ai. chapter ii
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CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Definition of Speaking
Chaney (1998: 13) says that speaking is the process of building and sharing
meaning through the use of verbal and non-verbal symbols, in a variety of contexts.
Speaking is a crucial part of second and foreign language learning and teaching.
Despite its importance, for many years, teaching speaking has been undervalued and
English language teachers have continued to teach speaking just as a repetition of
drills or memorization of dialogues. However, today's world requires that the goal of
teaching speaking should improve students' communicative skills, because, only in
that way, students can express themselves and learn how to follow the social and
cultural rules appropriate in each communicative circumstance.
Furthermore speaking is one of the central elements of communication. In
EFL (English as Foreigner language) teaching, it is an aspect that needs special
attention and instruction. In order to provide effective attention, it is necessary for a
teacher of EFL to carefully examine the factors, condition and components that
underlie speaking effectiveness (Richards, 1999:230). Effective instruction derived
from the careful analysis of this area, together with sufficient language input and
speech-promotion activities will gradually help learners improve their English
speaking ability.
Many factors cause students reluctant to communicate in English; some of
those are cultural factors, linguistic factors or ineffectual factor. Here the researcher
only focus on the students to explain the effective factors since it is strongly related
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to the research being done by the researcher. The ineffectual factors include culture
shock, previous negative social and political experiences, lack of motivation, anxiety
and shyness in class, especially if their previous learning experiences were negative
(Nunan, 1999:231). All the factors stated above give the effect on the students
speaking ability. So, the teacher has to solve this problem as good as possible.
Furthermore, students seem to possess a reluctance to speak in English may
be due to the students fear of looking and feeling foolish when they make a mistake
that would make the others laugh at them or even look down on them. This method
proposes to help the students eliminate their resistance to learning spoken language
by making them forget their difficulties in learning (Brown, (1994: 23). Yet,
countless studies and experiments in human learning have shown that motivation is a
key in learning. Therefore the teacher is expected to motivate the students the class
while they are learning English speaking skill.
2.2 The Importance of Speaking
In relation to the purpose of the teaching of English as a foreign language, a
crucial thing is to teach students to speak in order to communicate through the
language, Allen and Widdowson (in Brumfit and Keith, 1979) elaborate that English
teaching has been called upon to provide students with the basic ability to use the
language, to receive information, and to convey information associated with their
special study.
One of the aims of most language programs is to develop spoken language
skill and most programs aim to integrate both spoken and written language (Burn and
Joyce, 1997). Learning the language means using it in communication in oral or
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written form, and being able to express felling, thought, and experience in various
contexts, Lado (1964 : 51) states that to know the language is to use it. He further
states that students do not know a sentence until he can speak it.
The teaching of speaking skill will enable students to realize their progress or
maturity in thinking. It is important that the development of the spoken language is
not simply a matter of learning skills such as pronouncing English sounds or being
able to produce single utterances or phrases. The teaching of speaking conveys the
sense of exposing the students to express their thought, idea, and feelings. It is
considered important in terms of the teaching of language, since it can bring the
students to think creatively and through speaking they can express what they are
thinking about.
2.3 Teaching Speaking and the Learners Problem in Learning Speaking
Nunan (2003: 23) in this case formulates what is meant by teaching speaking:
- Produce the English speech sounds and sound patterns
- Use word and sentence stress, intonation patterns and the rhythm of the
second language.
- Select appropriate words and sentences according to the proper social setting,
audience, situation and subject matter.
- Organize their thoughts in a meaningful and logical sequence.
- Use language as a means of expressing values and judgments.
- Use the language quickly and confidently with few unnatural pauses, which is
called as fluency.
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In addition, Hayriye (http://unr.edu/homepage/hayriyek) provides some
suggestions for English teachers in teaching speaking. They are in the
following:
o Provide maximum opportunity to students to speak the target
language by providing a rich environment that contains
collaborative work, authentic materials and tasks, and shared
knowledge.
o Try to involve each student in every speaking activity; for this
aim, practice different ways of student participation.
o Reduce teacher speaking time in class while increasing student
speaking time. Step back and observe students.
o Indicate positive signs when commenting on a student's response.
o Ask eliciting questions such as "What do you mean? How did you
reach that conclusion?" in order to prompt students to speak more.
o Provide written feedback like "Your presentation was really great.
It was a good job. I really appreciated your efforts in preparing the
materials and efficient use of your voice"
o Do not correct students' pronunciation mistakes very often while
they are speaking. Correction should not distract student from his
or her speech.
o Involve speaking activities not only in class but also out of class;
contact parents and other people who can help.
o
Circulate around classroom to ensure that students are on the right
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track and see whether they need your help while they work in
groups or pairs.
o Provide the vocabulary beforehand that students need in speaking
activities.
o Diagnose problems faced by students who have difficulty in
expressing themselves in the target language and provide more
opportunities to practice the spoken language.
Although teacher used a good method in teaching, students may be found
some difficulties in learning speaking. In this case, Richard (1990: 222) explains the
typical learner problems in speaking as follows:
- Speaks slowly and takes too long to compose utterances.
- Cannot participate actively in conversation.
- Spoken English doesnt sound natural
- Poor grammar
- Poor pronunciation
Also Richard (1990: 233) says that there are many reasons causing English
learners are poor in speaking skills. There are as follows:
- Lack of curriculum emphasis on speaking skills
- Teachers limited English proficiency
- Class conditions do not favor oral activities
- Limited opportunities outside of class to practice
- Examination system does not emphasize oral skills
Hawes (1994:35) reveals that most of EFL teachers have often complained
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about their learners, because they often do not pay attention to the instruction even
reluctant to participate actively in speaking class. Actually there are some factors
influenced, one of them is the activities which are provided by teachers in classroom.
Brown (1994:266), states that the activities which are given by teachers may attract
students motivation to involve in speaking class. Thus, the teacher should use a
good method in the teaching and learning process of speaking.
2.4 The Several Techniques of Teaching Speaking
Teacher need to give their students many opportunities to practice speaking.
They will need to use their imaginations in devising situation which provoke the use
of language in expression to the students own meaning, even when students have
very limited recluse on which to draw, from the very beginning levels of language
learning students need to :
1) Experiences various kinds of spoken texts.
2) Developed knowledge about how social and culture contexts effect the type
of spoken language used.
3) Learn how to participate in different spoken interaction.
4) Expend their language recourses and to used a range of spoken language
strategies.
5) Learn how different spoken texts are constructed.
6) Develop greater control of the system of vocabulary, grammar, phonology
and intonation.
7) Develop skill which will enable them to predict what will occur in a
conversation.
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8) Improve their accuracy and fluency.
2.4 The Effective Activities in Teaching Speaking
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Anyway there are many activities which offer students much time to practice
their speaking ability not only in class but also outside and helps them becoming
socialized, and makes students more active in teaching and learning process and at
the same time makes their learning more meaningful and fun for them that quoted
from (Hayriye: http://unr.edu/homepage/hayriyek), they are role play, simulations,
information gap, brainstorming, storytelling, interview, Story Completion, Reporting,
Playing Cards, Picture Narrating, Picture Describing, Find the Difference. Each of
activities is explained as follows;
2.4.1 Role Play
One other way of getting students to speak is role-playing. Students pretend
they are in various social contexts and have a variety of social roles. In role-play
activities, the teacher gives information to the learners such as who they are and what
they think or feel. Thus, the teacher can tell the student that "You are David, you go
to the doctor and tell him what happened last night, and" (Harmer, 1984)
2.4.2 Simulations
Simulations are very similar to role-plays but what makes simulations
different than role plays is that they are more elaborate. In simulations, students can
bring items to the class to create a realistic environment. For instance, if a student is
acting as a singer, she brings a microphone to sing and so on. Role plays and
simulations have many advantages. First, since they are entertaining, they motivate
the students. Second, as Harmer (1984) suggests, they increase the self-confidence of
hesitant students, because in role play and simulation activities, they will have a
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different role and do not have to speak for themselves, which means they do not have
to take the same responsibility.
2.4.3 Information Gap
In this activity, students are supposed to be working in pairs. One student will
have the information that other partner does not have and the partners will share their
information. Information gap activities serve many purposes such as solving a
problem or collecting information. Also, each partner plays an important role
because the task cannot be completed if the partners do not provide the information
the others need. These activities are effective because everybody has the opportunity
to talk extensively in the target language.
2.4.4 Brainstorming
On a given topic, students can produce ideas in a limited time. Depending on
the context, either individual or group brainstorming is effective and learners
generate ideas quickly and freely. The good characteristics of brainstorming are that
the students are not criticized for their ideas so students will be open to sharing new
ideas.
2.4.5 Storytelling
Students can briefly summarize a tale or story they heard from somebody
beforehand, or they may create their own stories to tell their classmates. Story telling
fosters creative thinking. It also helps students express ideas in the format of
beginning, development, and ending, including the characters and setting a story has
to have. Students also can tell riddles or jokes. For instance, at the very beginning of
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each class session, the teacher may call a few students to tell short riddles or jokes as
an opening. In this way, not only will the teacher address students speaking ability,
but also get the attention of the class.
2.4.6 Interviews
Students can conduct interviews on selected topics with various people. It is a
good idea that the teacher provides a rubric to students so that they know what type
of questions they can ask or what path to follow, but students should prepare their
own interview questions. Conducting interviews with people gives students a chance
to practice their speaking ability not only in class but also outside and helps them
becoming socialized. After interviews, each student can present his or her study to
the class. Moreover, students can interview each other and "introduce" his or her
partner to the class.
2.4.7 Story Completion
This is a very enjoyable, whole-class, free-speaking activity for which students sit in
a circle. For this activity, a teacher starts to tell a story, but after a few sentences he
or she stops narrating. Then, each student starts to narrate from the point where the
previous one stopped. Each student is supposed to add from four to ten sentences.
Students can add new characters, events, descriptions and so on.
2.4.8 Reporting
Before coming to class, students are asked to read a newspaper or magazine
and, in class, they report to their friends what they find as the most interesting news.
Students can also talk about whether they have experienced anything worth telling
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they need to use while narrating.
2.4.11 Picture Describing
Another way to make use of pictures in a speaking activity is to give students
just one picture and having them describe what it is in the picture. For this activity
students can form groups and each group is given a different picture. Students
discuss the picture with their groups, so a spokesperson for each group describes the
picture to the whole class. This activity fosters the creativity and imagination of the
learners as well as their public speaking skills.
2.4.12 Find the Difference
For this activity students can work in pairs and each couple is given two
different pictures, for example, picture of boys playing football and another picture
of girls playing tennis. Students in pairs discuss the similarities and/or differences in
the pictures.
2.5 The Characteristics of the Audio-Lingual Method
The Audio-Lingual method of teaching English as a second language had its
origins during World War II when it became known as the Army method (Kifuthu,
2002:34). It was developed as a reaction to the grammar-translation method of
teaching foreign languages. Grammar-translation had been used to teach for
thousands of years, but the method was perceived as taking too long for learners to
be able to speak in the target language. The Audio-Lingual method set out to
achieve quick communicative competence through innovative methods. From about
1947-1967 the Audio-Lingual approach was the dominant foreign language teaching
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method in the United States.
The Audio-Lingual method is based on the theory that language learning is a
question of habit formation. It has its origins in Skinners principles of behavior
theory. Since learning is thought to be a question of habit formation, errors are
considered to be bad and to be avoided. Further, teachers reward students by
saying Good! and praising the class when they perform well.
The Audio-Lingual method addresses a need for people to learn foreign
languages rapidly. It is best for beginning level English classes in a foreign language
setting. All instructions in the class are given in English. A dialog is presented for
memorization. The teacher asks the class to repeat each line of the dialog.
Expansion drills are used for difficult sentences. The teacher starts with the end of
the sentence and the class repeats just two words. A series of pattern practice drills
then follow the introduction of the dialog.
One of the key principles of the Audio-Lingual method is that the language
teacher should provide students with a native-speaker-like model. By listening,
students are expected to be able to mimic the model. Based upon contrastive
analyses, students are drilled in pronunciation of words that are most dissimilar
between the target language and the first language. Grammar is not taught directly by
rule memorization, but by examples. The method presumes that second language
learning is very much like first language learning.
The Audio-lingual Method is a combination of structural linguistic theory,
aural-oral procedures, and behaviorist psychology, which endows it with its own
distinctive characteristics (Fries, 1992:25). There are mainly five of them:
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1) Separation of language skills into listening, speaking, reading and
writing, with emphasis on the teaching of listening and speaking
before reading and writing;
2) Use of dialogues as the chief means of presenting the language;
3) Emphasis on certain practice techniques: mimicry, memorization and
pattern drills;
4) Discouraging the use of the mother tongue in the classroom;
5) Use of language laboratory.
Based on the statements above, it is know that this method give emphasis to
oral skill, including speaking and listening. Reading and writing also taught through
this method, but after the teaching of listening and speaking skill. Other
characteristic of this method is that the using of mother tongue is not allowed. And
finally, the characteristic of this method is that the teaching and learning process take
place in a language laboratory.
2.6 Teaching Speaking Through the Audio-Lingual Method
The audio-lingual method is one of the techniques in teaching English
especially teaching speaking. Teacher who used this method not only improve the
students mastery on speaking but also on listening, pronunciation, grammar and
intonation. So that it will be able to teach the students in the target language.
Dialogue and drill form the basis of audio- lingual class room practices.
Dialogues provide the means of contextualizing key structure and illustrate situation
in which structure might be used as well as some cultural aspect of the target
language. Dialogues are used for repetition and memorization. Correct
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pronunciation, stress, and intonation are emphasized after a dialogue has been
presented and memorized, specific grammatical pattern in the dialogue are selected
and become the focus of varies kinds of drill and pattern practice exercise.
The use of drills and pattern practice is a distinctive feature of the audio
lingual method. Various kinds of drills are used. Brooks (1964:156-61, in Larsen-
Freeman (1986:31) includes the following:
1. Repetition. The students repeat an utterance aloud as soon as he has heard it.
He does this without looking at a printed text. The utterance must be brief
enough to be and order.
2. Inflection. One word in an utterance appears in another form when repeated.
3. Replacement. One word in an utterance is replaced by another.
4. Restatement. The student rephrases an utterance and addresses it to someone
else, according to instructions.
5. Completion. The student hears an utterance that is complete except for one
word, and then repeats the utterance in completed form.
6. Transposition. A change in word order is necessary when a word is added.
7. Expansion. When a word is added it take a certain place in the sequence.
8. Contraction. A single word stands for a phase or clause.
9. Transformation. A sentence is transformed by being made negative or through
changes in tense, wood, voice, aspect, or modality.
10. Integration. Two separate utterances are integrated into one.
Instructional materials in the Audio-Language Method assist the teacher to
develop language mastery of the learner, especially speaking. A students text book
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is often not used in the elementary phases of a course, where students are mostly
taught speaking, listening, repeating, and responding. Tape recorders and audiovisual
equipment often have central roles in an audio lingual course. If the teacher is not a
native speaker of the target language, the tape recorder provides accurate models for
dialogues and drills.
2.7 Previous Study on Improving Speaking.
There are several studies that have been done on improving speaking. Kartini
(2006) conducted a study intended to find out whether teaching English speaking
could be improve by mastering a lot of vocabulary and can increase the students
achievement in speaking ability of the second year students of SMP N 3 Peusangan,
entitled The Contribution of Vocabulary to the Improvement of Speaking for the
Second Year of SMP N 3 Peusangan. The hypothesis of this study is the students
are more effective to increase their ability in speaking by knowing a lot of
vocabulary. The population of this study is the second year student of SMP N 3
Peusangan. The final result of this study is that the hypothesis is accepted.
In the year of 2009, Marlina conducted a research on improving the students
speaking skill by using role play. The title of this research is Improving the
Students Speaking Skill by Using Role Play. The research was a qualitative
approach by using a collaborative classroom action research. The subject of this
research is the second year students of SMP Islam Pase Batuphat Barat. The final
result of this research showed that the students achievement on speaking is better
than before they learnt speaking by using role play. This research also concluded that
the role play is effective to be used in learning and teaching process of speaking.
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In 2004, a research was conducted by Yusrawati on improving speaking. The
title of this research is Improving Speaking by Using Role Play. The research
applied a collaborative classroom action research. The subject of this research is the
second year students of SMP N 5 Paya Reubek. The final result of this research is
the application of role play technique in teaching and learning process of speaking
could improve students ability, and it can motivated and made the students enjoy
learning speaking when the teacher applied role play technique in the classroom.