization ofhundreds of thousands of nucleic acids. This represents a dramatically higher degree ofmultiplexing than is possible with other widely used technologies. In addition, microarrays

offer the advantages of increased speed of detection, low cost, and the potential forautomation. Microarray technology has been used extensively for measuring gene expressionin a wide variety of organisms, including human cells, plants, yeast, and bacteria, but itsapplication to microbial ecology has been more limited. There are significant challenges tothe use of microarrays in microbial ecology studies, including optimization of specificity andsensitivity and quantification of targets. However, in recent years several research groupshave made significant progress in overcoming these challenges, and microarrays are beginning to be applied more frequently to microbial ecology studies in a variety of systemsincluding terrestrial soils, wetland sediments, and freshwater and marine ecosystems. Thisarticle will provide a brief history of the use of molecular methods in microbial ecology, andwill then review the development of microarray technology, the challenges that exist forapplication of microarrays to microbial ecology, the available strategies for overcoming thesechallenges, and some recent applications of microarrays to studies in microbial ecology.


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Chapter 14 - Rising incomes and urbanization, an expanding domestic consumer baseconcerned about food quality and safety, and rapidly growing agricultural exports have beenimportant drivers for the increased attention to food safety in India. But the development ofeffective food safety systems is hampered by a number of factors, including: restrictive

government marketing regulations, weak policy and regulatory framework for food safety,inadequate enforcement of existing standards, a multiplicity of government agenciesinvolved, weak market infrastructure and agricultural support services. The small farmstructure further limits farmer capacity to meet increasing domestic and export food safetyand SPS requirements. Addressing food safety concerns in India will require adoption ofappropriate legislation, strengthening capacity to enforce rules, promoting adoption of goodagricultural, manufacturing and hygiene practices, greater collective action, and sometargeted investments. Implementing these actions will require joint efforts by the governmentand the private sector.

Developing countries are paying increased attention to food safety, because of growing

recognition of its potential impact on public health, food security, and trade competitiveness.Increasing scientific understanding of the public health consequences of unsafe food,amplified by the rapid global transmission of information regarding the public health threatsassociated with food-borne and zoonotic diseases (e.g. E. coli and salmonella, bovine-spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARs) and H5N1avian flu) through various forms of media and the internet has heightened consumerawareness about food safety risks to new levels globally (Lindsay 1997, Unnevehr 2003,Buzby and Unnevehr 2003, Kafersteing 2003, Ewen et al. 2006, Bramhmbatt 2005).Increased understanding of the impact of mycotoxins, which can contaminate dietary staples

such wheat, maize, barley and peanuts, has further raised food security and public healthconcerns in many developing countries (Dohlman 2003, Bhat and Vasanthi 2003, Unnevehr2003).

As developing countries seek to expand agricultural exports especially to OECDcountries, many are receiving a wake-up call on the challenges of meeting both governmentand private sanitary and phyto-sanitary (SPS) standards in export markets (Otsuki et al. 2001,Henson 2003, Unnevehr 2003, World Bank 2005a). Private standards or supplier protocolshave grown in prominence over the past decade as a means to further ensure compliance withofficial regulations, to fill perceived gaps in such regulations, and/or to facilitate thedifferentiation of company or industry products from those of competitors. Trends in private

standards increasingly tend to blend food safety and quality management concerns (i.e. therecent creation of ISO 22000), or to have protocols which combine food safety,environmental, and social (child labor, labor conditions, animal welfare) parameters (Willemset al. 2005, World Bank 2005). At the same time, increasing globalization of trade introducesgreater risks of cross-border transfer of food-borne illnesses. Recent cases of disease episodesin the United States resulting from imported food produce, such as cyclospora fromraspberries, hepatitis A from strawberries and salmonella from cantaloupe (Calvin 2003),illustrate to developing countries the potential food safety challenges that can arise in a moreglobalized market.

Weaknesses in food safety systems can have a high cost to society and the globaleconomy. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that 2.2 million peopleworldwide die from diarrheal diseases caused by a host of bacterial, viral and parasiticorganisms, which are spread by contaminated water (WHO 2006a). In India, it is estimated


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that 20% of deaths among children under five are caused by diarrheal disease (WHO 2006b).The SARs outbreak in 2003 in East Asia is estimated to have caused an immediate economicloss of about 2% of the Region‘s GDP in the second quarter of that year, even though only800 people died from the disease (Brahmbatt 2005). The Lowy Institute for International

Policy (2006) estimates that a mild global outbreak of the avian flu can cost the world 1.4million lives and close to 0.8% of GDP (US$330 billion) in lost economic output. At thesame time, country reactions to protect its citizens from food safety risks can also have largeconsequences for exporting countries. Otsuki et al (2001) examined the projected impact ofthe EU‘s new harmonized aflatoxin standard on the value of trade flows to 15 Europeancountries from 9 African countries and found that it could decrease African exports by 64%(US$670 million).

Food safety concerns are getting widespread attention in India. The country‘s ruraldevelopment strategy, for which a key element is the promotion of increased agriculturalexports as a means to foster rural growth and poverty reduction, is coming up against

tightening food safety and SPS standards in prospective markets (World Bank 2006a, 2006b).From a domestic perspective, the large national market of 1.2 billion people is undergoingrapid change. Increasing incomes, a growing middle class, increased urbanization andliteracy, and a population highly tuned to international trends fueled by the informationtechnology boom are creating a large consumer base giving increasing value to food qualityand safety. Improving food safety systems, to meet domestic and export requirements,however, face a number of policy, regulatory, infrastructural and institutional obstacles.

Chapter 15 - The term pesticide covers a wide range of compounds includinginsecticides, fungicides, herbicides, rodenticides, molluscicides, nematicides, plant growth

regulators and others. Among these, organochlorine (OC) insecticides, used successfully incontrolling a number of diseases, such as malaria and typhus, were banned or restricted afterthe 1960s in most of the technologically advanced countries. The introduction of othersynthetic insecticides – organophosphate (OP) insecticides in the 1960s, carbamates in 1970sand pyrethroids in 1980s and the introduction of herbicides and fungicides in 1970s - 1980scontributed greatly in pest control and agricultural output. Ideally a pesticide must be lethal tothe targetted pests, but not to non-target species, including man. Unfortunately, this is not, sothe controversy of use and abuse of pesticides has surfaced. The rampant use of thesechemicals, under the adage, ―if little is good, a lot more will be better‖ has played havoc withhuman and other life forms.

Chapter 16 - Ozone has recently received much attention in water treatment technologyfor its high oxidation and disinfection potential. The use of ozone brings several benefits buthas a few disadvantages that limit its application in water treatment, including: i) lowsolubility and stability in water, ii) low reactivity with some organic compounds and iii)failure to produce a complete transformation of organic compounds into CO2, generatingdegradation by-products that sometimes have higher toxicity than the raw micropollutant. Toimprove the effectiveness of ozonation process efficiency, advanced oxidation processes(AOPs) have recently been developed (O3/H2O2, O3/UV, O3/catalysts). AOPs are based onozone decomposition into hydroxyl radicals (HO·), which are high powerful oxidants. Thischapter offers an overview of AOPs, focusing on the role of solid catalysts in enhancingozone transformation into HO· radicals. Catalytic ozonation is a new way to remove organicmicropollutants from drinking water and wastewater. The application of several homo- andheterogeneous ozonation catalysts is reviewed, describing their activity and identifying the


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parameters that influence the effectiveness of catalytic systems. Although catalytic ozonationhas largely been limited to laboratory applications, the good results obtained have led toinvestigations now under way by researchers worldwide. It is therefore timely to provide asummary of achievements to date in the use of solid materials to enhance ozone

transformation into HO· radicals.Chapter 17 - Historically, the majority of microarray work has been restricted to well-defined model organisms. This was primarily due to the limited availability of genomic ortranscriptomic sequence data and the then high cost involved in developing microarrays.However, recent technological developments have greatly enhanced the speed of generatingthe underpinning sequence data for non-model species, and have opened up more cost-effective approaches for microarray production to make them far more affordable forresearchers at the lower end of the budget range. These developments have been seized upon by the environmental genomics community within the UK. The creation of a network ofclosely integrated facilities for sequencing, microarray printing and bioinformatics has

opened the gateway for the study of environmentally relevant organisms. Here, the authorsdescribe the infrastructure for microarray development within the UK, and the diverseapplications for which they are currently being used.

Versions of these chapters were also published in Environmental Research Journal, Volume 3, Number 1, published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. They were submitted forappropriate modifications in an effort to encourage wider dissemination of research.


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SHORT COMMENTARY


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THE GLOBAL EXTENT OF BLACK C IN SOILS:

IS IT EVERYWHERE?

Evelyn Krul l , Johannes Lehmann, Jan Skjemstad,

Jeff Baldock and Leonie Spouncer

THE R OLE OF BLACK CARBON IN GLOBAL CLIMATE MODELS

The latest projections of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) estimatea 3°C increase in global temperatures within the next 100 years (IPCC 4 th Assessment Report,2007), and global warming is seen as a major driver in accelerating decomposition of soilorganic matter, resulting in increased production of CO2 (e.g. Davidson and Janssens, 2006).

The 2007 IPCC report recommended coupling models of terrestrial biogeochemical andatmospheric and oceanic processes in order to improve general circulation models and torecognize the quantitative value of soil organic carbon (SOC) in the global carbon cycle.

Estimates of CO2 emissions from soil rely on predictions of the response of differentSOC pools to global warming and correct estimation of the size of these pools. In comparisonto the pool representing the most stable and biologically unreactive fraction, commonlyreferred to as passive or inert organic carbon (IOC), the decomposition of labile C is expectedto be faster as a response to temperature increase. IOC is a fraction of the SOC pool that is notreadily available for microbial decomposition and has turnover times exceeding 100 years(e.g. Krull et al., 2003).

Black C (BC) is usually considered the most abundant form of IOC and is defined as the‗carbonaceous residue of incomplete combustion of biomass and fossil fuels‘ (Schmidt and Noack, 2000). BC is important to several biogeochemical processes; for example, BC potentially modifies climate by acting as a potential carbon sink for greenhouse gases(Kuhlbusch, 1998) and leads to increasing solar reflectance of the Earth‘s atmosphere, butalso to a heating of the atmosphere (Crutzen and Andreae, 1990). BC production from fossilfuel combustion contributes to aerosol C, decreasing surface albedo and solar radiation (IPCC4th Assessment Report). Due to its condensed aromatic structure, BC has a low biochemicalreactivity. 14C ages of BC in soils vary between 1160 and 5040 years (e.g. Schmidt et al.2002).


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Figure 1. Distribution of soilsused for the prediction of BC in surface soils and global NPP.

Figure 2. Distribution of BC%SOC and %SOC in surfaces soils across latitudes.

Baldock (2007) reported that BC constitutes up to 60% of SOC, indicating that BC canmake up a significant part of SOC affecting the response of SOC to temperature changes andthe overall turnover time of SOC. Thus, the effect of such a large and unreactive C pool must be effectively integrated into global C cycle and climate models. However, the latest IPCCreport regards BC only as an aerosol and not as part of SOC, despite an earlierrecommendation to the IPCC to ―… better gauge the influence of BC on the global carbon

cycle‖ as the result would ensure a ―mor e accurate global black C budget and a betterunderstanding of the role of BC as a potential sink in the global C cycle.‖ (2006 IPCCguidelines for national greenhouse gas inventories; appendix 1). The lack of incorporating


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The Global Extent of Black C in Soils: Is it Everywhere? 5

soil BC in global climate change assessments may be largely due to the lack of globaldatabases on BC in soils and sediments and the understanding of factors and processes thatmay influence BC contents in soils (climate, soil texture, primary productivity and fireabundance).

In order to provide reliable projections of future CO2 emissions from soils, due to globalwarming, it is important to consider the global distribution of soil BC. Through an initialassessment of the World Soil Archive (http://library.wur.nl/isric/) we demonstrate thevariability and trends of global soil BC distribution between different climates and soil typesand discuss the implications of this chemically recalcitrant form of C on the global C cycle.By doing this, we also demonstrate that current methods exist to routinely analyse BC and inthe future to develop a global BC map.

ARE THERE ROUTINE METHODS TO GENERATE A GLOBAL BC MAP?

We have developed a rapid fourier-transform infrared-based technique that provides predictive capability for major soil properties, including BC content. BC was quantified by anovel mid-infrared (MIR) method coupled with partial least squares (PLS) (Janik et al., 2007)that allowed rapid analysis of a large number of samples, not feasible by other publishedmethods (Hammes et al., 2007). This method was originally developed and calibrated onAustralian soils (Janik et al., 2007); however, subsequently, we were able to verify that the predictive capacity of the MIR technique for soils from other parts of the world was robust inmost cases.

BC IN WORLD SOILS: WHAT DRIVES BC PRODUCTION

AND DECOMPOSITION?

Our initial assessment took advantage of the large collection of soils that constitute part of the ISRIC – world soil information database (http://library.wur.nl/isric/). We obtainedover 400 samples that span all major climate zones and soil types across most parts of theworld (Fig. 1). Utilising the MIR/PLS technique, we developed a database that illustrates forthe first time the predicted proportion of BC in this large soils dataset. We hope that thisinitial dataset may become an incentive for the rigorous establishment of a global BC map,data from which may then be incorporated into future IPCC reports and C cycle models.

Figure 2 shows the proportion of BC (as % of total SOC: BC %SOC) as well as totalSOC contents across northern and southern hemispheres. These data show that BC in surfacesoils (A and A/B horizons) is ubiquitous in large parts of the world and occurs in the majorityof the sampled locations. The variability was large, resulting in BC%SOC varying from over50% to almost 0%. The soils richest in BC occur in latitudes of 20-30° in both hemispheres,situated mostly in central and South America and southern parts of Africa. These areas

correspond to tropical climates with a pronounced dry season in winter (‗Aw‘ in the Koeppenclassification). In higher latitudes in the northern hemisphere (60-70°), BC contents were alsohigh and were associated with an increase in total SOC (Fig. 2). These areas are classified as


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humid-temperate, constantly moist climates (Cf in Koeppen classification). Higher SOCcontent at high latitudes results from cool climates and low decomposition rates, which promotes accumulation of organic matter.

Despite the high spatial variability of BC%SOC, soils with a high proportion of BC fell

largely in the soil group of Vertisols. Vertisols occur worldwide in seasonal climate zones andin lower relief positions (Richardson and Vepraskas, 2000). Such areas of deposition wouldfavour accumulation of BC through erosion and deposition. Another factor contributing to thehigh amounts of BC%SOC in Vertisols could be the comparably high proportion of clay(known to stabilize soil organic matter) and the type of clay (smectitic). The MIR-predicteddata showed that Vertisols were amongst the soil types with the highest clay contents(average 44%). High clay content may promote retention of fine BC. However, clay alone isnot a determining factor for high BC%SOC. Oxisols and Ultisols, having the highest claycontent (from MIR prediction) of all analysed soil types (45%), had the lowest BC%SOC values. Oxisols, and to a lesser degree Ultisols, are mostly found in high-rainfall tropical

climates, lacking seasonal rainfall (Af in Koeppen classification) and having a lower fireactivity. While fire activity and BC content are both high in the southern hemisphere thisrelationship is not consistent and does not concur with findings in parts of the northernhemisphere where fire activity is lower, yet BC%SOC is still high (Carmona-Moreno et al.,2005).

Thus, a combination of factors, such as climate (the necessity of a pronounced dryseason to ensure fire occurrence), position in the landscape (areas of accumulation) andmineralogy (high amount of expansive clays) may be instrumental in promoting the formationand/or retention of BC%SOC in soils. As illustrated in Figure 1, net primary productivity alone

did not appear to be a significant factor globally as it is highest in equatorial regions whereBC%SOC was lowest.While we show here that BC contents in surface soils are often significant, BC can

also accumulate deeper in the soil. In addition, soil erosion and transport of BC may result insignificant accumulation of BC in rivers, estuaries and off-shore sediments (Krull et al.,2006).Thus, the inclusion of BC in global climate models will require a thorough assessmentof BC contents not only in surface but in deeper soil horizons as well as aquatic sediments.The analyses conducted in this study indicate that methods exist to accomplish BCmeasurements for large areas. However, the high variability of the data indicates that broadempirical measurements and extrapolation over large areas are not sufficient for the aim of

producing a global BC map. Thus, the next steps in a comprehensive assessment of global BCstocks and distribution have to include a detailed and consistent sampling format as well as athorough assessment of the processes that control sources and sinks of BC.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We thank Janine McGowan for assistance in the analyses of the samples and both her andRyan Farquharson for review of an earlier version of the manuscript. We thank CSIRO Land

and Water for supporting the analyses of this work and ISRIC for access to samples from theWorld Soils Database.


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The Global Extent of Black C in Soils: Is it Everywhere? 7

R EFERENCES

Baldock, J.A. Composition and cycling of organic carbon in soils (2007), in Marschner, P.and Rengel, Z. (eds.), Nutrient Cycling in Terrestrial Ecosystems. Springer, Berlin.

Carmona-Moreno, C., Belward, A., Malingreau, J.P., Hartley, A., Garcia-Alegre, M.,Antonovskiy, M., Buchshtaber, V., Pivovarov, V. (2005), Characterizing InterannualVariations in Global Fire Calendar Using Data From Earth Observing Satellites, GlobalChange Biology 11, 1537-1555.

Crutzen, P.J. and Andreae, M.O. (1990), Biomass burning in the tropics: impact onatmospheric chemistry and biogeochemical cycles, Science 250, 1669-1678.

Davidson, E.A. and Janssens, I.A. (2006), Temperature sensitivity of soil carbondecomposition and feedbacks to climate change, Nature 440, 165-173.

Hammes, K. et al. Comparison of quantification methods to measure fire-derived(black/elemental) carbon in soils and sediments using reference materials from soil,water, sediment and the atmosphere. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 21, GB3016,doi:10.1029/2006GB002914 (2007).

IPCC 4th Assessment report (2007), Working Group I: The physical science basis of climatechange, http://ipcc-wg1.ucar.edu/wg1/wg1-report.html

2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, vol. 4, Agriculture, Forestryand other Land use, Appendix 1, http://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/public/2006gl/vol4.htm

Janik, L.J., Skjemstad, J.O., Shepherd, K.D., and Spouncer, L.R. (2007) The Prediction ofSoil Carbon Fractions Using Mid-Infrared-Partial Least Square Analysis. Australian

Journal of Soil Research 45, 73-81.Krull, E.S., Baldock, J.A., and Skjemstad, J.O. (2003), Importance of Mechanisms andProcesses of the Stabilisation of Soil Organic Matter for Modelling Carbon Turnover, Functional Plant Biology 30, 207-222.

Kuhlbusch, T.A.J. (1998), Black carbon and the carbon cycle. Science 280, 1903-1904.Richardson, J.L. and Vepraskas, M.J. (2000), Wetland Soils: Genesis, Hydrology,

Landscapes, and Classification. CRC Press, Florida.Schmidt, M.W.I. and Noack, A.G. (2000), Black carbon in soils and sediments: Analysis,

distribution, implications, and current challenges, Global Biogeochemical Cycles 14,777-793.

Schmidt, M.W.I., Skjemstad, J.O., and Jäger, C. (2002), Carbon isotope geochemistry andnanomorphology of soil black carbon: Black chernozemic soils in central Europeoriginate from ancient biomass burning, Global Biogeochemical Cycles 16 , 1123doi:10.1029/2002GB001939.


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R ESEARCH AND R EVIEW STUDIES


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Chapter 1

CURRENT AND EMERGING MICROBIOLOGY ISSUES

OF POTABLE WATER IN DEVELOPED COUNTRIES

Wil li am J. Snell ing 1 , Cather ine D. Carr il lo 2 , Colm J. Lowery 1 ,

John E. Moore 3 , John P. Pezacki 4 , James S. G. Dooley 1

and Roy D. Sleator 5 1Centre for Molecular Biosciences, School of Biomedical Sciences,University of Ulster, Cromore Road, Coleraine, Co., Londonderry,

Northern Ireland, United Kingdom, BT52 1SA,2The Steacie Institute for Molecular Sciences, National Research Council of Canada,

100 Sussex Drive, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1A OR6.3Bureau of Microbial Hazards, Health Canada,251 Sir Frederick Banting Driveway, Ottawa, ON, Canada, K1A 0L2

4Department of Bacteriology, Northern Ireland Public Health Laboratory,Belfast City Hospital, Belfast, United Kingdom, BT9 7AD

5Alimentary Pharmabiotic Centre, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland

ABSTRACT

Water is vital for life; for commercial and industrial purposes and for leisureactivities in the daily lives of the world‘s population. Diarrhoeal disease associated withconsumption of poor quality water is one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortalityin developing countries (especially in children


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water and in the developed world water quality regulations require that potable watercontains no microbial pathogens.

Chlorine dioxide is a safe, relatively effective biocide that has been widely used fordrinking water disinfection for 40 years. Providing the water is of low turbidity, standardchlorination procedures are sufficient to prevent the spread of planktonic bacteria along

water mains. However, despite this, bacterial contamination of water distribution systemsis well documented, with growth typically occuring on surfaces, including pipe walls andsediments. Rivers, streams and lakes are all important sources of drinking water and areused routinely for recreational purposes. However, due to fouling by farm and wildanimals, these sources can be contaminated with microbes, e.g. chlorine resistantCryptosporidium oocysts, no matter how pristine the source or well maintained the waterdelivery system. The high incidence of Cryptosporidium in surface water sourcesunderlines the need for frequent monitoring of the parasite in drinking water. The use ofcoliforms as indicator organisms, although considered relevant to most cases, is notwithout limitations, and is thus not a completely reliable parameter of water safety, e.g.Campylobacter contamination cannot be accurately predicted by coliform enumeration.

Furthermore, the presence of biofilms and bacterial interactions with protozoa in waterfacilitate increased resistance to antimicrobial agents and procedures such as disinfectantsand heating, e.g. Legionnaires‘ disease caused by Legionella pneumophila.

The high cost of waterborne disease outbreaks should be considered in decisionsregarding water utility improvement and treatment plant construction. The control ofhuman illnesses associated with water would be aided by a greater understanding of theinteractions between water-borne protozoa and bacterial pathogens, which until relativelyrecently have been overlooked.

INTRODUCTION Currently, over 1 billion people worldwide have no access to safe drinking water (CDC,

2007a). In the developed world water quality regulations require that potable water does notcontain any microbial pathogens (Percival and Walker, 1999). Residents of affluent nationsare remarkably lucky to have high-quality, safe drinking water supplies that most residents ofmodem cities enjoy, particularly when considered in contrast to the toll of death and miserythat unsafe drinking water causes for most of the world's population (Hrudey and Hrudey,2007). The supply of clean drinking water is a major, and relatively recent, public healthmilestone (Berry et al., 2006). However, some may presume that drinking-water disease

outbreaks are a thing of the past, but complacency can easily arise (Hrudey and Hrudey,2007). Increasing human populations and urbanisation have placed burdens on water sources,i.e. rivers, streams and lakes, used to provide potable water to most metropolitan areas(Calderon et al., 2006). Excreta from humans, pets, livestock and wildlife, e.g. foxes, presentin these source waters have the potential to harbour hundreds of pathogenic microorganismsof public health concern (Leclerc et al., 2002). In developed countries, major outbreaks ofwaterborne infections have fuelled widespread public concern regarding the microbiologicalquality of potable water (De Paula et al., 2007; Pankhurst and Coulter, 2007).

Potable water can be a source of various potentially infectious microorganisms, which inthe majority of cases are contracted by ingestion, but can also be contracted via inhalation ofaerosol droplets or by direct dermal exposure (Stojek and Dutkiewicz, 2006). Rivers, streamsand lakes, which are not only important sources of drinking water but are also routinely usedin the pursuit of human leisure interests, are often contaminated with microbes, e.g. chlorine


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Current and Emerging Microbiology Issues of Potable Water in Developed Countries 13

resistant Cryptosporidium oocysts, no matter how pristine the source, or well maintained thewater delivery system (Snelling et al., 2006). Fecal contamination of surface waters can occurvia wastewater discharge, farming activities and fouling by wild animals. Perhaps the bestknown potential pathogens are certain strains of Escherichia coli and related Gram-negative

species of fecal origin belonging to the Enterobacteriaceae family, usually referred to as―coliforms‖, which are commonly used as sanitary indicators of potable water quality (Stojekand Dutkiewicz, 2006). Important agents of waterborne infections include various genera ofGram-negative bacteria such as Campylobacter , Escherichia coli O157:H7, Legionella,Salmonella, Shigella, Yersinia, Vibrio cholerae, mycobacteria (Gram positive), enterovirusesand intestinal protozoa (Giardia, Cryptosporidium) (Stojek and Dutkiewicz, 2006).

Potable water distribution systems generally present a hostile environment for growth ofmicroorganisms due to low nutrient levels as well as the presence of disinfection residuals(Långmark et al., 2007; Momba et al., 2007). Yet despite this, biofilms form ubiquitously inenvironments that have been subjected to a range of disinfection processes including

chlorination and ultra-violet (UV)-treatment (Momba et al., 1998). Most of the bacteria indrinking water distribution systems, e.g. M. avium, L. pneumophila, and E. coli, areassociated with biofilms. In biofilms, their nutrient supply is better than in water, and biofilmscan provide shelter against disinfection (Lehtola et al., 2007). Pathogenic bacteria and virusesentering water distribution systems can survive in biofilms for at least several weeks, evenunder conditions of high-shear turbulent flow, and may be a risk to water consumers (Lehtolaet al., 2007). Also, considering the low number of virus particles needed to result in aninfection, their extended survival in biofilms must be taken into account as a risk for theconsumer (Lehtola et al., 2007). Recent inquiries into the microbial ecology of distribution

systems have found that pathogen resistance to chlorination is affected by microbialcommunity diversity and interspecies relationships (Berry, et al., 2006). Research indicatesthat multispecies biofilms are generally more resistant to disinfection than single-species biofilms (Berry, et al., 2006).

Control of microbial growth in drinking water distribution systems, often achievedthrough the addition of disinfectants, is essential to limiting waterborne illness, particularly inimmunocompromised subpopulations (Berry et al., 2006). Whilst disinfection residualswithin distribution systems reduce the growth of autochthonous and allochthonous pathogensand reduce the potential re-growth of heterotrophic bacteria, they do not insure the sterility ofdistribution waters (Payment et al., 1993). The omnipresence of heterotrophs does not in itself

constitute a potential health hazard, they can be used to evaluate the microbiological qualityof the water and the efficacy of water treatment and distribution processes, as well as the biological stability of distributed waters (Långmark et al., 2007).

Waterborne diseases occur worldwide, and outbreaks caused by the contamination ofcommunity water systems have the potential to cause disease in large numbers of consumers(Table 1) (Karanis et al., 2007). These cases create a lack of confidence in potable waterquality and in the water industry in general; waterborne outbreaks have economicconsequences far beyond the cost of health care for affected patients, their families andcontacts. In addition to outbreaks caused by contaminated potable water, there is also a riskassociated with the accidental ingestion of recreational (or other) waters. National statistics onoutbreaks linked to contaminated water have been available in the USA since 1920, and since1971, the Centers for Disease Control (CDC), the US Environmental Protection Agency(USEPA), and the Council of State and Territorial Epidemiologists have maintained a


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Table 1. Summaries of Notifiable Diseases in the United States in 2005 (McNabb et al., 2007)


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collaborative surveillance system for collecting data pertaining to the occurrence and causesof outbreaks of waterborne disease (Karanis et al., 2007). In Europe during 1986 – 96, 277outbreaks associated with drinking and recreational water were reported from 16 Europeancountries (Kramer et al. 2001).

VIRUSES

Viruses are possibly the most hazardous of all enteric pathogens and have relatively lowinfectious doses (Santamaría and Toranzos 2003). Viruses are found in very lowconcentrations in treated water due to the effect of dilution and to the potabilization process(Gutiérrez et al., 2007). For this reason, it has been proposed that large amounts of water needto be collected in order to detect them. A negative result might not be meaningful, while a positive result is important, particularly when viruses are detected in small water samples(Gutiérrez et al., 2007).Thus, the paucity of data regarding waterborne viruses makes itdifficult to determine the true risk they represent and precludes the development of plans to prevent viral transmission through contact with environmental water (De Paula et al., 2007).

It has been proposed that more than 140 different types of viruses, apparently noteliminated by massive purification treatments, can be found in drinking water (Gutiérrez etal., 2007). The main source for water contamination is human excreta (Gutiérrez et al., 2007).In fact, viruses infiltrate the ground, penetrating to depths greater than 67 m and can remainlatent there for several months, as long as the temperature remains low and the environmenthumid (Gutiérrez et al., 2007). Under these conditions they can easily reach aquifers. Enteric

pathologies due to the presence of Rotavirus (RV), Norovirus (NV), Astrovirus (HAstV),Adenovirus (Ad), Hepatitis A (HAV), polio, Coxsakie, and echo type Enteroviruses, amongothers, have been reported to be associated with consumption of fresh water (Gutiérrez et al.,2007).

Enteroviruses are a group of viruses including the polioviruses, coxsackieviruses,echoviruses, and others (CDC, 2007c). In addition to the three different polioviruses, there are62 non-polio enteroviruses that can cause disease in humans: 23 Coxsackie A viruses, 6Coxsackie B viruses, 28 echoviruses, and 5 other enteroviruses (CDC, 2007c). Non-polioenteroviruses are second only to rhinoviruses - causative agent of the "common cold" as themost common viral infectious agents in humans (CDC, 2007c). The enteroviruses cause an

estimated 10-15 million or more symptomatic infections per year in the United States (CDC,2007c). All three types of polioviruses have been eliminated from the Western Hemisphere,as well as Western Pacific and European regions, by the widespread use of vaccines (CDC,2007c). Most people who are infected with an enterovirus exhibit no clinical manifestationsof disease. Infected individuals who do exhibit clinical signs of disease usually develop eithermild upper respiratory symptoms (a "summer cold"), a flu-like illness with fever and muscleaches, or illness with an associated rash (CDC, 2007c). A less common, though none the less possible, manifestation of the illness is "aseptic" or viral meningitis (CDC, 2007c). Rarely,infected individuals may develop an illness that affects the heart (myocarditis) or the brain

(encephalitis) or causes paralysis (CDC, 2007c).Human noroviruses (NoVs) are a significant cause of non-bacterial gastroenteritisworldwide with contaminated drinking water a potential transmission route (Bae and Schwab,


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2008). As members of the Caliciviridae family, NoVs (previously known as ―Norwalk -likeviruses‖) are small (27 nm), icosahedral, non-enveloped human enteric viruses that causeacute gastroenteritis (Bae and Schwab, 2008). Due to their non-enveloped structure which issimilar to other human enteric viruses such as poliovirus (PV), coxsackievirus, and echovirus,

NoVs are presumed to be as resistant to environmental degradation and chemical inactivationas the aforementioned viruses (Bae and Schwab, 2008).The most common vehicles for Hepatitis A virus (HAV) transmission are ingestion of

contaminated water, consumption of contaminated foods and contact with infectedindividuals (De Paula et al., 2007). Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is an emerging food borne pathogen in developing countries, e.g. Asia, Africa and Latin America (Skovgaard, 2007).Transmitted by the fecal – oral route, infection which results in liver inflammation, is linked tothe consumption of swine; the primary source of the virus for humans. The incidence ofsporadic cases has begun to increase recently in developed countries, but it is uncertainwhether these cases were food- or water borne (Skovgaard, 2007). The incidence of hepatitis

E infection is highest in adults between the ages of 15 and 40. Children are also succeptableto infection but are less likely to become symptomatic. Mortality rates are generally low asHepatitis E is a ―self -limiting‖ disease; symptoms generally dissipate by themselves and the

patient usually recovers. It is spread mainly through fecal contamination of water supplies orfood; person-to-person transmission is uncommon. Outbreaks of epidemic Hepatitis E mostcommonly occur following disruption to water supplies caused by heavy rainfalls andmonsoons.

Viruses can be inactivated in the environment by the breakage of their capsid and theliberation of the contained nucleic acid, which can be easily degraded when deprived of the

capsid protection (Gutiérrez et al., 2007). Environmental degradation of viruses can resultfrom extremes in pH, thermal inactivation, sunlight and predation or release of virucidialagents from endogenous microorganism in environmental water (Hurst 1988; Yates etal.,1985). Chlorine, the most commonly used drinking water disinfectant, can also inactivateenteric viruses if sufficient dose and contact time are provided (Ellis, 1991). Despite someopinions to the contrary, this means that detection of viral protein (VP) in laboratory assays isnot a sufficient criterion as to the infectious nature of the virus (Gassilloud et al., 2003).

TOXIGENICITY

Microcystis aeruginosa is a gas vacuolate, bloom-forming cyanobacterium that is ofinterest from a water quality perspective because of its ability to produce a range of toxiccompounds (Saker et al., 2005). The cyclic peptides, also known as microcystins, are produced by several species of cyanobacteria including M. aeruginosa, and have beenimplicated in the death of humans as well as domestic and wild animals (Saker et al., 2005).These compounds inhibit protein phosphatases 1 and 2A in a similar manner to okadaic acid,and have been linked to liver cancer in humans (Saker et al., 2005). To date, more than 60microcystin variants have been identified and chemically characterized (Saker et al., 2005). In

recognition of their toxic properties, the World Health Organization has adopted a maximumallowable concentration in drinking water of 1µgl-1 (WHO 1998). With appropriate watertreatment, maximum exposure to total microcystins is probably less than 1 μgl-1, based on the


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above data. While average exposure is generally well below this level (WHO, 1998), not allwater supplies are treated by filtration or adsorption; many are untreated or simplychlorinated (WHO, 1998). In addition to microcystins, many strains of Microcystis are knownto produce other peptides including aeruginosins, anabaenopeptilides, cyanopeptolins,

anabaenopeptins and microginins, which show a diverse range of bioactivities (Saker et al.,2005).

FOODBORNE ‗CONTAMINATING‘ BACTERIA

Several foodborne pathogens, e.g. Salmonella typhimurium, Campylobacter jejuni,Yersinia enterocolitica, Mycobacteria, Escherichia. coli O157:H7 and Cryptosporidium, arecommon intestinal contaminants frequently found in both farmed animals and wildlife (Doyleand Erickson 2006), and in several cases are carried asymptomatically (Snelling et al., 2005;Thompson et al., 2007). These pathogens are generally shed in feces in large populations andcan be transmitted to surface water, both directly and indirectly (Doyle and Erickson 2006).Soil as a recipient of solid wastes is able to contain enteric pathogens in high concentrations,which can then be spread to surface water (Figure 1) (Santamaría and Toranzos, 2003).

Although most E. coli strains are harmless, E. coli O157:H7 produces a powerful toxinthat can cause severe human illness (CDC, 2007b). E. coli O157:H7 has been found in theintestines of livestock (CDC, 2007b), is part of the natural microbiota of the soil, and istherefore also associated with manure, crops, minimally processed ready to eat foods andsurface water (Selma et al., 2007; Himathongkham et al., 2007). Infections often lead to

bloody diarrhea, and in some individuals, particularly children under 5 years of age and theelderly, the infection can cause haemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS), in which the red bloodcells are destroyed and the kidneys fail (CDC, 2007b). E. coli O157:H7 is a major globalcause of foodborne illness (CDC, 2007b). Based on a 1999 estimate, 73,000 cases of infectionand 61 deaths occur in the United States each year. People can become infected with E.coli O157:H7 in a variety of ways (CDC, 2007b). Though most illness has been associated witheating undercooked, contaminated ground beef, people have also become ill from eatingcontaminated bean sprouts or fresh leafy vegetables such as lettuce and spinach (CDC,2007b). In addition, infection can occur after drinking raw unpasturized milk and afterswimming in or drinking sewage-contaminated water (CDC, 2007b).

Salmonella are enteric bacterial pathogens, of which mainly S. enterica and S.typhimurium cause a variety of food and water-borne diseases ranging from gastroenteritis totyphoid fever (Ly and Casanova 2007). Previous investigations have found that sewageeffluent regularly contain Salmonella and Campylobacter (Kinde et al., 1997). Globally, C. jejuni is the major cause of human bacterial diarrhoeal illness and is by far the most commonCampylobacter species associated with human illness. The major C. jejuni reservoir is poultry(Snelling et al., 2005). However, C. jejuni has been linked to several drinking water-relatedepidemics in Finland (Lehtola et al., 2006). C. jejuni is not normally able to multiply indrinking water or in biofilms, although it may survive in biofilms and/or within protozoa

(Lehtola et al., 2006; Snelling et al., 2006).


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Figure 1. Diagram showing the different, most important cycles of transmission for maintaining Giardiaand Cryptosporidium. As well as direct transmission, water and food may also play a role intransmission. Question marks indicate uncertainty regarding the frequency of interaction betweencycles (Hunter and Thompson, 2005).

Shigellosis is a global human diarrhoeal disease leading to dysentery and is caused by S.dysenteriae, S. flexneri, S. boydii and S. sonnei (Niyogi et al., 2005). Shigella dysenteriae type1 produces severe disease and may be associated with life-threatening complications (Niyogi

et al., 2005). The symptoms of shigellosis include diarrhoea and/or dysentery with frequentmucoid bloody stools, abdominal cramps and tenesmus (Niyogi et al., 2005). Transmissionusually occurs via contaminated food, e.g. ready to eat salads (Ghosh et al., 2007), water,livestock manure, or through person-to-person contact (Niyogi et al., 2005). Of the estimated165 million cases of Shigella diarrhoea that occur annually, 99% occur in developingcountries with 69% of episodes occuring in children under 5 years of age (Kotloff etal.,1999).

Mycobacterium is a genus of Actinobacteria, given its own family. Mycobacteria areaerobic and generally non-motile bacteria, that are characteristically acid-alcohol fast (Ryanand Ray, 2004). Environmental mycobacteria are common heterotrophic bacteria in soils andnatural waters, especially in boreal drinking water systems (Torvinen et al., 2004).Mycobacteria are classified as an acid-fast Gram-positive bacterium due to their lack of anouter cell membrane (Ryan and Ray, 2004). All Mycobacterium species share a characteristiccell wall, thicker than in many other bacteria, making a substantial contribution to thehardiness of this genus (Ryan and Ray, 2004). Therefore, compared to most other bacterialspecies, mycobacteria are exceptionally resistant to chlorination and heating (Torvinen et al.,2004). Some thermotolerant species, including the important mycobacterial pathogens M.avium complex (MAC) and M. xenopi, tolerate heating and may even survive in hot water(>60°) (Torvinen et al., 2004). Thus, they may survive chemical treatments at waterworks and

enter the distributed water and

finally tap water, where their occurrence has been known since

the beginning of the 20th century.


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Tuberculosis (TB) affects one-third of the world's population, claiming a life every 10seconds and global mortality rates are increasing, especially in developing countries(Sacchettini et al., 2008; Tabbara, 2007). The incidence of tuberculosis is increasing with theincrease in the HIV infected population and increased strain drug resistance (Tabbara, 2007).

Complex interactions involving humans, domestic animals, and wildlife create environmentsfavorable to the emergence of new diseases (Palmer, 2007). Today, reservoirs of M. bovissubsp. paratuberculosis (MAP), the causative agent of tuberculosis in animals and a seriouszoonosis, exist in wildlife (Palmer, 2007). The presence of these wildlife reservoirs is thedirect result of spillover from domestic livestock, especially cows, in combination withanthropogenic factors such as translocation of wildlife, supplemental feeding of wildlife andwildlife populations reaching densities beyond normal habitat carrying capacities (Palmer,2007).

Toxigenic Vibrio cholerae, the causative agent of cholera, is a native inhabitant of theaquatic environment (rivers, estuaries, and coastal waters) which is transmitted through

drinking water and still remains a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in manydeveloping countries, especially in Asia and Africa (Chomvarin et al., 2007). In aquaticenvironments V. cholerae associates with the chitinous exoskeletons of copepod molts, whichserves as a surface of nutrients thus facilitating biofilm formation and induces competence fornatural transformation (Blokesch and Schoolnik, 2007). Despite more than a century ofinvestigation, much remains to be discovered about how pathogenic strains of V. choleraeinteract with the human host and how the biology of disseminating stool V. cholerae drivesdevastating cholera outbreaks (Nelson et al., 2007). The V. cholerae species encompassesmore than 200 serogroups (Blokesch and Schoolnik, 2007). Cholera is an ancient secretory

diarrheal disease caused by the O1 and O139 serogroups of V. cholerae (Nelson et al., 2007).Despite the dramatic reduction of mortality rates due to the development of oral rehydrationsolution, the emergence of multiple drug-resistant V. cholerae may reduce the efficacy ofantimicrobial treatment and alter the dynamics of outbreaks (Nelson et al., 2007). V. choleraeis a bacterial pathogen of the gastrointestinal tract and the secreted toxin is largely responsiblefor the massive fluid loss that may reach between 0.5 and 1.0 liter per hour (Nelson et al.,2007).

Yersinia (family Enterobacteriaceae) are faculatative anerboic bacteria, of which Y.enterocolitica are foodborne pathogens which are mostly associated with human disease. Y.enterocolitica is responsible for outbreaks of acute human gastroenteritis and chronic sequela,

e.g. reactive arthritis, and livestock morbidity, e.g. mastitis (Meusburger et al., 2007;Rudwaleit et al., 2000; Shwimmer et al., 2007). Y. pseudotuberculosis (food-borne route) andY. pestis (flea-borne zoonotic disease) can also cause disease in humans. Rodents are themajor reservoirs of Y. enterocolitica; and while humans are the primary hosts other mammalsmay also be infected. Infection may occur either through blood (in the case of Y. pestis) oroccasionally via consumption of food products (especially vegetables, milk-derived productsand meat) contaminated with infected urine or feces. An important property of Yersinia is itsability to multiply at temperatures close to 0 C (Skovgaard, 2007). The minimum infectiondose of Yersinia is relatively high (>100,000), and in many countries, e.g. Denmark, Yersinia interest and concern have declined (Skovgaard, 2007).


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PROTOZOAN PARASITES

At least 325 water-associated outbreaks of parasitic protozoan disease have been reported(Karanis et al., 2007). North American and European outbreaks accounted for 93% of all

reports and nearly two-thirds of outbreaks occurred in North America (Karanis et al., 2007).Over 30% of all outbreaks were documented from Europe, with the UK accounting for 24%of outbreaks, worldwide (Karanis et al., 2007). Giardia duodenalis and C. parvum account forthe majority of outbreaks (132; 40.6% and 165; 50.8%, respectively), Entamoeba histolytica and Cyclospora cayetanensis have been the aetiological agents in nine (2.8%) and six (1.8%)outbreaks respectively, while Toxoplasma gondii and Isospora belli have been responsible forthree outbreaks each (0.9%) and Blastocystis hominis for two outbreaks (0.6%) (Karanis etal., 2007). Balantidium coli, the microsporidia, Acanthamoeba and Naegleria fowleri wereresponsible for one outbreak each (0.3%) (Karanis et al., 2007).

Waterborne parasites produce transmission stages which are highly resistant to externalenvironmental conditions, and to many physical and chemical disinfection methods routinelyused as bacteriocides in drinking water plants, swimming pools or irrigation systems(Gajadhar and Allen, 2004). Resistant stages include cysts of amoebae, Balantidium, andGiardia, spores of Blastocystis and microsporidia, oocysts of Toxoplasma gondii, Isospora,Cyclospora and Cryptosporidium and eggs of nematodes, trematodes, and cestode(Gajadharand Allen, 2004). These exogenous transmission stages are microscopic in size and of lowspecific gravity, which facilitate their easy dissemination in fresh water, or seawater(Gajadhar and Allen, 2004). The exogenous stages of waterborne parasites possess outersurfaces capable of withstanding a variety of physical and chemical treatments (Gajadhar and

Allen, 2004). The resistant surfaces are comprized of multiple polymeric layers of lipids, polysaccharide, proteins or chitin (Gajadhar and Allen, 2004). Examples of these are the two protein layers of coccidian oocysts derived from the coalescence of wall-forming bodies, thechitinous wall of microsporidian spores, the multi-layered (inner lipid/protein-, middle protein/chitin-, outer protein/mucopolysaccharide) shell of Ascaris eggs, and the impermeableembryophore of the Echinococcus egg which is constructed of polygonal blocks of keratin-like protein held together by a cement substance (Gajadhar and Allen, 2004).

The intestinal protozoan parasites Cryptosporidium (Apicomplexan) and Giardia (G.duodenalis) are major global causes of diarrhoeal disease in humans (Smith et al., 2007).Significantly, normal concentrations of chlorine and ozone used in mass water treatment are

not adequate to kill these microbes (Smith et al., 2007), which have life cycles suited to bothwaterborne and foodborne transmission (Smith et al., 2007). Giardia causes intestinalmalabsorption and diarrhoea (giardiasis) in humans and other mammals worldwide (Smith etal., 2007). Giardia is one of the most prevalent pathogens that should be removed fromdrinking water (Smith et al., 2007). In developing countries, the prevalence of humangiardiasis is on average 20% (4 – 43%), compared with 5% (3 – 7%) in developed countries,where it is associated mainly with travel and waterborne outbreaks (Smith et al., 2007). G.duodenalis assemblages A and B have been found in humans and most mammalian orders(Smith et al., 2007). Giardiasis is a disease with economic ramifications due to the lar

advances in environmental research, volume 13

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