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AGRICULTURE2

After 1492, a global exchange of previously local crops and livestock breeds

occurred. Key crops involved in this exchange included maize, potatoes,sweetpotatoes and manioc traveling from the New World to the Old, and several varieties

of wheat, barley, rice and turnips going from the Old World to the New. There were

very few livestock species in the New World, with horses, cattle, sheep and goats

being completely unknown before their arrival with Old World settlers. Crops moving

in both directions across the Atlantic Ocean caused population growth around the

world, and had a lasting effect on many cultures.[39]Since being introduced by

Portuguese in the 16th century,[40]maize and manioc have replaced traditional

African crops as the continent's most important staple food crops.[41]

After its introduction from South America to Spain in the late 1500s, the potato

became an important staple crop throughout Europe by the late 1700s. The potatoallowed farmers to produce more food, and initially added variety to the European

diet. The nutrition boost caused by increased potato consumption resulted in lower

disease rates, higher birth rates and lower mortality rates, causing a population

boom throughout the British Empire, the US and Europe.[42]The introduction of the

potato also brought about the first intensive use of fertilizer, in the form

ofguano imported to Europe from Peru, and the first artificial pesticide, in the form of

an arsenic compound used to fight Colorado potato beetles. Before the adoption of

the potato as a major crop, the dependence on grain caused repetitive regional and

national famines when the crops failed: 17 major famines in England alone between

1523 and 1623. Although initially almost eliminating the danger of famine, the

resulting dependence on the potato eventually caused the European Potato Failure,

a disastrous crop failure from disease resulting in widespread famine, and the death

of over one million people in Ireland alone.[43]

By the early 19th century, agricultural techniques, implements, seed stocks

and cultivars had so improved that yield per land unit was many times that seen in

the Middle Ages. The work ofCharles Darwin and Gregor Mendel created the

scientific foundation for plant breeding that led to its explosive impact over the past

150 years.[44]The development of agriculture into its modern form has been possible

through a continuing process ofmechanization, with huge advances made starting in

the early 19th century. Horse drawn machinery, such as the McCormick reaper,revolutionized harvesting, while inventions such as the cotton gin made possible the

processing of large amounts of crops. During this same period, farmers

experimented with steam-powered machinery, which was found to be expensive,

dangerous and a fire hazard. In 1892,

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