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.single space.noContents «- true.skip 5.begin centerSyllabus for Qualifying Examin Artificial Intelligence.skip 2Department of Computer ScienceStanford UniversitySpring 1980. end

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The syllabus is organized to present a picture of the range ofknowledge expected of Ph.D. candidates in Artificial Intelligence, ratherthan specifying a fixed list of readings. There are a number of differentdimensions along which we could divide up the material. The attempt inthe earlier version to establish a thorough categorization has beenreplaced this year with a less formal, more realistic organization. Wehave listed a number of "topics" with a short paragraph describing thenecessary reading for each. These topics overlap in various ways, andreflect idiosyncratic views of how things divide up without any attempt toprovide a consistent classification. Hopefully the set of referencesincluded with each item will make it possible for students to select areasonable number of readings which will fill any knowledge gaps. Thelong reading list is intended as a source of details on individualreferences, not as a necessary set of things to read. It includes a roughindication of what sort of understanding is most important for eachreference -- whether there is a general perspective, one or more specificconcepts, and/or a body of detail with which students are expected to befluent. These indications are of course based on the prejudices andpeculiarities of the committee making up the syllabus, and should not betaken as representing the views of anyone else (including the members ofindividual exam committees).

Please send any comments or suggestions on the syllabus toMichael R. Genesereth (CSD.GeneserethSSCOßE) .We are hoping to get lots of feedback, and continue building towarda syllabus which really describes what there is to know [and whatis important to know] about AI, to be built on year after year.

Topics to be studied

As mentioned above, this is not intended as a complete or structuredclassification. It is a list of answers to the vague question "Whatkinds of things should AI students know about?". There is no significanceto the ordering.begin nofill

General PerspectiveWeak MethodsEpistemological problems of AIKnowledge Engineering - Expert

and the use of formal logicSystems

Knowledge Representation FormalismsGame PlayingPlanning and Common-sense ReasoningMathematical theorem proving and discoveryNatural LanguageSpeech understanding

s

VisionPhysical manipulationAutomatic Programming and Program VerificationLearning and Inductive InferencePsychological ModelsAutomata and Formal tanguage TheoryProgramming tanguages for AIPhilosophical ImplicationsPolitical and Social ImplicationsHistory and politics of the field

.end

General Perspective

There are several recent books on AI which attempt to provide anoverview. Of these, [Boden Al] and [Winston Al] are the beststarting point. One recent book ([McCorduck Al]) detailes the early historyand sociology of the field.Shorter articles which provide long-term perspectiveare [Minsky STEPS], [Feigenbaum IFIP], [tenat ÜBIQ], and [Nilsson OVERVIEW].In addition, the AI handbook will provide an overview of lotsof AI issues. [Nilsson Al2] is now available, and its novel organization cutsacross most of the categories on our list above.

Weak Methods

Classicaly, AI has been associated with a set of methods forproblem solving and search which have been called "weak methods".These include early work such as GPS [Newell, Shaw, and Simon],notions of heuristic search as described in [NilssonAl] and [Handbook SEARCH], and more theoretical ideas abotproblem spaces discussed in [Newell Itt] and at length in[Newell & Simon HPS]. Students are expected to be familiar enoughwith the technical details to demonstrate how the techniquesoperate, but will not be asked to prove theorems or remember complexresul ts.

Epistemological problems of AI and the use of formal logic

The problem of describing facts about the world including the effectsof actions has been studied apart from specific problem solvingprograms. This work has used first order logic to express factsabout the world. These issues are discussed in [McCarthy and Hayes]and in [Hayes DEFENCE]. Many current issues are discussed in [McCarthySIJCAI]. A new approach is described in [Weyrauch PROtEGOMENA] .Truth maintenance is covered by de Kleer, Doyle, and others in[Winston & Brown], The relevance of theorem proving to problemsolving is discussed in [Green TP], and the techniques ofresolution theorem proving are described in [Nilsson Al]. Aswith weak methods, students are expected to be familiar withthe basic mechanisms (e.g. be able to demonstrate a simple proofby resolution, or explain the issues in unification) butwill not be required to know sophisticated technical results(e.g. prove the completeness of resolution with the X heuristic).A tutorial on some of the relevant mathematics is in [Manna MTC].

Knowledge Engineering - Expert Systems

Much of current AI work is being subsumed under the heading of "knowledgeengineering". [Bernstein KBS] is a general survey of knowledge basedsystems. [Winston Al] gives a general idea of systems of this kind doneat MIT, and [Feigenbaum IJCAIS] describes the general approach. A numberof expert systems have been built in the past few years. Students shouldbe familiar with the general capabilities and design.[Handbook APPtICATIONS] provides some details (and many pointers) for mostof the recent efforts. Applications to Music [Moorer][Zaripov] and Art[Gips][Cohen IJCAI6] should also be looked over. The MIT perspective iscovered in [Winston & Brown], V.l, Sec.l.

t

Knowledge Representation Formalisms

A number of current AI research projects are centered around thedevelopment of knowledge representation languages. Some of the earlyissues in representation are discussed in [Amarel ACTIONS] and [BobrowDIMENSIONS]. More recent discussions include [Winograd FRAME], [HayesDEFENCE], and [Winograd EXTENDED]. Students should be familiar with atleast the following general approaches: Procedural Embedding,Semantic Networks, Conceptual Dependency, Frames (Scripts, etc.),Production Systems, and Description tanguages.These are treated well in [Handbook REPRESENTATION]

Game Playing

One of the earliest and most publicized areas of AI research has been gameplaying programs, such as those for checkers [Samuel in C&T] and Chess[Greenblatt FJCC]. Students should be familiar with the basic techniques(e.g. Minimax and alpha-beta) and some of the more subtle problems (e.g.the horizon effect [Berliner IJCAI3] and the use of patterns [Simon1973]). Berliner's articles in IJCAIS and IJCAI6 also merit attention.Basic techniques are taught in [Nilsson Al] and [Slagle Al].

Planning and Common-sense Reasoning

Much of the AI work related to robotics dealt with the planning of actionsequences. GPS [Newell, Shaw and Simon] was the early classic, and otherwell known systems are STRIPS [Fikes, Hart, Nilsson] and NOAH [SacerdotiNONtINEAR]. An early discussion of the problems is in [McCarthyADVICE-TAKER].

Mathematical theorem proving and discovery

Mathematics has always been an important domain for AI. The Geometrytheorem prover [Gelernter] was an early program. More recent efforts inmathematical theorem proving are discussed in [Bledsoe MAN-MACHINE]. Themechanization of mathematical discovery is discussed in [tenat IJCAIS].Non-Computer Science treatments of some interest are [Polya] and [takatos]

Natural tanguage

Much of the research on natural language is summarized in the handbookarticles [Handbook NL] and the drafts of [Winograd tANGUAGE]. Studentsshould be aware of the general content of these and familiar with theissues which arise in parsing and reasoning with natural language. Thisincludes a level of understanding of parsing techniques (CFG, ATN, TG,etc.) similar to that of heuristic search and theorem proving discussed insections above. Early work in Nt is described in [Simmons SURVEY 1965][Simmons SURVEY 1970], [Minsky SIP (browse)], and [Weizenbaum ELIZA].[Handbook NL] gives a summary of work in Machine Translation. Many papersreflecting current research interests are found in [TINLAP] 1 and 2.

Speech understanding

Work in Speech systems is well summarized in [Handbook SPEECH]

Vision

[Winston VISION] contains a good introduction to some areas of scene analysis.[Winston & Brown], V

2,

Seel, present more recent MIT vision efforts,notably Marr's work on representation.[Waltz] presents work on analysis of line drawings.[Thomas and Binford] give an early comparison of machine perception and naturalperception .[Nevatia and Binford] describe recognition of complex objects.[Moravec], [Gennery], and [Marr and Poggio] deal with stereo vision[Brooks,

Greiner,

and Binford] present a model-based vision system.[Barrow & Tenenbaum] describe their efforts at SRI.[Land] describes color visual perception.

>

Physical manipulation

Stanford AI films make a good introduction to robotics.[Bolles and Paul] describe the first computer-controlled assembly.[Finkel, Bolles, and Taylor] present AL, the Stanford languagefor mechanical assembly. [Lieberman] gives a description of avery high level language for robotics.[Binford et al] give an overview of robotics at Stanford.[IJCAI6] contains many brief articles which give a picture of currentJapanese projects and achievements (unf ortuanately, said picture couldstand some image enhancement, and we refrain from recommending anyparticular articles.)

Automatic Programming and Program Verification

There has been work in AI devoted to automating the process ofwriting programs. Some surveys of the field are given in [Biermann APPROACHES][Green-INFORMAL], and in the last section of [Manna and Waldinger DREAMS].Also see [Handbook AP] for a detailed, up-to-date survey.Approaches range from formal theorem-proving techniques [Manna andWaldinger DEDUCTIVE] to knowledge-based systems [Green IJCAIS] to systemsthat attempt to simulate human reasoning [tenat BEINGS],[Shrobe MONOLOGUE], Students shouldbe familiar with these approaches, but do not need to know the details ofany particular system.

A closely related area is program verification -- ascertaining that aprogram does, indeed, do what it is supposed to. Some perspectives oncurrent verification research and discussion of opportunities forextension are found in [Gerhart-1980s] . Other surveys of the field ofverification are [Luckham PV & VOP] and [London PERSPECTIVES].

Learning and Inductive Inference

Much of the work in AI can be view as an effort to get a program to'learn' -- typically, to view a set of examples, and induce the commonconcept uniting them. An excellent survey of this work is in [Smith et alIJCAIS]. Winston [STRUCTURAL] provided a seminal contribution,emphasizing both the necessity for adequate description, and the use ofnegative examples to more precisely circumscribe the concept desired.Students should be familiar with these papers, and with the issuesinvolved. They should also understand the application of learningtechniques to various domains (e.g., [Buchanan THEORY-FORMATION], [Fikeset al GENERALIZED], [Sussman SKILL]), but need not know the technicaldetails of all these cases.

Psychological Models and Human Problem Solving

Many AI programs have been intended as models of human informationprocessing. Information processing psychology in general is described in[Newell and Simon HPS (Sections 1 and 5 especially)]. An early programwhich modelled human verbal behavior was [Feigenbaum EPAM]. More recentmodels are found in [Anderson & Bower HAM (chapters 4 and 7)],[Norman & Rumelhart EXPLORATIONS], and [Collins &

Quillian

USER]. Afamous early program which took one form of intelligence tests was [EvansANALOGY], and a controversial model of paranoia is described in [ColbySIMULATIONS]. Relevant classics from psychology include [BartlettREMEMBERING] and [Miller MAGICAL]. Some good books on human problem solvingare those by Wickelgren, Polya, and Lakatos; see also [Sloman AIJ]. Studentsshould be familiar with (at least) the first and last chapters of[Newell&Simon HPS].

Automata and Formal Language Theory

Although this is not AI per se, it forms an important part of thebackground. Relevant work is in [Minsky COMPUTATION], [Manna MTC] and thematerial on perceptrons in [Hunt Al] (extra detail in [Minsky & PapertPERCEPTRONS]) .

*

/

Programming Languages for AI.begin nofill

List Processing -- LISPString processing -- SNOBOtAssociative mechanisms -- LEAP/SAILActive data structures -- SIMULA/SMALLTALK/ACTORSPattern MatchingData Structures

[Bobrow & Raphael ][Knuth Vol .l]

PLANNER, CONNIVER, QA4, etcProduction Systems

[Bobrow & Raphael ][Davis & King OVERVIEW]

. end

The candidate is expected to be familiar enough with some AI language (e.g.LISP or SAIL) to demonstrate the ability to write simple programs. He or sheshould also know enough about the features of the more specialized languages(MicroPlanne r,

QA4,

the LEAP and multiple process features in SAIL)to discussthe kinds of problems for which they are useful, and the limitations theyforce the programmer into. It is not necessaryto know syntactic details of these features.

Note:

Last year there was some controversy about including the following topicson the reading list. McCarthy stated,"I think the syllabus should downplay philosophical and social issues,because the we certainly don't want to grade students on their ownviews, and the field is fluffy enough as it is without letting orrequiring students to be able to regurgitate various people's viewson the issues. If the faculty wants students to have exposure tothese issues it should require attendance at a seminar or lectureseries and take attendance but not examine."Winograd said, "The purpose of the qualifying examinations is to ensurethat students graduating from our department have a sufficient backgroundto work as qualified researchers and teachers in the field. I believe thata perspctive on what we are doing and why is a critical part of the neededbackground, and that it would be irresponsible for us as a teaching institutionto leave it out. Since our general philosophy is to judge competence in allareas by exams rather than required courses, this is no different. Indeednobody is expected to endorse or regurgitate anyone's views, but (as inall areas) to demonstrate that they are aware of the important issues and havethought about them."

Philosophical Implications

There has been a continuing discussion about the philosophical implicationsof intelligent machines. The original paper often cited is[Turing TEST]. The classical book criticizing AI from a philsophicalpoint of view is [Dreyfus CAN'T]. Many of the generalissues are discussed in the fascinating [Anderson MINDS] andin [Dennett BRAINSTORMS]. There is an accessible discussion of the issue in[Boden Al]. A recent controversy dealing with AI and the philosophyof science is in [Dresher & Hornstein SUPPOSED], [Winograd CONTESTED],and [Dresher and Hornstein RESPONSE]. [Sloman REVOLUTION] is a newimportant reference (JMC has a copy and the libraryhas one). [Hofstater GODEL] is bizarre, whimsical, at times provocative, andat times informative.

Political and Social Implications

One of the pioneers in the field discussed these issues in [Weiner HUMAN],and more recently there has been a discussion raised by [WeizenbaumREASON], and responses like [Buchanan, Lederberg, and McCarthy REVIEWS],[Boden Al] also discusses someof the important questions. [Firschein & Coles IJCAI3 survey] attempts topredict some of the future applications of AI. An important controversy

,

//

in British support for AI is in [Lighthill Al] and responses in the samebooklet and in [McCarthy LIGHTHILL].

History and Politics of the Field

A critical part of being able to do and evaluate research in a fieldis having some perspective on what things have been done and why --in particular, what lessons have been learned and how can theybe applied to keep from repeating mistakes. In addition, studentsneed to know where and how things are published in the field ifthey hope to keep up with current work. It is difficult to give specificreferences, but the general books on AI [e.g. Boden, Winston, McCorduck,Raphael] each give some perspective. It is also critical to look atsome of the early collections of papers, including acareful reading of most of [Feigenbaum & Feldman].

Students should have some fami l iarity with the earlyhistory of AI -- its connections to cybernetics and machine translation inthe 50's. It is interesting to note some of the early optimistic attemptsat "self-organizing systems" and work on perceptrons and neural nets.Today, there is much discussion about the emergence of a discipline called"cognitive science" which includes work now considered artificialintelligence, psychology, linguistics, and philosophy. Students shouldhave done some thinking about the relationships between these disciplines,especially where they adopt differing methodologies in looking at the samephenomena.

The following journals (and conferences) present material relevant toAI, and it is useful to have a general idea of what kinds of things eachof them contains. Given a paper, you should be able to discuss where itought (not) to be submitted.. beg i n nofi 1 1

Journal of AISIGARTSIGCASMachine Intelligence (1 - 9)IJCAI proceedings (1 - 6)TINLAP proceedings (1 - 2)CACMJACMCognitive PsychologyAmerican Journal of Computational LinguisticsCognitive Science JournalCognitive Science SocietyThe Behavioral & Brain SciencesAAAIAISBSpecial interest conferences: cybernetics, natural language.

robotics

. end

Readi ngs

Expl anation :

The following list is NOT a list of required readings, but aguide to interesting, available materials in each subfield.Some of the papers are not yet published but will be madeavailab1 abl c .A simple annotation system has been used to give some feeling for thelevel and importance (measured idiosyncratical ly by the syllabuspreparers) of each paper. The level is indicated as:

.begin nofill

ESS: An essay giving general perspective and discussion of basic

i

issuesSURV: A survey of research work in some'areaSUM: A summary at a non-detailed level of a specific piece of

researchDR: A detailed research reportTEXT: A textbook

.end

The importance is based on whether the paper is important forunderstanding a general perspective (P), whether it has one ormore specific important ideas (I), or whether it gives a set ofdetails over which students are expected to have fluent command (D).We repeat: these are opinions, hastily arrived atl

A basic background can be acquired via the books marked "@9"; gapsmay be filled with those papers marked "@". These together canbe thought of as an initial reading list.

Many of the references below point to more specialized sources for thosehighly interested; it is expected that each candidate will be highlyinterested in some areas (hint). We also hope that each student willhave only a few gaps (at study-time, not at exam-time) and it will bepossible to glance over the, outline, choosing to read in those areaswhere the references pointed to are not familiar.

References.skip 1

@Agin, G. and Binford, T. (1973) Computer Description of CurvedObjects. <<Proc IJCAI3>, 1973, pp 629-640 (SUM,l:the basic representation)

@@<<Artif icial Intelligence Handbook>; [AlHandbook] , a comprehensiveencyclopedia of work in AI, prepared by HPP; copies are available inthe library (or by bothering Barr or Feigenbaum). (SURV! I)

SAmarel , S. (1968) On Representations of Problems of Reasoning AboutActions, in <<Machine Intelligence 3>, pp. 131-171 (eds Meltzer andMichie), New York: American Elsevier Publishing Company.(DR, P , l : effects of change of repr. on problem solubility, )

Anderson, J. R., and Bower, G. H., <<Human Associative Memory>, V.H. Winston and Sons, Washington, D.C, 1973. Especially Chapters 4 , 5 , & 7(SURV & DR.P)

Anderson , (ed) , <<Minds and Machines>, Contemporary Perspectives inPhilosophy Series, Prentice-Hall, Inc, N.J., 1964.(Collection of essays, each of which is rated at least: (ESS, ))

Arnold, R. D.; "tocal Context in Matching Edges for Stereo Vision",«Proc ARPA Image Understanding Workshop>", Cambridge, May 1978, 65-72. (DR)

Balzer, Robert, Neil Goldman, and David Wile, "On theTransformational Implementation Approach to Programming", <<ProceedingsSecond International Conference on Software Engineering> , ComputerSociety, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc., tongBeach,

California,

October 1976, pages 337-344.

Barr, A. and Feigenbaum, E., «Artificial Intelligence

Handbook;-.

Pleasesee [AlHandbook] above in this listing.

Barrow, H. G. , J .M . Tenenbaum; "MSYS: A System for Reasoning about

Scenes";

«SRI AI Center Tech Note 121>, April 1976. (SUM)

Barrow, H.G. and Tenenbaum, J.M"Recovering Intrinsic Scene Characteristics from Images";

Adams, J. <<Conceptual Bl ockbusting>, W.H. Freeman

/

«SRI International AI

Center>,

Apr 1978, Tech note 157. (ESS)

Barstow, David R., A Knowledge Base Organization for Rules aboutProgramming, «Proc. IJCAIS>, 1977, 382-388 (DR)

Bartlett, Frederick, <<Remembering : A Study in Experimental and SocialPsychology;., Cambridge, University Press, 1932 (DR.I: memory ij active,not passive)

Baumgart, B.; "Geometric Modeling for Computer Vision"Stanford AI Memo AIM-249, CS-463, 1974. (DR)

Berliner, Hans, Some Necessary Conditions for a Master Chess Program«Proc IJCAI3>, 1973, pp. 77-85.(SUM, I)

Berliner, Hans, Experiences in Evaluation with BKG - A Program that PlaysBackgammon, «Proc

IJCAIS>,

1977. (SUM,)

Berliner, Hans, On the Construction of Evaluation Functions for targe Domains«Proc

IJCAI6>,

1979. (SUM, I)

SBernstein, M.1., <<Knowl edge-Based Systems: A Tutorial>, TM-( L)-5903/000/00A , SDCJune 1977 (SURV.P)

Biermann, Alan W. , "Approaches to Automatic Programming," in<<Advances in Computers;-, Volume 15, Academic Press, Inc., New York,New York, 1976. (SURV.P)

SBinford, T.O; "Visual Perception by Computer"Invited paper for lEEE Systems and Control, Miami, 1971.(ESS, I: generalized cones)

Binford, T.0., "Computer Integrated Assembly Systems,"<<Proc NSF Adv Prod Techn Grantees Conf>, Nov, 1978.

Bledsoe, W.W., and Bruell (1974) A Man-Machine Theorem-ProvingSystem, <<Journal of Al>, 5, 1974, pp 51-72.(SUM.P)

SBobrow, Dan, and Allan Collins, editors, <<Representation andUnderstanding> , New York: Academic Press, 1975(a collection of papers, each at least (SUM, I)) See esp. "Dimensions ofRepr." and Woods' "What's in a Link?"

@Bobrow and Raphael, (1973) New Programming Languages for AI Research,«Computing Surveys>, 6, 1974, 155-174. (SURV, I) Still quite relevant,after all these years.

OBobrow, D. and T. WinogradAn Overview of KRL, a Knowledge Representation Language,«Cognitive

Science>,

1, 1977, 3-46 (SUM, I: controlled processing and matching)

Boden, Margaret A. <<Artificial Intelligence and Natural Man>, New York,Books, Inc., 1977 (TEXT & SURV.P) Probably the best comprehensivenontechnical introduction to AI.

Bolles, R.C; "Verification Vision for Programmable Assembly";«Proc. IJCAIS>, 1977, 569-575. (DR)

Bolles, R. and R.Paul ,"The use of Sensory Feedback in a Programmable Assembly Systems"Stanford AI Lab Memo AIM-220, CS-396, AD772064/2WC, 1973.

SBrachman, R.J., What's in a Concept: Structural Foundations for Semantic Networks«Int'l J. Man-Machine Studies>, 9, 1977, 127-152 (DR,P)

Braid, l.C; <<Designing with Volumes;-,Univ of Cambridge, Cantab Press, Cambridge, England, 1973. (ESS & DR)

/

bl ackboar

Brooks, R., R. Greiner, and T.O. Binford;"ACRONYM: A Model-Based Vision System"; «Proc IJCAI6>, 1979.

Bruce, Bertram, Case systems for natural language, <<ArtificialIntelligence:., 6:4, Winter 1975, 327-360. (SURV.P)

Buchanan, 8., Feigenbaum, and Sridharan (1972) Heuristic Theory Formation,<<Machine Intelligence 7>, pp. 267-280 (the appendix may be omitted).(SUM, I:choosing proper domain is important)

Buchanan, Bruce, Joshua Lederberg, and John McCarthy, Threereviews of J. Weizenbaum's <<Computer Power and Human Reason, >Stanford AIM-291, STAN-CS=76-577 , November 1976.

Chandrasekharan and Reeker (1974) AI : A Case for Agnosticism, in <<lEEETransactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics;- ; January, 1974, pp. BB-94.(ESS.P)

Chase,

W.G., editor, <<Visual Information Processing;-, AcademicPress, New York, 1973.(Collection, each of which is at least (SUM, )) See esp. Newell "ProductionSystems: Models of Control Structures".

Cohen, Harold, What is an Image?, <<Proc IJCAI6>, 1979. (DR, just glance overSUM, P, I: Intelligence is in the eye of the beholder)

Cohen,

PhilipOn Knowing What to Say: Planning Speech Acts, Tech Rpt 118, U. ofToronto CSD, January 1978 (DR,I: use of planning to recognize/generatespeech)

Darlington and Burstall (1973) A System Which Automatically ImprovesPrograms, <<Proc. IJCAI3>, pp. 479-485.(SUM, I:encoding knowledge into schemata rewriting rules)

SDavis, RandallGeneralized Procedure Calling and Content-Directed Invocation, «Proc. ACM SymposiumAI & PL>, 1977, 45-54 (SURV, I: procedures should state their effects)

Davis, Randal 1 ,Meta-tevel Knowledge: Overview and Applications, <<Proc IJACIS>, 1977, 920-927(SUM, I: meta-knowledge)

SDavis, Randall, and Jonathan KingAn Overview of Production Systems, in <<Machine Intelligence B>, E. Elcock andD. Michie (eds), Chichester, Ellis Horwood, 1977 (SURV.P)

Davis, Randall, Bruce Buchanan, and Edward ShortliffeProduction Rules as a Representation for a Knowledge-Based consultation Program«Artificial Intel! igence> , 8, 1977, 15-45(DR,I: organization and use of knowledge, computer-based consultation)

Dresher, 8.E.,

and N. Hornstein.On Some Supposed contributions of Artificial Intelligence to The ScientificStudy of Knowledge, «Cognition>, 4, 1976 (ESS.P)

Dresher, 8.E.,

and N. Hornstein.379-392 (ESS.P)

Dreyfus, Hubert, «What Computers Can't Do>, Harper and Row, 1972 (andlater edition) . (ESS.P)

SErman,

L.D. and V.R. LesserA Multi-level Organization for Problem Solving Using Many Diverse CooperatingSources of Knowledge, <<Proc IJCAI4>, 1975, 483-490 (DR.I: modular knowledge sourcesd)

Ernst, George W. , and Newell, Allen, <<GPS: A Case Study inGenerality and Problem Solving>, Academic Press, New York, New

Reply to Winograd, <<Cogni tion> , 5, 1977

i

York, 1969. Not central, but many good ideas are inside.(DR, )

Fahlman, Scott E.A System for Representing and Using Real-World Knowledge, AI-TR-450, MIT AI LabDecember 1977(DR,I: certain inferences should be made quickly and easily, using hardware)

SFalk, G. (1972) Interpretation of Imperfect Line Data as aThree-dimensional Scene, <<Artif icial Intell igence> , 3, 1972, pp. 101-144.(SUM, I:good when nature falls into a few tens of categories, so task is hard butdoabl e. ).

Feigenbaum, E. et al (1971) [DENDRAL] On Generality and Problem Solving: A CaseStudy Using The DENDRAL Program, (eds Meltzer and Michie) «MachineIntelligence 6>, pp 165-190. More detail than [AlHandbook].(SUM, I:A useful application; Choose domain carefully)

@@Feigenbaum, Edward A., and Feldman, Julian, editors, <<Computers andThought>, [C&T], McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, New York, 1963.Old but almost each article is still quite worth a careful reading; to namea few: Feigenbaum,

Gelernter,

Newell et al , Turing, Armer, Minsky.(Collection; some (ESS,), most (SUM, I))

SFeigenbaum, E.A.The Art of Artificial Intelligence: Themes and Case Studies of Knowledge Engineering,«Proc IJCAIS>, 1977, 1014-1029 (SURV, I: use of large amounts of domain-specific knowledge)

Feldman, Pingle, Binford, Falk, Kay, Paul, Sproull , Tenenbaum. (1971)The Use of Vision and Manipulation to Solve the Instant InsanityPuzzle, «Proc IJCAI2>.(SUM, )

Feldman, Jerome A. & Robert F. SproullDecision Theory and Artificial Intelligence II: The Hungry Monkey, «Cognitive Science>,1, 1977,

15,8-192

(DR,I: use of decision theory to allocate scarce resources)

@Fikes, R. E. et al (1972) Learning and Executing Generalized RobotPlans. <<Artificial Intel l igence> , Vol. 3 (Winter 1972).(SUM, I:Triangle Tables; handling of Frame problem,plans . D: Triangle tables)

SFikes, R. and G. HendrixA Network-based Knowledge Representation and its Natural Deduction System«Proc IJCAIS>, 1977, 235-246 (SUM, I)

Findler, N.V., and Meltzer, 8., editors, <<Artificial Intelligenceand Heuristic Programming>, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh,

Scotland,

1971, ? + ? pages, $15.00.(SUM, a collection of papers)

Finkel, R., Russel Taylor, Robert Bolles, Richard Paul, Jerome Feldman"AL, A Programming System for Automation", AIM-243, CS-456, 130 pages, November 1974.(DR. )

SFirschein,

0., and Coles, S. (1973) Forecasting and Assessing TheImpact of Artificial Intelligence on Society. <<Proc IJCAI3>; 105-120(SUM, Questionaire results: Look this over, at least.)

SFloyd, R. W. (1971) Toward Interactive Design of Correct Programs«IFIP 71>, (cd., CV. Freeman), Volume 1, pp. 7-10.(ESS: An extended example. Brief, but contains an idea I: Auto . pgmming via dialogue)

Fogel , Lawrence J.,

Owens,

Alvin J., and Walsh, Michael J.,<<Artificial Intelligence through a Simulation of Evolution>, JohnWiley and Sons, New York, New York, 1966. Just glance over this andnotice what its significance is.(DR, P:title of the book)

SFunt, Brian

,

WHISPER: A Problem-Solving System Utilizing Diagrams, <<Proc IJCAIS>, 1977, 459-464(SUM, I: analogical reasoning may buy us some nice properties)

Gennery ,D.B . ; "A Stereo Vision System for An Autonomous Vehicle«Proc

IJCAIS>,

1977, 576-582. (DR)

Gerhart, Susan L., <<Program Verification in the 1980s: Problems,Perspectives, and Opportunities> , Research Report ISI/RR-78-71 ,Information Sciences Institute, University of Southern California, Marinadel Rey,

California,

August 1978.

Gips, J. "Shape grammars and their uses", AI memo 231, last third is onaesthetics. Recently published (Stiny & Gips): «Algorithmic Aesthetics>UC Berkeley Press, 1978.(DR, I:picture grammar, aesthetics related to simplicity)

SGoldman, Neil, Sentence Paraphrasing from a Conceptual Base,

<<CACM>,

18:2February 1975, pp. 96-107.(SUM, I : integration of decision tree control with conceptual dependency)

Goldman, N., R. Balzer, and D. Wile, The Inference of Domain Structure fromInformal Process Descriptions, <<Proc. Workshop on Pattern-Directed InferenceSystems>, SIGART Newsletter, June 1977, 75-82 (SUM)

Goldstein, Ira, and Seymour PapertArtificial Intelligence, Language, and the Study of Knowledge, «Cognitive Science>1, 1977, 84-120 (SURV.P)

GGreen, C C. (1969) [TP] The Application of Theorem Proving to

QA

SystemsStanford Technical Report CS 138, SAIL Memo AI-96.(DR, I:use of Resolution to perform deduction & answer questions)

Green, Cordell, "An Informal Talk on Recent Progress inAutomatic Programming", <<Lectures on Automatic Programming and ListProcessing;. ,

PIPS-R-12,

Electrotechnical Laboratory, Tokyo, Japan, November1976, pages 1-69. (SURV.)

Green, Cordell, and Barstow, David, "On Program Synthesis Knowledge",<<Artificial Intel l igence> , Volume 10, Number 3, November 1978, pages241-279. (DR, I)

Greenblatt, R.8., D. Eastlake and S.

Crocker,

The Greenblatt Chess Program<<Proceedings of the 1967 Joint computer conferences 30:801-810, 1967.(SUM, I:use of a variety of game playing techniques)

Grosz, Barbara JUtterance and Objective: Issues in NL

Communication,

<<Proc

IJCAI6>,

1979.(SURV.P) If interested, examine her excellent IJCAIS paper also.

Guard, J.R., et al . (1969) Semi-Automated Mathematics, «JACM> 16,January, 1969, pp. 49-62.(SUM, D:A new result in Math has been established by a computer program: SAM's tEMMA)

Hayes, Patrick J.Computation and Deduction, <<Proc MFCS Symposium;-, Czech. Acad.

Sciences,

1973 (ESS.P)

Hayes, Patrick J.Some Problems and Non-Problems in Representation Theory, <<AISB SummerConference;-, 1974 (ESS &

SURV,

D)

@Hayes, Patrick J559-565 (ESS.P)

Heidorn, George, Automatic Programming Through Natural Language Dialogue:A Survey, <<IBM Journal of Research and Devel opment> , Volume 20, Number 4July 1976. (SURV, P)

OHendrix, G.Expanding the Utility of Semantic Networks through Partitioning, <<Proc IJCAI4> 1975

,

In Defence of Logic, <<Proc IJCAIS>, 1977

115-121 (SUM, I: use of spaces in nets, to achiev scoping, etc)

Hewitt, CarlViewing Control Structures as Patterns of Passing Messages,«Artificial Intel l igence>, 8, 1977, 323-364(DR,I: actors; Hewitt's only comprehensible paper)

Hunt, E. and S. PoltrockThe Mechanics of Thought, in <<Human Information Processing: Tutorials inPerformance and Cognition>, B. Kantowitz (ed), Hillsdale, Erlbaum, 1974 (SURV.P)

Hunt, Earl 8., <<Artificial Intel l igence> , Academic Press, IncNew York, New York, 1975.(TEXT, D:good coverage of pattern recog. and perceptrons)

<<International Joint Conferences in Artificial Intel 1 i gence>, held biannuallysince 1969; proceedings available from program chairmen; best indicator ofcurrent research trends

Jackson, Philip C, Jr., «Introduction to ArtificialIntel! igence>, Petrocelli Books, New York, New York, 1974.Elementary; if you fee! lost in some subfield, consult this(TEXT, )

Julesz, 8., "Experiments in the Visual Perception of Texture<<Scientific American>, April 1975. (SUM)

Kanade, T.; "A Theory of Origami World";Dept of Comp Sci, Carnegie-Mellon Univ, 1978, CMU-CS-78-144. (DR)

Kant, Elaine, "The Selection of Efficient Implementations for aHigh-Level Language", <<Proceedings of the Symposium on ArtificialIntelligence and Programming Languages:-, <<SIGPLAN Notices>, Volume 12,Number 8, <<SIGART Newsletter;-, Number 64, August 1977, pages 140-146.

Kellogg, Charles, Philip Klahr, and Larry Travis.Deductive Methods for Large Data Bases, <<Proc IJCAIS>, 1977, pp 203-209 (SUM, I:ABSTRIPS-l ike skeletal plans can help deduction)

de Kleer, Johan, Jon Doyle, Guy t. Steele Jr, & Gerald Jay SussmanAMORD: Explicit Control of Reasoning, «Proc ACM Sym AI PL>, SIGART #64, August1977, 116-125 (SUM, I)

SKling, Robert E., A Paradigm for Reasoning by Analogy,«Artificial Intel l igence> , 2, 1971, pp. 147-178.(SUM, I:similar to Evans' idea, but analyzed further.)

Kuhn, Thomas, <<The structure of scientific revol utions> ,Chicago: University of Chicago press, 1972. (ESS.P.I: Paradigm shifts)

(ESS, I: sprial of criticism and improvement of conjectures)

Land, E.H.; "The Retinex Theory of Color Vision"<<Scientific American>, Dec 1977. (SUM)

Larson,

J.

8.,

and R.S. MichalskiInductive Inference of VL Decision Rules, <<Proc Wkshp Patt-Dir Inf Systems>,SIGART 63, 1977, 38-44 (SUM)

Lehnert, Wendy,Human and Computational Question Answering, <<Cognitive

Science;-,

1, 1977, 47-73 (SUM)

Lenat, Douglas 8., BEINGS: Knowledge as Interacting Experts, <<Proc IJCAI4>, 1975, 126-133(DR, I:beings)

@Lenat, Douglas BAutomated Theory Formation in Mathematics, <<Proc IJCAIS>, 1977, 833-842 (DR,I: heuristicsto generate search)

Lakatos, Imre, <<Proofs and Ref utations>,

*

(SUM.P)

Lenat, Douglas 8., and John McDermott,Less Than General Production System Architectures, <<Proc IJCAIS>, 1977, 928-932(SURV, I: gain power by sacrificing generality)

tesser, Victor R., and tee E. ErmanA Retrospective View of the HEARSAY-II Architecture, <<Proc IJCAIS>, 1977, 790-800

SVictor Lesser, Richard Fennell , Lee Erman and D. Raj Reddy, Organizationof the Hearsay II Speech Understanding System, <<lEEE Symposium on SpeechRecognition:-, Computer Science Dept., Carnegie Mellon Univ., 1974.(SUM, I:modular system organiztion)

Lettvin, J., H.R. Maturana, W.S. McCulloch, and W.H. Pitts, Whatthe frog's eye tells the frog's brain, <<Proceedings of theIRE> 47(1959), pp. 1940-1951. (SUM)

AUTOPASS, A Very High Level Programming Language for Mechanical AssemblerSystems, IBM Watson Research Center Report RC 5599, No. 24205, 1975.

Lighthill, Sir J., and

Sutherland,

Needham, Longuet-Higgins , andMichie (1973) AI: A Paper Symposium; by the British Science ResearchCouncil, April, 1973. A pro/con AI debate.Try to see the McCarthy, Mjchie vs. Lighthill debate on videotape.(ESS, P, a general survey giving Lighthill's view on AI . See McCarthy's response)

Lindsay, Peter H., and Norman, Donald A., <<Human InformationProcessing: An Introduction to Psychology;-, Academic Press, IncNew York, New

York,

1972.(TEXT, P a comprehensive elementary introduction to cognitive psychology from aview congenial to AI).

London, R. L., "Perspectives on Program Verification", in Yeh, R. T(ed), <<Program Validation;-, <<Current Trends in ProgrammingMethodology> , Volume 2, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1977, pages 151-172.

Lozano-Perez , Tomas , and Patrick H. Winston, LAMA: A Language for AutomaticMechanical Assembly, <<Proc. IJCAI-s>, 710-716. (SUM)

Low, James, and Rovner, Paul, "Techniques for the Automatic Selection ofData

Structures",

<< Third ACM Symposium on Principles of ProgrammingLanguages;-, January 1976; also TR4, Computer Science Department,University of Rochester, Rochester, New York, November 1975.

Luckham, D. C, "Program Verification and Verification OrientedProgramming", invited paper, in Gilchrist, 8., editor, <<InformationProcessing 77: Proceedings of IFIP Congress 77>, North-HollandPublishing Company, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1977, pages 783-793.

OMcCarthy, J.; [ADVICE-TAKER] "Programs With Common Sense",Stanford AI Memo AIM-7 , , AD785044 , 7 pages, September 1963.For details, also look at also the following memo:(ESS, I:what we need i5...)

McCarthy, J., "Situations, Actions, and Causal Laws", Stanford AI Memo 2, July 1963(ESS/DR: I:You can formalize these notions)

SMcCarthy, J. and Hayes, P. (1969) Some Philosophical Problems fromThe Standpoint of AI . <<Machine Intelligence 4> (eds Meltzer andMichie) pp. 463-502. Edinburgh University Press.(ESS/DR: I/D: More of the same as the last reading. Further developed.)

McCarthy, John, Review of Lighthill debate, <<Artificial Intell igence>5, 1974, 317-322 (ESS.P)

McCarthy, John, <<Mechanization of Thought Processes>, Her Majesty's Stationery

Office,

1950. Contains early McCarthy papers.

@McCarthy, J

Lieberman , L. ,

6

for

i

Epistemological Problems of Artificial Intelligence, <<Proc.

IJCAIS>,

1977, 1038-1044 (ESS, I: what is AI still missing?)

OMcDermott, Drew V.,Vocabularies for Problem Solver State Descriptions, <<Proc. IJCAIS>1977, 229-234 (SUM, I)

Manna, Zohar, <<Mathematical Theory of Computations(TEXT, I/D: Read some book or article to gain familiarity with Propand Pred Calc)

Manna, Zohar, and Richard Waldinger,Synthesis: Dreams => Programs, AIM-302,

Stanford,

November 1977 (DR)

Manna, Zohar, and Richard Waldinger,Knowledge and Reasoning in Program Synthesis, <<Artificial Intell i gence> ,1975, 175-208 (ESS,I/P)

Manna, Zohar, and Richard Waldinger, "A Deductive Approach to ProgramSynthesis," SRI AI Center Tech. Note 177, Dec. 1978.

SManna, Zohar, Six Lectures on the logic of computer proramming, StanfordAIM-318, Nov 1978 (SURV, I/P)

@Marr,D. and T.Poggio; "Cooperative Computation of Stereo Disparity«Science>, 194, Oct 1976, 283-287. (SUM)

Marr.D., "Analysis of Occluding Contour",MIT AI Memo AIM 372, Oct 1976. (SUM)

Martin and Fateman (1971) The MACSYMA System, in (S. Petrick, cd.)<<2nd Symposium on Symbolic and Algebraic Manipulation:- . NY: ACM SIGSAM.pp 59-75.(SUM, I: application of AI techniques to a specific domain area)

Meltzer, Bernard, and Michie, Donald, editors, <<MachineIntel l igence> , volumes 1-6, American ElsevierPublishing Company, New York, New York, volumes 7-8, HalsteadPress, New York; volumes 9- , John Wiley & Sons, NewYork. Almost annually (since 1967).Needless to say, don't study every article.(Collection of articles, each at least (SUM, ))

SMeltzer, Bernard, and Bobrow, Daniel, editors, <<ArtificialIntelligence: An International Journal;-, North-Holland PublishingCompany, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, quarterly (since 1970).(Collection of articles, each at least (SUM, )).

Michie, Donald, <<0n Machine Intel l igence> , John Wiley and SonsNew York, New York, 1974.(SURV, P)

SMiller, G. ,The magical number 7, plus or minus 281-97 (ESS, I: memory can hold a fixedtheir complexity)

<<Psychological Review:., 63, 1956,number of chunks, regardless of

and Infinite

Machines:-,

Prentice

Not in AI but you should know at least this much anyway.(TEXT, I/D: Know at least this much about the theory of computation)

Minsky, Marvin, editor, [SIP] <<Semantic Information Processing:-, TheMIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1968.(Collection of MIT natl . lang. dissertations, all at least (SUM/DR, ))See esp. Evans(SUM, I:power of using even a crude version of a single simple heuristicanalogy) andQuillian (DR,I: network flow model for conceptual linking)

,

Minsky, Marvin, <<Computation : FiniteHall, 1968. "

and Minsky (ESS, P: makes explicit many of the underlying notions of AI models)

Minsky and Papert <<Perceptrons> , MIT 1969.A sufficient expertise can be gainedfrom the appropriate section of [Hunt Al].In looking at this book, try to read throughpage 25; then look through the rest; especially note theconcluding remarks, pp. 227-246.(DR, I:applying rigourous mathematics to what Al-systems of different typescan theoretically achieve)

Mitchell, T.M.Version Spaces: A Candidate Elimination Approach to Rule Learning«Proc

IJCAIS>,

1977, 305-310 (DR.I: the title)

Moore, Jim and Allen Newell, How can MERLIN understand?,in Gregg (cd.) <<Knowledge and Cognition>, New Jersey: LawrenceErlbaum Associates, 1973.(SUM, I:Beta structures; criteria for understanding systems)

Moore, Robert Carter,Reasoning about Knowledge and Action,

Moorer, James A., "Music and ComputerJanuary 1972.(SURV)

Moravec,H . P . , "Towards Automatic Visual«Proc. IJCAIS>, 1977, 584. (SUM)

Obstacle Avoidance

Mujtaba, S., and R. Goldman. "AL User'sStanford AI Lab Memo, 1979. (SUM, P)

Manual" ;

Nash-Webber, Bonnie L., and Schank, Roger C (eds.), <<TheoreticalIssues in Natural Language Processing, an interdisciplinary workshopin computational linguistics, psychology, linguistics, and artificialintel l igence>, MIT, June 1975. Preprints distributed by the Associationfor Computational Linguistics, (a collection of papers, mostly SUM)

SNevatia.R. and T.O. Binford; "Description and Recognition of Curved Objects";«Artificial Intel l igence> , 8, p 77, Feb 1977; (DR)

ONewell , A. (1969) [ILL] Heuristic Programming: 111 -Structured Problems, in(cd. Aronofsky, A.) <<Progress in Operations Research lII>, John Wiley and Sons(ESS, P)

Newell, A. (1965) Limitations of The Current Stock of Ideas aboutProblem:So lvin

g.

<<Proceedings of a Conference on ElectronicInformation Handling>, pp. 195-208. (Eds Kent and Taulbee)New York: Spartan. (ESS, interesting reading)

Newell, A. (1970) Remarks on The Relationship Between AI andCognitive Psychology, in (Banerji and Mesarovic, eds.) <<TheoreticalApproaches to Non-Numerical Problem Solving;-, pp 363-400. New York:Springer-Verl ag Pub.(ESS, P)

Newell, A., Barnett, Jeffrey, Forgie, James W. , Green, Cordell,Klatt, Dennis,' Licklider, J.C.R., Munson, John, Reddy, D. Raj, andWoods, William A., [SPEECH] «Speech Understanding Systems: Final Report of aStudy Group>, American Elsevier Publishing Company, New York, NewYork, 1973, xiv + 137 pages, $6.75. Read especially: Chaps. 1,4; Appendix A 2.

(SURV, I:Evaluating research goals and guiding research toward them)

SNewell , A., and Simon, Herbert A., [HPS] <<Human Problem Solving:-,Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1972, xvi + 920 pages.Read the first and last chapters, look over Chaps. 3,4,8.(DR/ESS/SUM, D:know what tT and GPS were, what a PBG is, production systems)

«Proc IJCAIS>, 1977, 223-227 (SUM, I)

Composition", <<Comm. ACM>,

i

Nilsson, N. J. (1974) [OVERVIEW] Artificial Intelligence,SRI Technical Note 89 (March, 1974),and also «Information Processing 74>, North-Holland: Amsterdam, 1975(SURV)

Nilsson, Nils J., [Al] «Probl em-sol ving Methods in ArtificialIntel l igence>, McGraw-Hill Eook Company, New York, New York, 1971(TEXT, but I/D:Good presentation of resolution, searching,

a/?,

etc.)

Nilsson, Nils J., «Principles of Artificial Intell igence> , Tioga, Palo Alto,1980. (TEXT, attempts a new synthesis of much of the field)

Norman, Donald, D. Rumelhart, and the LNR Research Group,<<Explorations in Cognition, > Freeman, 1975.(SUM, P: a collection of papers done from Norman's Psychology/AI viewpoint)

Park, W.T.; "Minicomputer Software Organization for Control of Industrial Robots";«Proc Int Jt Auto Control Conf>, San Francisco, 1977, p164, TA2I. (A surveyof existing systems) (ESS, SURV, P)

Pettigrew,J .D. ; "The Neurophysiology of Binocular Vision"«Scientific American;-, August 1972. (SUM)

SPolya, G. Three representative books are listed here; you should beacquainted with the kinds of principles Polya tries to impress, hisstudies of heuristics. It is not necessary to study the detailedcontents of these books.

<<How to Solve It,> Doubleday Anchor Books, 1945.«Induction and Analogy in Mathemati cs

,>

Princeton U. Press, 1954.<<Patterns of Plausible Inferences Princeton U.

Press,

1968.(DR, I:heuristics and how to use them)

Pople, H., Meyers, J., and Miller, R., DIALOG, a model of diagnosticlogic for internal medicine, <<Proc. IJCAI4>,1975, 848-855. (SUM)

Raphael, Bertram, «The Thinking Computer;-, W.H. Freeman, 1979.(ESS, )

[lEEE] Reddy, D. Raj, editor, <<Speech Recognition: Invited PapersPresented at the 1974 lEEE Symposiums Academic Press, Inc., NewYork, New York, 1975.(Collection of articles, all at least (SUM, )) See esp. Reddy & Erman,pp. 457-480,

Reiter, Raymond, On reasoning by default, <<Theoretical Issuesin Natural Language Processing-2> , Urbana, Illinois: Associationfor Computing Machinery, 1978, 210-218. (SURV, I: non-monotonic logic)

Rieger , Charles J. , 111An Organization of Knowledge for Problem-solving and tanguage Comprehension,«Artificial Intel l igence> , 7, 1976, 89-128 (SUM, I)

Rovner, Paul D., <<Automatic Representation Selection for Associative Data

Structures>,

Ph.D. thesis. Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts,TRIO, Computer Science Department,University of Rochester, Rochester, New York, September 1976.

Rubin,

S.;

"The ARGOS Image Understanding SystemDept of Comp Sci, Carnegie-Mellon Univ, Nov 1978, Ph.D.thesis. thesis (DR),or <<Proc ARPA Image Understanding WorkshopsCarnegie-Mellon, Nov 1978, 159-162. (SUM)

Rumelhart, D., P. Lindsay, and D. Norman,A Process Model for Long-term Memory, in <<The Organization of Memorys E. Tulvingand W. Donaldson (ed), N.Y., Academic .Press , 1972 (SUM.P)

Rustin, R., editor, <<Natural Language Processings AlgorithmicsPress, New York, New

York,

1973.

/

(Collection of articles, all at least (SUM, ))See esp. W. Woods' ATN article.

Ruth, Gregory R., "PROTOSYSTEM I: An Automatic Programming SystemPrototype", in

Ghosh,

Sakti P., and Liv, Leonard V., editors, <<AFIPSConference Proceedings: 1978 National Computer Conferences Volume 47AFIPS Press, Montvale, New Jersey, June 1978, pages 675-681.

Rychener, MControl Requirements for the Design of Production System Archtectures , «Proc. ACMSymposium AI & PL>, 1977, 37-44 (SUM)

SSacerdoti,

Planning in a Hierarchy of Abstraction Spaces,«Proc IJCAI3>, 1973, 412-422(SUM, I:planning is just searching a sparser, more abstract space)

SSacerdoti , EThe Nonlinear Nature of Plans, «Proc

IJCAI4>,

1975, 206-214 (DR,I: the title)

@[S&C] Schank, R. and Colby, K. «Computer Models of Thought andLanguages San Francisco: Freeman, 1973(Collection; Note especially chapters 1,4,5,6)

Information Processings Amsterdam: North Holland, 1975, See espRieger (pp. 157-288; DR,I: uncontrolledforward inferencing is necessary in some situations) and Riesbeck(DR,I: use of predictions in parsing).

Schank, Roger, Neil Goldman, Charles Rieger, and Chris Riesbeck,MARGIE: Memory, Analysis, Response Generation, and Inference on English<<3IJCAI>, 1973, pp. 255-261.(SUM, I: conceptual dependency for system integration)

Schank, Roger, and the Yale AI Project, SAM -- A story understander ,Yale University Computer Science Research Report #43, August,1975. (SUM)

@Schank, Roger, and Robert Abelson. Scripts, Plans, and Knowledge, <<Proc1975, 151-157 (SUM, I: scripts (frames, schemata))

IJCAI4>

Schank, Collins, and

Charniak,

eds., <<Cognitive Sciences journal,published quarterly since 1977 by Ablex Publishing Co, New Jersey

Schatz, B.; "The Computation of Immediate Texture Discrimination"MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, AI Memo 426, August 1977. (DR)

Schmidt, C.F., and N.S. Sridharan,Plan Recognition Using a Hypothesize and Revise Paradigm: An Example«Proc IJCAISs 1977, 480-486 (SUM, I)

Schubert,

LExtending the Expressive Power of Semantic Networks, <<Proc IJCAI4>, 1975158-164 (DR,I: how to represent quantification, etc, in semantic nets)

Schwartz, Jacob T., <<On Programming: An Interim Report onthe SETL Projects revised, Computer Science Department, CourantInstitute of Mathematical Sciences, New York University, New York, New

York,

June 1975.

Shortliffe, Edward, <<MYCIN: Computer-Based Medical Consul tations>,New York: American Elsevier, 1976. (DR.I: automated diagnosis)

SShortliffe,

Davis, Axline, Buchanan, Green, and Cohen,Computer-based Consultations in Clinical Therapeutics:Explanation and Rule Acquisition Capabilities of the MYCINSystem, preprint for article in Volume 8 of the <<Journal forComputers in Biomedical Researchs June, 1975.(SUM, I:Medical application of production systems; communication with experts)

Schank, Roger C, <<Conceptual

I

I)

IJCAIS>

Shrobe, Howard, Richard Waters, and Gerald

Sussman,

A HypotheticalMonologue Illustrating the KnowledgeMemo 506, January 1979. (ESS,)

Underlying Program Analysis, MIT LCS

«SIGART NewslettersSpecial Interest Group on ArtificialAssociation for Computing Machinery,believe that, you probably will have(SURV/SUM, )

Intelligence (SIGART),New York, New York, quarterly (if youtrouble passing the qual ) .

Simmons,

R. (1965) Answering EnglishSurvey, «CACM> 8, 1; January, 1965,

Questions by a Computer: App. 53-70.

(SURV, gives reasonable picture of state of art at that time)

Simmons, R. (1970) Natural Language

QA

Systems. <<CACM> 13, 1; Jan1970, pp. 15-30.(SURV, gives reasonable picture of state of art at that time)

Simon , Herbert A. ,How Big is a Chunk?, <<Science>, 1974, 183, 482-488 (ESS)

SSimon, H (1973) tessons from Perception for Chess-Playing Programs(and vice versa), CMU Computer Science Research Review 1972-1973, pp. 35-40.(ESS I)

Simon, Herbert A., and Siklossy, Laurent, editors, <<Representationand Meaning: Experiments with Information Processing SystemssPrentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1972, xx + 440 pages,(collection of CMU dissertations each (SUM or DR))See esp. Simon's "On Reasoning About Actions" (SUM.P)

Sloman, Aaron (1971) Interactions Between Philosophy and ArtificialIntelligence: The Role of Intuition and Non-Logical Reasoning inIntelligence, <<Journal of Al>, 2, 1971, pp. 209-225. Provocative.(ESS, P looking for philosophical implications of AI work)

Sloman, Aaron, <<The Computer Revolution in Philosophys HumanitiesPress, 1979.

Smith, Brian C, Levels, Layers, and Planes: The Framework of a System ofKnowledge Representation Semantics,unpublished Masters thesis , Dept. of E.E. & C.S.,M.1.T., 1978. (DR,I: new directions in representation and meaning)

@Smith, R.G., T.M.Mitchell, R.A. Chestek, and B.G.Buchanan,A Model for Learning Systems, <<Proc

IJCAIS>,

1977, 338-343 (SURV, P)

Soloway, Elliot M. and Edward M. Riseman,Levels of Pattern Description in Learning, «Proc IJCAIS>, 1977, 801-811 (DR,

Sussman, G., and D. V. McDermott ,From Planning to Conniving: A Genetic Approach, «Proc ACM FJCCs 1972 (SUM,I:where Planner went wrong, and Conniver doesn't)

Szolovits,

P., L.B. Hawkinson, and W.A. Martin, An Overview ofOWL, an language for knowledge representation, M.I.T.

LCS-TM-86,

1977. (SUM)

Thomas, A. J. and T. 0. Binford;"Information Processing Analysis of Visual Perception: A Review"Stanford AI Lab Memo AIM-227,

CS-408,

1974. (SURV, ESS)

Induction of Relational Productions in the Presence of Background Information«Proc.

IJCAIS>,

1977, 349-355 (OR,)

SWalker, Donald E., William H.

Paxton,

et alProcedures for Integrating Knowledge in a Speech Understanding System, <<Proc1977, 36-42 (SUM, I)

Vere , Steven A. ,

t

Waltz, David (cd.), «TINLAP-2: TheoreticalIssues in Natural Language Processing, an interdisciplinary workshopin computational linguistics, psychology, linguistics, and artificialintel l igences University of Illinois, June 1977.(a collection of papers, mostly SUM)

Waterman, D., and F. Hayes-Roth, <<Pattern-Di rected Inference Systemss New YorkAcademic Press, 1978 (a collection of papers, mostly

SUM;

good coverage ofstate-of-the-art work in production systems)See esp. Duda et al ; Hayes-Roth, Waterman, & Lenat.

Weiner, N,. <<The Human uses of Human Beings: Cybernetics and SocietysAnchor 1954. (ESS, P)

Weizenbaum, J., ELIZA, «CACM>1966, 9, 36-45.(SUM, I:lt's easy to pretend intelligence by reflective listening, or, moregenerally, by very careful selection of the task to be performed)

SWeizenbaum, Joseph,<<Computer Power and Human Reasons San Francisco, W.H. Freeman, 1976(ESS, I: we should be aware of the larger implications of our work)

Weyhrauch, R. Prolegomena to a theory of mechanized formal reasoning.Stanford A.I. Memo, 1979 (DR,P)

Wickelgren, Wayne A., <<How to Solve Problems: Elements of aTheory of Problems and Probl em-sol ving> . San Francisco:W.H. Freeman and Company, 1974. Integrates Newell and Polya's ideas(DR, I : Reconci l ing Polya and one of his students, A. Newell)

Wilks,

VNatural Language Understanding Systems within the AI Paradigm: A Survey andSome Comparsions, AIM-237, Stanford U., 1974 (SURV.P)

@Winograd, Terry, "Five Lectures on Artificial Intelligence",Stanford AIM-246, C5459, ADAOOOOBS/IWC , 93 pages, September 1974(ESS, P)

Winograd, Terry, <<Understanding Natural Languages AcademicPress, Inc., New York, New York, 1972, viii + 191 pages, $10.00See paper in Schank and Colby or in 5 Lectures for summary.(DR, I:Procedural knowledge in an integrated system).

Winograd, Terry, Frame representations and the declarative/proceduralcontroversy, in Bobrow & Collins (ed), <<Representation & Understanding;- , 1975(ESS, I:modularity of knowledge structures, frames)

Winograd, TOn some contested suppositions of generative linguistics about the scientificstudy of language, <<Cognition> , 5, 1977 (reply to earlier article by Drescherand Hornstein) (ESS.P)

Winograd, Terry, Towards a Procedural Understanding of Semantics,«Revue Internationale de Phi l osophie>, 1976 fasc. 3-4 (117-118). (ESS, I:procedural semantics in linguistics)

Winston, P. H. (1972) The M.I.T. Robot, «Machine Intelligence 7>American Elsevier Pub.(SURV, I : Heterarchical systems)

@Winston, Patrick H., editor, <<The Psychology of Computer VisionsMcGraw-Hill Publishing Company, New York, New York, 1975,$18.00. Mostly MIT vision work.See Minsky's FRAMES paper,

Shirai's,

Waltz's, Winston's.(Collection, each at least (DR/SUM, ))

@@Winston, P. and R. Brown, eds., <<Artificial Intelligence: An MIT Perspective:--(2 volumes), M.1.T. , 1979. Copies available from MIT, library, and TW.

a

,

This subsumes the 1974 memo "New Progress in Artificial Intelligence".(SURV, Collection of summaries)

SWinston, Patrick H. ,<<Artificial Intel l igence> , Reading: Addison-Wesl ey , 1977 (TEXT, P)(one of the best overviews of the field)

Woodham, R.J.; "A Cooperative Algorithm for Determining Surface Orientationfrom a Single View"; «Proc

IJCAIS>,

1977, 635-641. (DR)

Woods, W. A. and Makhoul, J. (1973) Mechnical Inference Problems inContinuous Speech Understanding. «Proc

IJCAI3>,

pp. 200-207. This describespartly-implemented system. For the final story, see Woods' article inlEEE Transactions on

ASSP,

February, 1975.(SUM, I : lncremental simulation)

Woods, W., M. Bates, B. Bruce, and B . L. Nash-Webber ,Uses of Higher Level Knowledge in a Speech Understanding System,

«SIGART>,

April 1976 (SUM, I)

Yakimovsky, Y. and Feldman, J. (1973) A Semantics-Based DecisionTheory Region Analyzer. <<Proc IJCAI3>, Advanced Papers pp 580-8.(SUM, I:pruning using real-world constraints)