africa bitches

7/29/2019 Africa Bitches

1/47

1 | P a g e

Exploring Africa

Published By Javan


2/47

2 | P a g e

Diversity

Diversity of Africa: Africa, the second largest continentin the world, is a very diverse continent. This diversity

is articulated in its physical geography and climate; inits plurality of cultures, traditions, beliefs, values,

religions, and artistic expressions; in its many modesof economic production, distribution, and consumption;in its diverse social and political structures andpractices.

1.Africa has a rich history: Africa has a dynamic history- - Africa was the birthplace of human societies; it hasbeen home to many great civilizations; its history hasbeen shaped by contact with others through greatmigrations, wars, slavery, colonialism, the Cold War,

and the waxing and waning of state systems.2.Africa Globally Connected: For millennia, Africa hasinteracted with the outside world.

This interaction has facilitated many Africancontributions and exports to the world, such asagricultural products, minerals and other materialgoods, as well as knowledge and cultural expressions.This interaction has also allowed African societies tobenefit from imports from the outside world, such asinformation and other technologies. Special emphasiswill be given to Africa's contributions to and trade with

North America.

3. Representations and Stereotypes ofAfrica: popular images of Africa held by Americans arebased on stereotypes which offer fragmented, ofteninaccurate images of Africa. Throughout the preparedcurriculum, we will be purposefully confrontingstereotypes and misrepresentations of Africa that arepopularly held by many Americans and Europeans.


3/47

3 | P a g e

Keywords

Diversity: Pronunciation: (di-vr'si-tE, dI-), [key] the state or fact of being of a differentkind, form, character; difference; unlikeness.

History: Pronunciation: (his'tu-rE, his'trE), [key]1. the branch of knowledge dealing with past events.

2. a continuous, systematic narrative of past events as relating to a particular people,country, period, person, etc., usually written as a chronological account; chronicle;example: a history of Cameroon.

Globalization : Pronunciation: (glO'bu-lIz"), [key]1. the act of extending to other or all parts of the globe; making worldwide;

1. example: efforts to globalize the auto industry.

Primary Languages In Africa


4/47

4 | P a g e

Religions In

Africa


5/47

5 | P a g e

Quick Challenge: Try to identify the countries in Africa:

Images of Cultural Diversity in Africa.


6/47

6 | P a g e

-

Each of these photographs is a representation of an aspect of life in

some part of Africa. You should first understand that life varies

greatly from region to region. The way of life of a group of people

who have common beliefs and customs is often referred to as

culture. There are many varieties of cultures and societies in the

world. You should find that in addition to the diversity they see in

the photos, there are also things that they recognize from life in

their own cultures and societies. These photos are meant to get the

you thinking about these similarities and differences. You should

also begin to understand that many aspects of life fit under thewords "culture" and "society." These include things pertaining to


7/47

7 | P a g e

religion, food, clothing, celebrations, architecture, and many other

areas of daily living.

Vs

Medias Representation of Africa

The point should also be made that what you are seeing through

media are supposed representations of African cultures, although

real, do not truly represent Africa as a whole. Photographs, like

written texts, offer a limited and mediated image of reality. What we

see in the photograph is shaped by the point-of-view of the

photographer and excludes everything outside of the frame of the

picture. How we understand what we see also is influenced by the


8/47

8 | P a g e

presentation of the photograph. Hence, placing a photograph of

African women weaving baskets in a lesson on culture encourages

us to define basket-weaving as a component of African culture.

______________________________________________________

Questions:

Are there any pictures that remind you of life in your ownculture/society?

Consider why the photographer took the picture. Was he/she a

tourist? An anthropologist? A journalist? Does the photograph give

you any clues about what the photographer did with the

photograph? Place it in an album? Publish it in a book or newspaper?

Mount it in a museum?

What is happening outside the frame of the photograph? What did

the photographer leave out or ignore? Does the photographer seem

to appreciate what he/she has photographed? Or is he/she taking a

picture of something he/she finds offensive, scary, or strange? How

do you know?

Economy


9/47

9 | P a g e

PURPOSE: This section will introduce you to the economics of

Africa.

Economics is the study of the production

and distribution of wealth. Wealth is created

by the production and distribution of goods

and services. Economics can be studied at

various levels or locations, for example,

family/household, local community,

state/province, nation, and global levels.

In addressing economic processes and

practices in contemporary Africa three

underlying themes will be featured. First,

economic systems and practices in Africa

are historically situated. That is, to

understand current economics you have to

understand the historical contexts in which

economic practices and relationshipsdeveloped. Secondly, there is a great deal

of economic diversity in Africa. And thirdly,

Africa's economies are closely linked to the

global economy.


10/47

10 | P a g e

Economics is the study of the production, distribution, andconsumption ofgoods and services.

As economists use the terms:

Goods are material things such as food and clothes whichhumans use as individuals or groups.

Services are things that human beings do to assist otherpeople. Education and health care are examples of servicesthat we use on a regular basis.

Human beings, as individuals and as groups, could not exist withoutgoods and services produced by themselves or by others.

Needs and Wants

Economists say that goods and services are produced because theymeet either needs or wants. Needs - reflect things that humanshave to have in order to live. Food, safe water, housing, education,and health care are examples of basic needs. Wants are desires thatcan be satisfied by goods and services. Video games, music CDs,and eating at a fancy restaurant are examples of economic wants.

For some individuals, their primary economic concern is withmeeting basic needs for survival, while other individuals, whosebasic needs have been met, are more concerned with fulfilling theirwants. This is also true for national economies. In the richestcountries, there are people who struggle to meet their basic needs,but the focus of the national economy is to meet the increasingwants of individuals and groups. In poorer countries, the economieshave to focus more on meeting basic needs.


11/47

11 | P a g e

What are your Needs and Wants?

WANTS NEEDS

GOODS

SERVICES

What do you think are Africas Needs and Wants?

WANTS NEEDS

GOODS

SERVICES


12/47

12 | P a g e

Food Production

Food is among the most basic needs for human beings.

Consequently, food production, distribution, and consumption are

perhaps the most important economic activities in Africa as

elsewhere in the world. Food production is so important in Africa

that nearly seventy per cent of the population of most African

countries are directly engaged in producing and distributing food.

Here are several modes or methods of producing food in Africa. Allof these methods have been practiced for thousands of years.

Hunting and Gathering of animals, roots, fruits. Subsistence Farming (producing only enough for family use).

Subsistence farming can be divided into three types: herding of animals, crop cultivation, mixed farming-cultivation and animal herding.

Commercial farming: producing surplus of food for trade ofsale.

Societies throughout Africa produce food using one or more of themethods of production. Some individuals and societies may use justone of these methods of producing food, but other individuals andsocieties in Africa may be engaged in several of these modes ofproduction. For example, subsistence farmers may hunt animals andgather wild fruits and berries to add to the food that they raise.


13/47

13 | P a g e

Similarly, subsistence farmers may in addition to growing food cropshave a small field in which they produce a crop such as cotton thatthey will sell for additional income.

Earlier in this book, you have learned that the production anddistribution of any economic good is dependent on three essentialfactors or inputs. In this section we will examine how each of thefactors are part of the production of food in hunting and gathering,subsistence and commercial farming.

1.Natural Resources. All food production systems in Africa aredependent on natural resources that include animals, seeds,water, and soil.

2.Capital Resources. Capital resources are the tools that areused in production. Capital resources used in food productioninclude weapons (for hunting), hoes, plows, and tractors.

3.Human Resources. All production is dependent on humanbeings. Humans provide the labour, knowledge ("how to"), andskills necessary for producing food, whether through hunting,herding, or cultivation.

Once food is produced it can be used immediately by the producers,it can be stored safely for use in the future, or it can be distributed

through exchange and trade with other individuals or groups.


14/47

14 | P a g e

Hunting And Gathering:

Congo-Kinshasa

Kuba-Bushong Trap

for Edible Rats

Congo-Kinshasa

Kuba-Bushong Trap

for SquirrelsCongo-Kinshasa

Kuba-Bushong Trap

for Birds

The oldest form of food production is hunting and gathering. Hunting

and gathering was practiced in all human societies before the

development of agriculture. However, even in societies that practice

agriculture, hunting of animals and gathering of roots, fruits and

berries supplement food produced through agriculture. In the U.S.,

many people hunt and trap animals and many others spend hours of

relaxation gathering wild berries. In contemporary, Africa there are

only a few groups that continue to depend on hunting and gathering

as their primary source of food.


15/47

15 | P a g e

Examples of Hunting and Gathering Economies in Africa

The Khoisan (or San) peoples live in the Namib and Kalahari desertsof contemporary Botswana, Namibia, and South Africa. They are

skilled hunters and gatherers using tools, weapons, skills, andknowledge developed over thousands of years to produce adequatefood and water for living. Although the nomadic San lived in smallgroups of extended families, they developed extensive tradenetworks with peoples living in the arid and semi-arid environments.Beginning in the colonial era, the Khoisan peoples have been forcedby government policy to settle in permanent communities. As aconsequence of this policy, many San have become dependent onalternate food sources.

The Mbuti (or Bambuti) are an example of another group of peoplewho are primarily hunters and gathers. However unlike the Khoisan,the Mbuti live in the tropical rain forests of Central Africa. Like theSan, they produce an adequate supply of food using skills,knowledge, tools, and weapons that have been developed overthousands of years.

Hunting and gathering societies in either arid or forest

environments live in small communities. This allows for easymobility as groups are constantly on the move looking for freshsources of food. All members of society are engaged in foodproduction. In Mbuti and San societies, men tend to be hunters andwomen gatherers.

(This image has not been used to illustrate hunting in Africa)


16/47

16 | P a g e

Herding

Gambia

NdamaCattle Grazing

During the Rainy

Season

Morocco

Pre-Sahara Pasture in

the Draa Valley South

of Marrakesh

Botswana

Farm with Goat Pen

Hunting And

Gathering

Human resources:

Skills and knowledge for hunting

and for gathering wild animals

Human effort/Labour

Natural

resources:

Land for

hunting,

gathering

Plant life:

roots,

fruit, etc.

Distribution/Use

Food killed or collected shared

equally among the clan or

extended famil

Capital

Resources:

Weapons

for

hunting

Tools for

digging


17/47

17 | P a g e

Around 5000 years ago, peoples in various parts of Africa began todomesticate animals to use as a source of food and for ploughingand transporting goods, and textiles. In contemporary Africa,domesticated animals--poultry, camels, sheep, goats, and cattle--

are an important source of food. In the areas of Africa that haveadequate rainfall and soils, people practice some form ofmixedagriculture. That means that they grow crops and keep domesticanimals.

In large areas of Africa that have low rain-fall or are semi-arid,herding of livestock is the primary economic activity and method offood production. Livestock-- sheep, goats, camels, or cattle-needwater and fresh vegetation. The need for water and grassnecessitates a semi-nomadic existence for herders. Societies whoseprimary economic activity is herding depend on their animals formilk and meat. In addition, most herding economies trade animalswith farming groups and supplement their food supply with grainsand vegetables.

Semi-nomadic herding production is dependent on the availability oflarge areas of land in which to herd livestock. Consequently,societies whose economies are based on herding tend to cover alarge geographic area. In addition, the economic necessity ofmovement causes herders to move in small groups, making it moredifficult for herders to organize themselves into strong politicalsystems.

African herders bring to their craft knowledge and skills that havebeen developed over thousands of years. However, the knowledgebase of herders is not static. For example, contemporary veterinaryknowledge and medicines have been adopted and used to increasethe productivity of herds.

Savannah vegetation and climate dominates more than athird of Africa. Savannahs are found in Central, East,Southern, and West Africa.


18/47

18 | P a g e

Herding

Natural Resources:

Land for herding

Water for herds

Grass over vegetation

Human Recourses:

Knowledge

and skill

necessary for

successful

farming Human

labour/Effort

Distribution/Use:

Food Milk, meat

distributed among the

extended family. Some

livestock, traded withnearby farmers

Capital Recoures:

Livestock

Sheeps, goats

, cattle, etc.

Weapons to

protect

animals from

attack

Veterinary


19/47

19 | P a g e

Subsistence Farming

Kenya

Countryside in

Kikuyu Area with

Houses and Fields

Burundi

Homesteads

(Rugos) in the Hills

Zambia

Village Crops

Grown In and

Around Gonduve

Until quite recently, the majority of people in many African countries

were economically engaged in subsistence agriculture. Subsistence

means to produce enough to meet consumption needs with little or

no surplus.

Land Ownership

In most African societies land, used for subsistence farming is not

owned by individuals or by families. Land is owned by the

community. Each family is allocated a section of land, which should

be sufficient for producing the food needs of the family. The policy

of community ownership of land is changing in some African

countries to a system of private ownership. Some people are in

favour of this new system since it provides security for the familiesfarming the land. However, some people prefer the traditional

system since it guarantees that all families in the community have

access to land

Farm Work


20/47

20 | P a g e

Farming is seasonally determined. Subsistence farm work in most

African countries follows the following cycle:

Clearing land: Before the rainy season begins. In clearing theland, farmers use axes and machete-like knives to clear

vegetation. After the vegetation is cleared, the brush is set on

fire. After the brush, is burned the land is ready for ploughing.

Ivory Coast

Woman Clearing

Field for Farming.

GambiaLand Cleared for

Burning

Ivory CoastBurning Field toPrepare forCultivation


21/47

21 | P a g e

Ploughing: After the land is cleared, the farmers prepare theland for planting by ploughing with either a animal drawn

plough or with large hoes.

Sierra Leone

Blacksmiths Selling

Farming Tools

Gambia

Ploughing with a

Moldboard Plough

Zambia

Farmers Working in

Field

Planting: After the land is prepared, the farmer plants theseeds or root-sections.

Gambia

Planting Millet by

Hand and Covering

Seed with the Foot

Ivory Coast

2 women planting

rice and burning

field

Ghana Yam

Yam Cultivation


22/47

22 | P a g e

Weeding/fertilizing/transplanting: The farmers work isnever complete. As soon as the plants germinate, the farmer is

busy weeding, applying fertilizers, and, in the case of rice,

transplanting seeding. Tending of crop continue until harvest

Gambia

Lifting peanutsfrom ground with a

hand hoe

Gambia

Women harvestingrice

Ghana

Woman PickingCotton

Preparation for storage or sale: After harvesting, thefarmer tackles the task of preparing the food crop for storage

or sale. Preparation can include winnowing, shelling, and

bagging produce.

Ethiopia

Man separating

chaff from grain

during Winnowing

Gambia

Decorticating Seed

Groundnuts

(Peanuts)

Nigeria

Barn for Drying

Yams in Middle Belt

of Nigeria


23/47

23 | P a g e

While subsistence farmers do not produce large surpluses,

they often barter or sell crops in order to meet basic needs.

For example, they may barter crops with an iron-smith to

obtain tools they need for farming. Or they may sell some of

their produce in order to raise the money they need to send

their children to school.

Commercial Agriculture:

Kenya

Base of a Sisal

Plant without

leaves sprouting

out.

Egypt

Orange Grove in

Delta

Sudan

Sugar Plantation in

Gunaid, Blue Nile

Province

Zimbabwe

Tobacco Auction

Commercial agriculture is the production of agriculturalproducts used primarily for sale or trade. Unlike subsistence

agriculture that is oriented towards maintaining family

subsistence, the goal of commercial agriculture is to

generate income and profit through the sale of agriculture

products produced on the farm.

Three factors led to the development and expansion of

commercial agriculture in Africa, Asia, the Americas, and

Europe.


24/47

24 | P a g e

First, innovations in food production continually

took place through history as farmers become

more skilled in crop and animal production.

Increased productivity in food can often result in

a surplus. In societies where there is a continual

surplus of food production, some people will be

freed from agricultural labour and will pursue

other occupations. The surplus production of

food facilitated the development of specialized

occupations such as metal smiths and weavers.Such persons, freed from having to produce their

own food, had the time to develop skills and

knowledge related to their selected

occupation. Diversification and specialization of

occupations could not take place if there was not

a surplus of food, which could be obtained by

skilled artisans.

Second, commercial agriculture developed in

Africa as in Asia, Europe, and the Americas in

response to industrialization and urbanization.

With the development of industrialization and

cities, came a demand for food to feed urban

workers. Farms primarily producing food for

sale developed to meet these needs.Third, early industrialization was directly related to

agricultural production. For example, some of the

earliest industries in Europe and in Africa were

textile manufacturing. The raw materials necessary

to this industry were agricultural, primarily cotton

and wool. As will be highlighted in the next section,

the commercial production of cotton became a

central economic activity in the Twentieth century ina number of Africa countries such as Mali, Niger, and

Sudan.


25/47

25 | P a g e

In recent history, there are two types of commercial foods

have been produced commercially in Africa. First, there are

the basic or necessity foods used in urban consumption.

These foods would include commercially raised rice, maize,

wheat, meat, eggs, and dairy products. Second, there are the

less basic luxury foods such as sugar, coffee, cocoa

(chocolate), and tea.

Commercial agricultural production takes many forms in Africa.

However, it is possible to make distinctions in terms of farm size,

labour needs, and the source of labour. A distinction can also bemade in terms of use of machinery, and target market:

local/domestic use and some food is for export. Basic food most

often is marketed locally, whereas luxury crops such as coffee, tea,

and cocoa are export oriented.

Colonial agricultural policies help explain the way commercial food

production is practiced in African countries. One example of how

colonial policy impacted agricultural production is the case of coffee,

a commercial crop grown in a number of different African countries.


26/47

26 | P a g e

Small scale production of coffee.

In countries such as Ethiopia

(where coffee was first grown),

Rwanda, Cote D'Ivoire, and

Uganda, coffee is produced

commercially on small to

medium size family farms. In

such cases, the land is owned by

the farmer, and the farmer is

dependent primarily on the

labour of family members,

although at times the farmermay have to hire temporary

workers. Money earned from the

sale of the coffee goes to

upgrade equipment, buy

fertilizer and chemicals, and to

support the farming family.

Angola

Coffee Bush


27/47

27 | P a g e

.

Large scale production of coffee. In other countries such as

Angola and Zimbabwe, where coffee is also an important

cash crop, production is quite different. During colonialism,

these countries were settled by large numbers of Europeanimmigrants. A number of these settlers became actively

engaged in commercial agriculture, including the production

of coffee. In these cases, coffee is grown on large farms or

plantations. The land is owned either by the settlers or by

an international company. The labour needs of these large

farms are met by workers recruited from rural areas who

are often landless, and unable to be even subsistence

farmers. Money earned from the sale of the coffee goes to

improve the farm and into the accounts of the owners. This

system has been criticized because workers are paid low

salaries and because most of the profits earned are not re-

invested in the local communities and economies.

AngolaPortuguese Coffee Plantation at Vila Salazar


28/47

28 | P a g e

Colonialism and Africa's Integration into the Global

Economy:

Economic Reasons for Colonialism.

Economic historians of Africa point to a number of economicrelated reasons why European countries colonized Africa.

1. Demand for Raw Materials. As you should know,

in the 19th century, Europe experienced the

industrial revolution. Industrial production, like allmodes of production, requires human resources,

capital resources, and natural resources. There was

no shortage of labour in Europe. Two centuries of

trade with Asia, the Americas, and Africa (including

the Atlantic Slave Trade) had brought great profits

to European traders. These profits provided the

capital necessary to finance the industrial revolution.

However, most of Europe was resource poor.

Consequently, European industries were dependent

on raw materials from Asia, the Americas, and

Africa. For example, one of the earliest industries in

Europe was the cotton textile industry, which helped

stimulate the industrial revolution. This industry was

completely dependent on imported cotton.

As industrialization grew and spread throughoutEurope, competition for raw materials increased.

Consequently, some European industrialists

encouraged their governments to colonize African

countries as a method of guaranteeing sources of

raw materials.


29/47

29 | P a g e

,.

2. Need for Markets. By the late 19th

century, the industries in Europe were

producing more industrial goods than

Europeans could consume.

Consequently, industrialists sought

markets for there goods around the

world. As competition between

industries for markets grew,

industrialists encouraged their

governments to undertake

colonization of Africa in order to

protect markets for their industrialgoods.

3. Commerce, Christianity, Civilization. Some historians

argue that one of the most important economic

reasons for colonization was the belief by some

Europeans, particularly missionaries, that the

development of trade and commerce in Africa was an

essential component to the restitution of "civilization"

in Africa. Today, historians reject this ethnocentric

conception of civilization, but many Europeans of the

period felt that Africa was not "civilized". Theybelieved that trade and commerce, along with

introduction of Christianity, were key to development

in Africa. Christian mission societies and other

advocates of this position pushed European

governments to colonize Africa and thereby provide a

supportive environment for the expansion of

commerce.


30/47

30 | P a g e

COLONIAL ECONOMIC CONNECTION BETWEEN

EUROPE AND AFRICA

The blue arrow represents the

industrial goods and privateinvestments from Europe to Africa

The green line represents

agricultural and mineral raw

materials from Africa to Europe.


31/47

31 | P a g e

The Scramble for Africa

The Scramble for Africa took place between 1886 and 1914.

During this time, European countries colonized all of Africa,

with the exception of Ethiopia and Liberia. As is shown the

following map, Britain, France, and Portugal were the main

colonial powers in Africa, but Belgium, Germany, Italy, and

Spain also had colonies.

Establishing political control, or sovereignty, over their colonies wasthe primary objective of the colonial powers in the early years of

colonialism. The colonial powers used a combination of warfare,

threat of force, and treaty making with African rulers in their efforts

to gain political control of African colonies. Once political control was

realized and institutions of governance were in place, economics

became the main concern of the colonial governments.

Europe experienced an economic depression at the end of the 19thcentury; consequently, the colonial powers felt that they had no

money to spend on political administration, social programs, or

economic development in their colonies. They were adamant that

the colonies should pay for themselves. The colonial administration

in each colony was charged with raising the revenue necessary to

pay for all expenses, including the colonial army and police force.


32/47

32 | P a g e

BelgiumFrance

Germany

Great Britain

Italy

Portugal

Spain

Independent


33/47

33 | P a g e

Given the great geographic diversity of Africa in terms of

natural resources, climate, vegetation, topography, and

precipitation, there was no uniform model that the colonial

powers used to raise revenue throughout Africa. Just as

economic activity in the early 20th century varied throughout

Europe and in the United States, so too, economic activity in

Africa was diverse. Within this diversity, economic historians

of Africa have identified five modes of economic activity and

revenue generation in colonial Africa

;;;;;;;;;

1. Mineral exploitation. Africa is a

continent rich in mineral resources. Incolonies where there were large

deposits of minerals, colonial

governments encouraged the

exploitation of the minerals. Northern

Rhodesia (Zambia) and the Belgian

Congo (Congo) are examples of

colonies whose economies were

dominated by copper production. In

these colonies, colonial governments

initiated policies that forced some

African farmers to leave their homes

to become mine workers.

2. Large scale agricultural production. In colonies

in East and Southern Africa that had climatesattractive to European settlers, the primary colonial

economic activity and revenue generation was large

scale farms owned by Europeans. Examples include

Angola (coffee), Kenya (coffee, tea), and Southern

Rhodesia/Zimbabwe (tobacco, beef). In this system,

European settler farmers neededland and labour. To

meet these needs, the colonial governments

instituted unpopular policies that removed good farmland from the local population and forced some men

to work as labourers on European controlled farms.


34/47

34 | P a g e

3. Small scale agricultural

production. Most African colonies had

neither large deposits of minerals, nor

the environment to encourage

European settlement. In these

colonies, the colonial governments

actively encouraged farmers to grow

special cash crops that would be

exported to raise revenues. Cash

crops included food crops such as

groundnuts/peanuts (Senegal,Nigeria), coffee (Tanganyika, Rwanda,

Uganda), cocoa (Ghana, Togo, Cote

D'Ivoire) and non-food crops, such as

cotton (Mali, Niger, Sudan) and

tobacco (Malawi).

4. Supply of Labour. Parts of some Africancolonies were poor in natural resources. In

these situations, the colonial regimes

instituted policies that

strongly encouragedable bodied men to leave

their homes and migrate either to distant

areas within the same colony or to

neighbouring colonies where they worked in

mines or on large farms. Mine owners and

commercial farmers paid a recruitment fee to

the colonial government of the worker's home

country. For example, in Southern Africa the

colonies of Bechuanaland (Botswana),

Basutoland (Lesotho) , Swaziland, and parts

of Mozambique and Malawi became labour

reservoirs for the mines and large farms ofNorthern Rhodesia, Southern Rhodesia, and

South Africa.


35/47

35 | P a g e

5. Mixed Economies. Most colonial

economies in Africa are

called mono-economies by

economists. This indicates that the

colonial economies were dependent

on mining, settler agriculture, or

the small scale production of a

single cash crop. There were a few

exceptions to this trend. By the endof colonialism in South Africa

(1994), the country had a very

vibrant and diversified economy

boasting mineral, agricultural, and

manufacturing industries, and an

advanced commerce sector.

Another example of a mixed

economy is Nigeria. In the 1950s,

the last decade before

independence, the discovery of

large reserve of petroleum helped

diversify an agriculturally based

economy.


36/47

36 | P a g e

Transportation in Colonial Era

Roads, railroads, and river transportation are essential

components of economic growth through the movement of

goods, services, and people. Modern economic systems are

dependent on the efficient movement of goods, services, and

people. You can learn about an economic system by studying

its transportation system.

Although Africa has many great rivers, rapids and waterfalls make

many of these rivers unsuitable for long-distance transportation.

Consequently, colonial governments and commercial companies

sponsored the development of railroads as a primary method of

transporting agricultural and mineral resources.


37/47

37 | P a g e

Post-Colonial Societies

African colonies gained their independence from European

colonial powers beginning in 1951 (Libya) and ending with

the transition to majority rule in South Africa (1994).

Regardless of how and when African countries gained their

independence, most countries were economically

underdeveloped.

Although each independent African country had unique economic

features, most countries inherited similar economic structures fromtheir colonial experience. To understand the economic situation in

contemporary post-colonial Africa, it is important to remember the

economic structures inherited from the colonial era.

1. Most African economies at independence

were centred on the production and export

of a single commodity, be it agricultural ormineral. Economists label economies that

are dependent on a single commodity

as mono-economies. You have learned

that in order for economies to

develop, specialization and diversification

are essential. Independent African

governments had to develop strategies for

economic diversification and specialization.

This was not an easy task given that the

colonial economic systems were not

oriented to diversification.


38/47

38 | P a g e

,,,

2. Most African countries

inherited under-

developed commercial,

transportation, and

communicationinfrastructures.

Economic diversification

and growth is dependent

in part on developed

networks of

communication and

transportation that

facilitate the easy

movement of goods,

services, capital and

labour.

3. You know from your study of the factors

of economic production that one of the

most important factors of economic

production and economic growth is

people. All production depends on human

labour. Specialized production is

dependent on a skilled and educated

workforce. However, most colonial

governments spent very little money on

schooling. Consequently at independence,

African countries faced a severe shortageof skilled people, an absolute necessity for

economic growth and development. To

give just one example, at independence in

1960, the Congo (Democratic Republic), a

country the size of the United States east

of the Mississippi River, had fewer than 20

college graduates!


39/47

39 | P a g e

These are some of the economic realities confronting African

governments at independence. In addition to these harsh realities,

African countries wanted desperately to address legitimate needs

and aspirations of their citizens. Central concerns of the nationalist

movements were the lack of economic opportunity and social

justice. Pro-independence nationalist leaders, responding to the

aspirations of the people, demanded greater access to schooling,

more adequate health care and housing, safe drinking water, and

economic opportunities, just to list the most important demands.

Having championed these demands, the first post-colonial

governments had to make an attempt to deliver on these

aspirations. However, meeting these aspirations would necessitatehuge government expenditures, which in turn would be dependent

on government revenues. Government revenues come primarily

from taxing the productive sectors of the national economy. So, it

comes back to economic growth and development. To meet the

legitimate aspirations of the people, economic growth and

development are essential.

POST-COLONIAL GLOBAL CONNECTIONS

Industry Goods and

Capital

Raw Materials and

Debt payments


40/47

40 | P a g e

Post-Colonial Economic Strategies.

Following the advice of many international economic experts,

including professionals from the World Bank and the

International Monetary Fund, leaders of African countries

established policies aimed at strengthening their economies

through diversification However, there are a number of

different strategies which governments can take in

attempting to promote economic development. In the 1960s

and 1970s, international economists promoted two

competing strategies for generating economic growth anddevelopment.

Strategy One:

Economic growth and diversification through importsubstitution. Economists promoting this plan pointed out that

most African countries were mono-economies, and, as such,

these countries were dependent on importing almost all of the

non-food items they consumed. An import substitution policywould promote diversification and growth through a strategy

that would lessen dependence on expensive imports. An added

benefit to this strategy, according to its proponents, was the

emphasis on industrialization. They pointed out that economic

development occurred in Europe, Japan and North America

through industrialization. Import substitution, proponents

asserted, would promote diversification through

industrialization.


41/47

41 | P a g e

Strategy 2:

Economic growth and diversification through diversification ofexports. Economists promoting this perspective argued that thedevelopment of import substitution industries was very

expensive, noting that postcolonial African governments did not

have the financial resources to finance industries. Moreover,

these economists argued that there would not be sufficient

interest on the part of international business to invest in new

industries in Africa. As an alternative strategy, they promoted

the diversification of the exports through the development of

new exports--exports of goods that could be inexpensivelyproduced in Africa. These economists believed that through the

export of agricultural and mineral products, African economies

would build up a surplus of profits, called foreign reserves,

which could be used to invest in further economic

diversification and growth.

Proponents of an import-substitution plan, disagreed with this

approach. They asserted that dependence on the export of raw

materials would perpetuate the economic dependency of African

countries on a unstable and unfair international system, which buys

raw materials cheaply and sells industrial goods at high prices.

African governments were not faced with easy choices. What

policy do you think you would have followed if you were anAfrican leader at independence?


42/47

42 | P a g e

However, there is MORE!

Once African governments made the decision on which model

of economic growth to follow, they were confronted with anadditional economic dilemma of how to fund/finance their

development plan. Large infusions of capital would be

needed for either the development of import substitution or

export generating industries.

The question of funding economic projects was closely tied to the

issue of ownership of economic resources. Whoever owned economic

resources would have primary responsibility for raising money tofinance the project under consideration. By the same token, those

who owned productive resources would control the profits generated

by the industry.

In the 1960s, African governments had a number of different

options for raising capital to fund development that were

directly connected to issues of ownership.

1.Private Enterprise: Private enterprise (capitalism) is asystem in which economic resources, such as land, natural

resources, commerce, and industry, are privately owned

by individuals or groups of individuals. If African countries

at independence were to follow a private enterprise

strategy, resources such as land and minerals would

belong to individuals or privately owned companies. Inprivate enterprise, companies or individuals owning

resources are responsible for raising capital (funds)

necessary to begin or expand production. Colonialism, of

course, left most African countries with little local capital.

Consequently, if a free-enterprise strategy were to be

implemented, African governments and local businesses

would have to raise capital from outside the country,

primarily from international businesses located in Europe,


43/47

43 | P a g e

Japan, and North America. To attract international

investments, African governments would need to have

policies attractive to potential investors. For example,

property rights would be guaranteed and companies

would have the right to do whatever they wished with

their profits, including sending them out of the country.

This approach raised some concerns. Would international

businesses be willing to re-invest some of their profits

within the country, or would they send most of their

profits out of the country? Would these businesses be

willing to invest in their workforce by supporting

education, health care, and housing? Or would theirprimary concern be the making of profit? How different

would this system be from the colonial economic system

that was primarily interested in the export of raw

materials and not in diversified development?


44/47

44 | P a g e

2.State Directed/Control: A second option available toAfrican leaders at independence was that of state control.

A system of state control would give the state ownership

of a country's natural resources. This system would allow

the new government to develop an economic plan that

was in line with what it felt was in the best interest of the

country. In this system, the government would be

responsible for raising the capital necessary for the

development of new, or expansion of existing, businesses.

How would the government raise capital?There were four

potential sources of revenues. First, the governments

could try to raise funds for investment through taxation.However, since African economies at independence were

underdeveloped, there was little potential for raising

necessary funds through taxation. Second, governments

could borrow money from international lenders, either

private banks or from non-private institutions like the

World Bank. However, given that banks are a product of

the free enterprise system, banks might be reluctant to

loan large sums of monies to fund state controlled

projects or businesses. Third, African governments could

appeal to richer countries to provide them with grants

(gifts of money targeted at a specific project) to help fund

economic projects. While a number of Asian, European,

and North American governments were willing to provide

some development assistance, would these countries be

willing to supple the amount of monies needed tostimulate economic development? Fourth, African

governments could encourage international businesses to

undertake joint business ventures in which the business

would provide capital and expertise, while governments

would provide natural resources and labor.


45/47

45 | P a g e

3.Mixed Economy: A third option open to Africangovernments was the development of a mixed economic

plan, which combined elements of private ownership and

control with elements of state ownership and control.

Under such a plan, the government would identify certain

areas of the economy in which private ownership and

enterprise would be encouraged. Similarly, areas of the

economy would be set aside for state control. This option

would allow the government to attempt to attract capital

from a wide variety of sources: international businesses,

bank loans, direct grants from richer countries.

,,,


46/47

46 | P a g e


47/47

..

africa bitches

Documents