Agricultural Agricultural Transformations and Transformations and Rural DevelopmentRural Development

Agricultural SystemsAgricultural Systems

Useful to view agriculture in a systems Useful to view agriculture in a systems framework: inputs, outputs and linkagesframework: inputs, outputs and linkages

Inputs- labor, fertilizer, seeds, land Inputs- labor, fertilizer, seeds, land preparation, land quality and tenurepreparation, land quality and tenure

Outputs- production in form of mature Outputs- production in form of mature crops and income earned and allocatedcrops and income earned and allocated

Linkages- labor intensity > type of crop Linkages- labor intensity > type of crop (rice, rubber, etc); land size>income (rice, rubber, etc); land size>income earned and traditional system earned and traditional system

But inputs, outputs are linked through But inputs, outputs are linked through three overlapping milieu or environmentsthree overlapping milieu or environments

Agricultural SystemsAgricultural Systems

AA- - Physical -Physical - Ecosystem- Ecosystem- especially climate (precipitation), especially climate (precipitation), soil and vegetationsoil and vegetation

BB- - Behavioral -Behavioral - how ecosystem how ecosystem is perceived-physical and is perceived-physical and behavioral may be in conflictbehavioral may be in conflict

CC- - Operational Operational - culture, values, - culture, values, class structures, institutions and class structures, institutions and tradition, political system, tradition, political system, technology level-farm technology level-farm management, land tenure-all management, land tenure-all influence and govern machinery influence and govern machinery of production, consumption and of production, consumption and exchangeexchange

A-Physical Environment

C-Operational Milieu

B-Behavioral Environment

Agrarian StructureAgrarian Structure Agrarian structureAgrarian structure refers to ways in which agricultural refers to ways in which agricultural

system is developed on the land and includes land system is developed on the land and includes land ownership, cropping system, and institutionsownership, cropping system, and institutions

Land tenure-Land tenure- who owns or controls the land who owns or controls the land Communal tenure-Communal tenure- land held by village where land held by village where

villagers enjoy usufruct (right to use and profit)villagers enjoy usufruct (right to use and profit) LatifundiaLatifundia –large estates where wage laborers are –large estates where wage laborers are

employed by private sector firms (agri-business), or employed by private sector firms (agri-business), or plantations held by public sectorplantations held by public sector

FreeholdFreehold- outright ownership with land being - outright ownership with land being transferred and divided equally among (usually males) transferred and divided equally among (usually males)

TenancyTenancy- farmers pay owners for use of land either in - farmers pay owners for use of land either in cash or kind (production) cash or kind (production)

Forms of AgricultureForms of Agriculturehttp://www.askasia.org/frclasrm/lessplan/l000008.htmhttp://www.askasia.org/frclasrm/lessplan/l000008.htm

Wet riceWet rice (sawah or padi) cultivation- (sawah or padi) cultivation- rice grown in an rice grown in an embanked field relying on natural rainfall or irrigation. embanked field relying on natural rainfall or irrigation. Highly labor intensive and naturally fertile. Irrigation adds Highly labor intensive and naturally fertile. Irrigation adds fertility through deposition of material in suspension. fertility through deposition of material in suspension. Capable of involution and highly impacted by the Capable of involution and highly impacted by the Green Green Revolution-Revolution- hybrid seeds, fertilizers and pesticides used hybrid seeds, fertilizers and pesticides used to enhance productivity but assumes abundant waterto enhance productivity but assumes abundant water

Green RevolutionGreen Revolution

Green RevolutionGreen Revolution - production revolution in - production revolution in grains associated with discovery of new hybrid grains associated with discovery of new hybrid seed varieties of wheat, rice, and corn seed varieties of wheat, rice, and corn

Resulted in high farm yields and allow double and Resulted in high farm yields and allow double and triple cropping due to rapid maturitytriple cropping due to rapid maturity

But such seeds are dependent upon expensive But such seeds are dependent upon expensive inputs such as fertilizers, pesticides and above all inputs such as fertilizers, pesticides and above all require adequate water.require adequate water.

Produces higher incomes and may allow family Produces higher incomes and may allow family members to divert to other non-farm occupationsmembers to divert to other non-farm occupations

Plantation or Estate AgriculturePlantation or Estate Agriculture

Plantation or Estate Agriculture-Plantation or Estate Agriculture- foreign capital or public foreign capital or public sector capital; large scale with rubber, oil palm, coffee sector capital; large scale with rubber, oil palm, coffee and sugar cane being dominant; high labor and sugar cane being dominant; high labor requirements-labor supply problems; stimulated by requirements-labor supply problems; stimulated by Western now Eastern demand as well; significant capital Western now Eastern demand as well; significant capital investment-planting, processing, re-plantinginvestment-planting, processing, re-planting

Rubber PlantationsRubber Plantations Originally collected from wild Originally collected from wild

trees in South America, now trees in South America, now 90% of rubber production 90% of rubber production comes from plantations of comes from plantations of rubber trees in Southeast Asia. rubber trees in Southeast Asia.

Thailand (southern) is largest Thailand (southern) is largest producer where small holdings producer where small holdings are dominant; Malaysia, are dominant; Malaysia, Indonesia and NigeriaIndonesia and Nigeria

Strong prices for latex have Strong prices for latex have produced a boomproduced a boom

Huge demand from China—Huge demand from China—rubber tires and other products rubber tires and other products as well as global demand for as well as global demand for rubber gloves (HIV)rubber gloves (HIV)

Oil Palm PlantationsOil Palm Plantations

Oil palm originally from West Oil palm originally from West Africa has overtaken rubber in Africa has overtaken rubber in many nationsmany nations

Malaysia currently accounts for Malaysia currently accounts for 51 % of world palm oil 51 % of world palm oil production and 62% of world production and 62% of world exports exports

Other producers are Indonesia, Other producers are Indonesia, Nigeria, Ivory Coast and Nigeria, Ivory Coast and ColombiaColombia

Numerous food and non-food Numerous food and non-food applications: frying media; applications: frying media; margarines, shortenings, soap, margarines, shortenings, soap, oleochemicals and other oleochemicals and other products products

Nutritional and health value?Nutritional and health value?

Sedentary Sedentary Dry Dry FarmingFarming

Sedentary dry farming-Sedentary dry farming- mostly smallholders growing mostly smallholders growing cereal grains usually millets and sorghumscereal grains usually millets and sorghums

Sahel countries- Burkina Faso Chad, Mali, Niger, Sahel countries- Burkina Faso Chad, Mali, Niger, Sudan- desertification and aridity Sudan- desertification and aridity

Occasionally grown under irrigation where population Occasionally grown under irrigation where population density is generally low density is generally low

Shifting AgricultureShifting Agriculture

Shifting cultivation- sometimes referred to as ‘swidden’ and means Shifting cultivation- sometimes referred to as ‘swidden’ and means occupancy of the land interrupted by lengthy rest periods, clearing field and occupancy of the land interrupted by lengthy rest periods, clearing field and burning vegetation, sowing food crops; supports only a small population; burning vegetation, sowing food crops; supports only a small population; extensive type of agriculture; diversity of crops planted to insure against extensive type of agriculture; diversity of crops planted to insure against natural hazardnatural hazard

Shifting cultivation usually starts with cutting trees and a fire which clears a Shifting cultivation usually starts with cutting trees and a fire which clears a spot for crop production (L)spot for crop production (L)

In the ideal case, shifting cultivation is a cycle where farmers come back to In the ideal case, shifting cultivation is a cycle where farmers come back to the original place after a couple of years. The picture shows a newly the original place after a couple of years. The picture shows a newly prepared land in the center. In the background is untouched forest, in the prepared land in the center. In the background is untouched forest, in the foreground the piece of land which has been left idle to re-growth of a foreground the piece of land which has been left idle to re-growth of a secondary forest from the previous cropping cycle, and on the right the secondary forest from the previous cropping cycle, and on the right the secondary growth awaiting cultivation during the next cropping cycle.(R)secondary growth awaiting cultivation during the next cropping cycle.(R)

Fires, Slash and Burn and IndonesiaFires, Slash and Burn and Indonesia Slash/burn practiced in Slash/burn practiced in

Borneo by Dayaks w/o Borneo by Dayaks w/o creating ecological crisiscreating ecological crisis

Burning has become Burning has become excessive excessive

Clearing old rubber Clearing old rubber plantations is major cause of plantations is major cause of fires—illegal but cheapfires—illegal but cheap

But local people also clear But local people also clear by fire as they farm larger by fire as they farm larger areasareas

In dry years fire and smoke In dry years fire and smoke damage have huge damage have huge consequences for property consequences for property and health and the ecology and health and the ecology of the forest of the forest

Highland Market GardensHighland Market Gardens High elevation areas allow High elevation areas allow

crops: carrots, tomatoes, crops: carrots, tomatoes, cabbage, flowerscabbage, flowers

Labor intensive vegetable or Labor intensive vegetable or tea production for urban tea production for urban marketsmarkets

Well organized and export Well organized and export orientationorientation

Examples: Cameron Examples: Cameron Highlands, Malaysia; Highlands, Malaysia; Berastagi, Sumatra; Baguio, Berastagi, Sumatra; Baguio, Philippines; Kandy, Sri LankaPhilippines; Kandy, Sri Lanka

Constraints on Rural Developing Constraints on Rural Developing World AgricultureWorld Agriculture Small size of farms limit productivity of laborSmall size of farms limit productivity of labor Reduction in size of land parcels under Reduction in size of land parcels under

inheritance tends to increase tenancyinheritance tends to increase tenancy Weak local or regional marketsWeak local or regional markets Expensive inputs unless subsidized by Expensive inputs unless subsidized by

governmentgovernment Farm to market transport often poor and may Farm to market transport often poor and may

be seasonal- collapsing in the wet seasonbe seasonal- collapsing in the wet season

Contrasting Peasant Agriculture in Contrasting Peasant Agriculture in Latin America, Asia, and AfricaLatin America, Asia, and Africa Common characteristic is the position of the Common characteristic is the position of the

family farm in all three areasfamily farm in all three areas Latin America and Asia have very different Latin America and Asia have very different

heritages and cultures but peasant life is similarheritages and cultures but peasant life is similar Rural cultivator whose prime aim is survivalRural cultivator whose prime aim is survival Farming techniques are scaled to his level of Farming techniques are scaled to his level of

capital: human and animal power rather than capital: human and animal power rather than mechanizationmechanization

Food crops are dominant: corn, rice and Food crops are dominant: corn, rice and soybeanssoybeans

Contrasting Peasant Agriculture: Contrasting Peasant Agriculture: Latin AmericaLatin America

But nature of agrarian existence differed dramaticallyBut nature of agrarian existence differed dramatically Latin America- pattern of dualism known as latifundio Latin America- pattern of dualism known as latifundio

(large land holdings > 15 persons) and minifundio (large land holdings > 15 persons) and minifundio (smallest farms <2 persons)(smallest farms <2 persons)

Problem: small number of latifundios control a large Problem: small number of latifundios control a large proportion of agriculture while vast number of proportion of agriculture while vast number of minifundios scratch out existenceminifundios scratch out existence

Problem: latifundios relatively inefficient because Problem: latifundios relatively inefficient because high proportion of land may be left idlehigh proportion of land may be left idle

Problem: little reinvestment of profits to improve Problem: little reinvestment of profits to improve productivityproductivity

Contrasting Peasant Agriculture: Latin Contrasting Peasant Agriculture: Latin America America Land owners often value their holdings not for their Land owners often value their holdings not for their

contribution to national agricultural output but for contribution to national agricultural output but for power and prestigepower and prestige

Many small farmers exist on benevolence and Many small farmers exist on benevolence and goodwill of landowner-permits them a meager livinggoodwill of landowner-permits them a meager living

In return small farmers give up to 80 % of production In return small farmers give up to 80 % of production of outputof output

Tenant farmers may have to provide both output and Tenant farmers may have to provide both output and free labor to the patronfree labor to the patron

Improved agricultural productivity in LA means more Improved agricultural productivity in LA means more than seeds, fertilizers, higher output prices, and than seeds, fertilizers, higher output prices, and improved marketingimproved marketing

It means a reorganization of social and institutional It means a reorganization of social and institutional structures for peasants to lift themselves upstructures for peasants to lift themselves up

Contrasting Peasant Agriculture: AsiaContrasting Peasant Agriculture: Asia In LA- too much land under control of too few peopleIn LA- too much land under control of too few people In Asia- too many people crowded onto too little landIn Asia- too many people crowded onto too little land Three forces have molded the traditional pattern of land Three forces have molded the traditional pattern of land

ownership into its present conditionownership into its present condition 1. European rule-private property, rise of landlord and 1. European rule-private property, rise of landlord and

creation of individual land titlescreation of individual land titles 2. Rise in power of the moneylender- with land titles land 2. Rise in power of the moneylender- with land titles land

became a negotiable assetbecame a negotiable asset 3. Rapid growth of Asian populations- impact has been 3. Rapid growth of Asian populations- impact has been

severe fragmentation; as holdings shrink production falls severe fragmentation; as holdings shrink production falls below poverty level; peasants forced to borrow at below poverty level; peasants forced to borrow at usurious rates; large debts; forced to pay high rents with usurious rates; large debts; forced to pay high rents with scarce land; labor abundant so wages are low; Myrdal’s scarce land; labor abundant so wages are low; Myrdal’s vicious circles of poverty!!vicious circles of poverty!!

Contrasting Peasant Agriculture: Contrasting Peasant Agriculture: AfricaAfrica

As in LA and Asia, subsistence on small plots As in LA and Asia, subsistence on small plots is typical, but organization is very differentis typical, but organization is very different

African agricultural systems dominated by African agricultural systems dominated by three characteristics: three characteristics:

1. Importance of subsistence farming in the 1. Importance of subsistence farming in the village communityvillage community

2. Existence of land in excess of immediate 2. Existence of land in excess of immediate needs (allows shifting cultivation)needs (allows shifting cultivation)

3. Rights of each family to have access to land 3. Rights of each family to have access to land and water in immediate area (if you do not and water in immediate area (if you do not belong to community you are excluded)belong to community you are excluded)

Contrasting Peasant Agriculture: AfricaContrasting Peasant Agriculture: Africa Low productivity subsistence is characteristic of most Low productivity subsistence is characteristic of most

traditional African agriculture—Why?traditional African agriculture—Why? 1. Traditional tools and limited technology restrict area 1. Traditional tools and limited technology restrict area

that can be planted- although land is available (Animal that can be planted- although land is available (Animal power restricted) power restricted)

2. Small areas intensively cultivated- subject to 2. Small areas intensively cultivated- subject to diminishing returns and increased labor inputs-shifting diminishing returns and increased labor inputs-shifting cultivation appropriate?cultivation appropriate?

3. Scarcity of labor during the growing season-planting 3. Scarcity of labor during the growing season-planting and weeding. Only one rainy period over much of Africa, and weeding. Only one rainy period over much of Africa, demand for workers at this time exceeds supplydemand for workers at this time exceeds supply

Net result is virtually constant level of agricultural output Net result is virtually constant level of agricultural output and labor productivity throughout Africaand labor productivity throughout Africa

Off-Farm EmploymentOff-Farm Employment

Off-farm employment (OFE) is a critical yet Off-farm employment (OFE) is a critical yet imperfectly understood phenomenonimperfectly understood phenomenon

Micro-level issues which address the nature Micro-level issues which address the nature of the employment, its prevalence and of the employment, its prevalence and income impact must be further understoodincome impact must be further understood

OFE is central in many household survival OFE is central in many household survival strategies and a substantial proportion of strategies and a substantial proportion of income may be derived from off-farm workincome may be derived from off-farm work

The Location of Off Farm The Location of Off Farm EmploymentEmployment Many families meet subsistence needs by Many families meet subsistence needs by

producing crops on farm and working at off producing crops on farm and working at off farm jobsfarm jobs

The latter is often much more lucrativeThe latter is often much more lucrative Off farm employment applies to two different Off farm employment applies to two different

situations:situations: 1. Local -e.g. working on a neighbor’s land or 1. Local -e.g. working on a neighbor’s land or

operating a small shopoperating a small shop 2. Regional- e.g. coffee harvesting in another 2. Regional- e.g. coffee harvesting in another

region, factory work and trader- vendor in region, factory work and trader- vendor in nearby townnearby town

Activity Forms in the Peasant Activity Forms in the Peasant EconomyEconomy Productive activities of rural peasantsProductive activities of rural peasants - -

production for direct use in household (food production for direct use in household (food processing, husking of grain, etc), non-farm processing, husking of grain, etc), non-farm income earning on farm (handicraft production), income earning on farm (handicraft production), work on household farm (land prep, weeding, work on household farm (land prep, weeding, harvesting) and off-farm wage labor both farm harvesting) and off-farm wage labor both farm (harvesting coffee) and non-farm (trishaw driver or (harvesting coffee) and non-farm (trishaw driver or factory worker).factory worker).

Reproductive activities of rural peasantsReproductive activities of rural peasants - daily - daily maintenance of the household: cooking, sweeping, maintenance of the household: cooking, sweeping, collecting firewood and water (Senegal), mending collecting firewood and water (Senegal), mending and washing clothes. These may be differentiated and washing clothes. These may be differentiated by by biologicalbiological (childbearing), (childbearing), generationalgenerational (socialization and education of children), and (socialization and education of children), and dailydaily (cooking, collecting water).(cooking, collecting water).

..

Peasants and Commodity Peasants and Commodity ProductionProduction

Commodification or CommoditizationCommodification or Commoditization - the increasing production of goods and - the increasing production of goods and services for the market (e.g. peanuts in services for the market (e.g. peanuts in Senegal).Senegal).

Petty commodity productionPetty commodity production - form of - form of production in capitalism that combines production in capitalism that combines capital and labor within small, typically capital and labor within small, typically ‘household’ or ‘family’ enterprises‘household’ or ‘family’ enterprises