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Air Quality in Asia: Status and Trends2010 Edition
Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities (CAI-Asia) Center
Air Quality in Asia:
Status and Trends 2010 Edition
April 2010
Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities (CAI-Asia) Center
Unit 3510, 35th
Floor, Robinsons-Equitable Tower
ADB, Avenue, Pasig City, Metro Manila, Philippines
.
© 2010 Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities Center. All rights reserved.
Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities (CAI-Asia) Center, 2010. “Air Quality in Asia: Status and Trends - 2010
Edition”. Pasig City, Philippines.
This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part in any form for educational or non-profit purposes
without special permission from the copyright holder, provided acknowledgment of the source is made. The
CAI-Asia Center would appreciate receiving a copy of any publication that uses this CAI-Asia Center
publication as a source. No use of this publication may be made for resale or for any other commercial
purpose whatsoever, without prior permission in writing from the CAI-Asia Center.
Disclaimer
The views expressed in this publication are those of CAI-Asia staff, consultants and management, and do not
necessarily reflect the views of the Board of Trustees of the CAI-Asia Center. The CAI-Asia Center does not
guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this publication and does not accept responsibility for
consequence of their use.
Acknowledgment
This publication makes use of information published on the Clean Air Portal (www.cleanairinitiative.org) that
was developed with support from the Asian Development Bank (ADB) through the Japan Special Fund
together with CAI-Asia Partnership members.
Contact
CAI-Asia Center
Unit 3510, Robinsons-Equitable Tower, ADB Avenue,
Pasig City, 1605, Metro Manila, Philippines
Tel +63 2 395 2843
Fax +63 2 395 2846
www.cleanairninitiative.org
Introduction … 1
Status of Air Quality … 2
PM10 Concentrations in Asia – 2008 … 2
SO2 Concentrations in Asia – 2008 … 4
NO2 Concentrations in Asia – 2008 … 6
Trends of Air Quality … 8
Status of Air Quality Standards … 9
Development of National Ambient Air Quality Standards … 9
Air Quality Monitoring and Reporting … 9
World Health Organization Ambient Air Quality Guidelines … 10
Existence of NAAQS in Asia … 11
Comparison of NAAQS with WHO AQG, US EPA NAAQS and EU AQ Standards … 13
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1
Introduction
Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities (CAI-Asia)’s mission is to “Promote better air quality and livable
cities by translating knowledge to policies and actions that reduce air pollution and greenhouse gas
emissions from transport, energy and other sectors.”
CAI-Asia recognizes that while information and knowledge on air quality management are increasingly
generated in Asia, they are fragmented in different documents and websites. To ensure that decision-makers
have better access to knowledge on clean air management that can assist in policy development, CAI-Asia has
been releasing publications and presentations that provide a comprehensive and comparative assessment of
the status and challenges of air quality management in Asia. Starting with only 20 cities in 2003, CAI-Asia now
has compiled information on air quality and pollutant levels from over 200 Asian cities.1
“Air Quality in Asia: Status and Trends, 2010 edition” is now composed of two parts
• Status and Trends of Air Quality, which provides a snapshot of air quality levels in 2008 and trends of
air quality from 1993 to 2008.
• Status of Air Quality Standards, which provides an overview of the ambient air quality standards
adopted by developing Asian countries.
Analysis of air quality levels and ambient air quality standards in Asian cities, indicate that
• While some improvements in air quality have been achieved, levels of PM10 and SO2 continue to
exceed World Health Organization (WHO) air quality guidelines (AQG).
• There is not enough air quality data to assess PM2.5 and ozone.
• Most Asian countries have already adopted National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for
criteria pollutants (except for PM2.5).
• Ambient air quality standards of most countries lag behind WHO AQG and US EPA (Environmental
Protection Agency) NAAQS.
Based on this study, CAI-Asia advocates
• That countries without NAAQS, adopt ambient air quality standards to protect public health
• That cities monitor air quality levels to monitor compliance to NAAQS
• That air quality information be made widely available to public
• For a process of developing a roadmap on air quality standards in Asia moving towards achieving
WHO guidelines
For more information, contact:
Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities (CAI-Asia) Center
3510 Robinson’s Equitable Tower, ADB Avenue,
Ortigas Center, Pasig City, 1605 Philippines
Tel: (63-2) 395-2843/(63-2) 395-2845
Fax: (63-2) 395-2846
Email: [email protected]
1 The efforts in collecting air quality data from the different cities commenced during the implementation of the Air
Pollution in the Major and Mega-cities of Asia project in 2003, in cooperation with UNEP and WHO. As of April 2010, CAI-
Asia now has air quality data for 234 Asian cities.
2
Status of Air Quality
PM10 Concentrations in Asia – 2008
In 2008, CAI-Asia was able to collect annual average PM10 concentrations for 230 Asian cities. Monitoring
results reflects PM10 as a critical pollutant for most Asian cities.
From these 230 cities, only two had annual average PM10 concentrations within the WHO AQG (20 µg/m3)
while about 58% of these cities had annual PM10 levels exceeding even WHO Interim Target-1 (IT-1) of
70 µg/m3.
The average of annual average PM10 concentrations of 230 cities is 89.5 µg/m3—about 4.5 times higher than
WHO AQG.
Figure 1 Annual Particulate Matter (PM10) concentrations in 230 cities in Asia.
Note: Annual PM10 concentrations range from 11 (minimum) to 375 (maximum) micrograms per cubic meter
(µg/m3). PM10 = Particles with aerodynamic particle diameters of 10 micrometers or less.
Source: CAI-Asia Center, 2010.
Each dot represents annual average PM10 concentrations
for 2008.
11 µg/m3
375 µg/m3
3
Status of Air Quality
Figure 2 Distribution of Asian Cities relative to 2008 PM10 concentration.
WHO = World Health Organization; AQG = air quality guideline; IT = interim target; µg/m3 = microgram per cubic
meter; PM10 = Particles with aerodynamic particle diameters of 10 micrometers or less.
Source: CAI-Asia Center, 2010.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Above
250
250
200
150
100
70
50
30
20
Number of Cities (Total: 230 cities)
PM
10
Co
nce
ntr
ati
on
(µg
/m
3)
2 cities (1%)
6 cities
(3%)
13 cities (6%)
55 cities (24%)
59 cities (26%)
49 cities (21%)
38 cities (17%)
2 cities (1%)
6 cities
(3%)
WHO AQG, 20µg/m3
WHO IT-2, 50µg/m3
WHO IT-1, 70µg/m3
WHO IT-3, 30µg/m3
4
Status of Air Quality
SO2 Concentrations in Asia – 2008
SO2 monitoring data for 213 Asian cities show that SO2 levels are still a problem for some Asian cities,
particularly those in or are within the vicinity of industries.
Average of annual average SO2 concentrations of 213 Asian cities is 18.7 µg/m3. The WHO does prescribe an
annual guideline for SO2, but rather, prescribes a 24-hour AQG – 20 µg/m3. Based on the 2005 Global Update
of AQG by WHO, an annual AQG for SO2 was not established because the 24-hr AQG is already low and
achieving the 24-hr AQG ensures that the annual average SO2 concentration will even be lower.
About 40% of the cities had annual average SO2 levels equal or lower than 10 µg/m3. However, 24% of cities’
annual average SO2 concentrations do not meet even the 24-hr WHO AQG.
Figure 3 Annual Sulfur dioxide (SO2) concentrations in 213 cities in Asia.
Note: Annual SO2 concentrations range from 1.3 (minimum) to 105 (maximum) micrograms per cubic meter
(µg/m3). Source: CAI-Asia Center, 2010.
Each dot represents annual average SO2 concentrations
for 2008.
1.3 µg/m3
105 µg/m3
5
Status of Air Quality
Figure 4 Distribution of Asian Cities relative to 2008 SO2 concentration.
WHO = World Health Organization; AQG = air quality guideline; µg/m3 = microgram per cubic meter; SO2 = Sulfur
dioxide
Source: CAI-Asia Center, 2010.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Above 50
50
40
30
20
10
Number of Cities (Total: 213 cities)
SO2
Co
nce
ntr
ati
on
(µ
g/m
3)
18 cities (8%)
8 cities
(4%)
6 cities (3%)
19 cities (9%)
85 cities (40%)
WHO AQG (24-hr) 20µg/m3
77 cities (36%)
6
Status of Air Quality
NO2 Concentrations in Asia – 2008
In 2008, annual average NO2 monitoring data for 234 Asian cities show that NO2 levels are relatively low and
well within the WHO AQG (40 µg/m3) for most cities. 73% of the 234 cities have annual average NO2
concentrations below the WHO AQG.
The average of annual average NO2 concentrations for 234 Asian cities is 30.7 µg/m3—within the WHO AQG.
Figure 5 Annual Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) concentrations in 234 cities in Asia.
Note: Annual NO2 concentrations range from 1.9 (minimum) to 77 (maximum) micrograms per cubic meter
(µg/m3).
Source: CAI-Asia Center, 2010.
Each dot represents annual average NO2 concentrations
for 2008.
1.9 µg/m3
77 µg/m3
7
Status of Air Quality
Figure 6 Distribution of Asian Cities relative to 2008 NO2 concentration.
WHO = World Health Organization; AQG = air quality guideline; µg/m3 = microgram per cubic meter; NO2 =
Nitrogen dioxide
Source: CAI-Asia Center, 2010.
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Above 80
80
70
60
50
40
Number of Cities (Total: 234 cities)
NO
2C
on
cen
tra
tio
n (
µg
/m3)
WHO AQG, 40µg/m3
5 cities (2%)
9 cities (4%)
171 cities (73%)
30 cities (13%)
8
Air Quality Trends
Understanding the air quality trends/tendency for Asia is a difficult task—with one major challenge is the
limitations experienced by many Asian cities in air quality monitoring and reporting capacity. Nonetheless,
CAI-Asia Center has been collecting available air quality monitoring data for over 200 Asian cities over the
years to have an indication on the trend of air pollution in Asian cities. Upon analysis of these data, CAI-Asia
has found that—
� PM10 is still a major pollutant is Asian cities—with the average of annual average PM10
concentrations over three times above the WHO guidelines since 1993.
� Since 1995, most Asian cities have reported relatively low NO2 levels, with annual average
concentrations well within the WHO AQG.
� Regarding SO2 levels, although there has been a marked decrease from 1993 to 2000, a number of
Asian cities have annual average SO2 concentrations do not meet even the 24-hr WHO AQG.
Figure 7 Average of Annual Average Annual Ambient AQ in Selected Asian Cities (1993-2008).
AQ = air quality; µg/m3 = micrograms per cubic meter; US EPA = United Stated Environmental Protection Agency;
NAAQS = National Ambient Air Quality Standards; EU = European Union; WHO = World Health Organization; AQG =
air quality guidelines; PM10 = Particles with aerodynamic particle diameters of 10 micrometers or less; NO2 =
Nitrogen dioxide; SO2 = Sulfur dioxide.
Source: CAI-Asia, 2010. [Note: Air quality data is compiled by CAI-Asia Center from official sources (publications,
personal communications) for 243 Asian cities – as of April 2010.]
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
19
93
19
95
19
97
19
99
20
01
20
03
20
05
20
07
19
93
19
95
19
97
19
99
20
01
20
03
20
05
20
07
19
93
19
95
19
97
19
99
20
01
20
03
20
05
20
07
PM10 NO2 SO2
Co
nce
ntr
atio
n (
ug
/m3
)
US EPA NAAQS (annual)
EU AQ Standard (annual)
WHO AQG (annual)
9
Status of Air Quality Standards
The adoption of ambient air quality standards and monitoring of their compliance is one of the main policy
tools to protect the health of public from the adverse effects of air pollution. In 2009, CAI-Asia Center
conducted a survey to understand the status of National Air Quality Standards in Asia.
Development of National Ambient Air Quality Standards
In Asia, governments, whether at country or city level, have adopted a range of air quality standards, most of
which are based on the prevailing international guidelines, such as WHO AQG and US EPA NAAQS, at the time
of development. Ideally, countries or cities should develop standards after considering prevailing exposure
levels, meteorological and topographical conditions, socio-economic levels, natural background
concentration, and population susceptibility, among others.
Ambient air quality standards are set to protect public health and the environment from the harmful effects
of air pollution. The standards come in different forms based on different factors. Short-term standards aim
to protect population from acute exposure to pollutant whereas long-term standards aim to protect
population from long-term exposure to the pollutant.
Air Quality Monitoring and Reporting
To monitor compliance to the standards, authorities often, at the city level, install air quality monitoring
systems. In addition, air quality monitoring systems also aid in assessing effectiveness of air quality policies.
Asia has seen improvements in capacities for air quality monitoring and reporting. More cities are now able
to report on their air quality levels. However, air quality reporting remains to be widely variable in Asian
cities. Some cities report actual air quality levels versus some which report with use of air quality indices.
Some cities also report air quality information real-time while others continue to do this on ad hoc basis.
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PHOTO BELOW Mobile air quality monitoring station in Metro Manila.
This is operated by the Environmental Management Bureau – National
Capital Region (EMB-NCR).
PHOTO LEFT Automatic air quality monitoring station in Cebu City.
This is operated by EMB – Region 7.
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Status of Air Quality Standards
World Health Organization Ambient Air Quality Guidelines
The WHO assists countries in reducing the health effects of air pollution by providing guidance to countries in
setting their NAAQS through the WHO Ambient AQG. The WHO AQG, first published in 1987, identify
pollutant levels below which exposure to a pollutant for a given averaging time either does not constitute a
health risk or the least health risk.
In 2005, the WHO updated the AQGs by setting guidelines for PM10 and PM2.5. The 2005 Global Update also
indicated that reducing levels of PM10 could decrease mortality in polluted cities by as much as 15% every
year. Interim targets were also provided for some pollutants. The ITs are targets which the countries can
adopt as they progressively move towards the WHO AQGs.
The 2005 version also lowered the recommended limits of many pollutants, including O3 and SO2, making
them much more stringent than the national standards currently applied in many parts of the world.
Pollutant Averaging Time WHO Guidelines US EPA NAAQSc
PM2.5 Annual mean 10
a 15
24-hour mean 25a 35
PM10 Annual mean 20
a -
24-hour mean 50a 150
Ozone (O3) 8-hour mean 100
a 147
d
1-hour mean - 235d
Nitrogen
(NO2)
Annual mean 40a 100
1-hour mean 200a -
Sulfur dioxide
(SO2)
Annual mean - 78e
24-hour mean 20a 365
e
10-minute mean 500a -
Lead (Pb) Annual mean 0.5
b -
3-month mean - 1.5
Carbon monoxide (CO) 1-hour mean 30,000
b 40,000
8-hour mean 10,000b 10,000
PM2.5= particles less than 2.5 micrometers in aerodynamic diameter; PM10= particles of 10 micrometers or less in
aerodynamic diameter; WHO=World Health Organization; EPA=Environmental Protection Agency;
NAAQS=National Ambient Air Quality Standards
aWHO, 2006. WHO Air Quality Guidelines for particulate matter, ozone, Nitrogen dioxide and Sulfur dioxide. Global
Update 2005. Summary of Risk Assessment.
http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2006/WHO_SDE_PHE_OEH_06.02_eng.pdf bWHO, 2000. “Guidelines for Air Quality.” http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2000/WHO_SDE_OEH_00.02_pp1-104.pdf
cNational Ambient Air Quality Standards http://www.epa.gov/air/criteria.html
dConversion factor for ppb to µg/m
3: 1.962
eConversion factor for ppb to µg/m
3: 2.616
11
Status of Air Quality Standards
Existence of NAAQS in Asia
Most Asian countries have NAAQS, but there are still few without standards
Most Asian countries have already adopted NAAQS (Table 1), with some countries regularly reviewing and
updating their standards to take into account current conditions of the country and recent scientific
information.
Thailand, for instance, has updated their
standards for four times since they first
established their standards in 1981. India also
recently revised their standards wherein they
established PM2.5 and O3 standards.
Recent developments were also observed in
Viet Nam. Effective 2010, Viet Nam’s NAAQS
(TCVN) was revised into national technical
regulations (QCVN), making compliance
mandatory. Hong Kong Special Administrative
Region (SAR) is also currently undergoing review
of their Air Quality Objectives (AQO).
Nonetheless, there are a number of Asian
countries still without NAAQS—Afghanistan,
Bhutan, Lao People’s Democratic Republic (PDR)
and Pakistan (Table 1). There is currently no
information whether these countries are
planning to adopt NAAQS in the near future.
Asian countries slowly establishing PM2.5 standards
Countries have developed standards for a range of pollutants. With recent scientific findings highlighting the
significant health impacts of PM2.5, WHO and several developed countries, such as US and EU have
established PM2.5 guidelines (for WHO) and standards (for US and European Union [EU]).
Asian countries are slowly moving towards developing PM2.5 as well, but there is still a long way to go. Of 19
Asian countries included reviewed; four have PM2.5 standards (Table 1). Further, based on survey results, only
Thailand had concrete plans to develop PM2.5 standards in the next couple of years.
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Status of Air Quality Standards
Table 1 Summary of Ambient Air Quality Standards in Select Asian Countries (µg/m3)
Countries
PM2.5 PM10 SO2 NO2 O3 CO (‘000) Pb
24
-Hr
An
nu
al
24
-Hr
An
nu
al
24
-Hr
An
nu
al
24
-Hr
An
nu
al
1-H
r
8-H
r
1-H
r
8-H
r
An
nu
al
Afghanistan - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Bangladesh 65 15 150 50 365 80 - 100 235 157 40 10 0.5
Bhutan - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Cambodia - - - - 300 100 100 - 200 - 40 20 -
China: Grade I - - 50 40 50 20 80 40 160 - 10 - 1
China: Grade II - - 150 100 150 60 120 80 200 - 10 - 1
China: Grade III - - 250 150 250 100 120 80 200 - 20 - 1
Hong Kong SAR - - 180 55 350 80 150 80 240 - 30 10 -
India* 60 40 100 60 80 50 80 40 180 100 4 2 0.5
India** 60 40 100 60 80 20 80 30 180 100 4 2 0.5
Indonesia - - 150 - 365 60 150 100 235 - 30 - 1
Lao PDR - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Malaysia - - 150 50 105 - 10 - 200 120 35 10 -
Mongolia - - - - 30 - 40 - 120 0 - - -
Nepal - - 120 - 70 50 80 40 - - - 10 0.5
Pakistan - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Philippines - - 150 60 180 80 150 - 140 60 35 10 1
Republic of Korea - - 100 50 131 52 113 56 196 118 28.6 10.3 0.5
Singapore 35 15 150 - 365 80 - 100 - 147 40 10 -
Sri Lanka 50 25 100 50 80 - 100 - 200 - 30 10 -
Thailand - - 120 50 300 100 - - 200 140 34.2 10.3 -
Viet Nam - - 150 50 125 50 - 40 - 120 30 10 0.5
China: Grade I = applies to specially protected areas, such as natural conservation areas, scenic spots, and
historical sites; China: Grade II = applies to residential areas, mixed commercial/residential areas, cultural,
industrial, and rural areas; China: Grade III = special industrial areas; India* = NAAQS for Industrial, Residential,
Rural and Other Areas; India** = NAAQS for Ecologically Sensitive Areas (notified by Central Government); SAR =
Special Administrative Region; PDR = People’s Democratic Republic; Pb = lead; PM10 = Particles with aerodynamic
particle diameters of 10 micrometers or less; PM2.5 = Particles with aerodynamic particle diameters of 2.5
micrometers or less
Ozone (O3) Conversion factor for ppb to µg/m3: 1.962
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) Conversion factor for ppb to µg/m3: 2.616
Carbon monoxide (CO) Conversion factor for ppb to µg/m3: 1.145
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) Conversion factor for ppb to µg/m3: 1.880
Source: CAI-Asia Center, 2010. [Collected from various sources]
13
Status of Air Quality Standards
Comparison of NAAQS with WHO AQG, US EPA NAAQS and EU AQ Standards (Per Pollutant)
PM2.5
Only a few Asian countries have PM2.5 standards, and of these countries, none have standards equivalent to
the WHO AQG. Still, PM2.5 standards generally close to a WHO interim target. Annual PM2.5 standards of
Singapore and Bangladesh, for instance, are at WHO IT-3 (15 µg/m3).
PM10
All the surveyed Asian countries’ standards, including US EPA’s PM10 standards for 24-hour and annual
averaging period are more lenient than WHO guidelines with some even more lenient than WHO IT-1. A large
number of the countries meet WHO IT-1 for both 24-hour and annual averaging periods.
SO2
All the surveyed Asian countries, including US EPA and EU, have 24-hr average SO2 standards higher than
WHO AQG. About 64% of the countries surveyed were higher than WHO IT-1. Most of the countries have
annual SO2 standards despite WHO not having a guideline for this.
NO2
Only four of 18 countries surveyed had annual NO2 standards equivalent to the WHO AQG. Most of the
countries have 24-hour NO2 standards even though WHO does not have a guideline for this.
O3
Of the 19 Asian countries surveyed, two have 8-hr average O3 standards same with the WHO AQG. Remaining
countries with 8-Hr average O3 standard meet the WHO IT-1. Still, 59% of the countries do not have 8-hr
average O3 standards.
CO
Most of the surveyed Asian countries, including US EPA and EU, have CO standards for 1-hour and 8-hour
averaging period within WHO guidelines with a few being more stringent than the WHO AQG.
Pb
Around a third of the countries surveyed have Pb standards for annual averaging period similar to the
prescribed WHO AQG (0.5µg/m3), another third of the countries have more lenient standards and the last
third of the countries do not have Pb standards for the annual averaging period.
14
Status of Air Quality Standards
Figure 8 24-Hr PM2.5 Standards in Asian countries vs. WHO AQG and US EPA NAAQS.
Figure 9 Annual PM2.5 Standards in Asian countries vs. WHO AQG, US EPA and EU NAAQS.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Afghanistan
Bhutan
Cambodia
China: Grade I
China: Grade II
China: Grade III
Hong Kong SAR
Indonesia
Lao PDR
Malaysia
Mongolia
Nepal
Pakistan
Philippines
Republic of Korea
Thailand
Viet Nam
Bangladesh
India*
India**
Sri Lanka
Singapore
24-Hr PM2.5 Standard (µg/m3)
Co
un
trie
s
WHO AQG
25 µg/m3
WHO IT-2
50 µg/m3
WHO IT-1
70 µg/m3
WHO IT-3
37.5 µg/m3
US EPA
35 µg/m3
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Afghanistan
Bhutan
Cambodia
China: Grade I
China: Grade II
China: Grade III
Hong Kong SAR
Indonesia
Lao PDR
Malaysia
Mongolia
Nepal
Pakistan
Philippines
Republic of Korea
Thailand
Viet Nam
India*
India**
Sri Lanka
Bangladesh
Singapore
Annual PM2.5 Standard (µg/m3)
Co
un
trie
s
WHO AQG
10 µg/m3
WHO IT-2
25 µg/m3
WHO IT-1
35 µg/m3
WHO IT-3
15 µg/m3
US EPA
15 µg/m3
EU
25 µg/m3
15
Status of Air Quality Standards
Figure 10 24-Hr PM10 Standards in Asian countries vs. WHO AQG, US EPA and EU NAAQS.
Figure 11 Annual PM10 Standards in Asian countries vs. WHO AQG and EU NAAQS.
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Afghanistan
Bhutan
Cambodia
Lao PDR
Mongolia
Pakistan
China: Grade III
Hong Kong SAR
Bangladesh
China: Grade II
Indonesia
Malaysia
Philippines
Singapore
Viet Nam
Nepal
Thailand
India*
India**
Republic of Korea
Sri Lanka
China: Grade I
24-Hr PM10Standard (µg/m3)
Co
un
trie
s
WHO AQG
50 µg/m3
WHO IT-2
100 µg/m3
WHO IT-1
150 µg/m3
WHO IT-3
75 µg/m3
US EPA
150 µg/m3
EU
50 µg/m3
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Afghanistan
Bhutan
Cambodia
Indonesia
Lao PDR
Mongolia
Nepal
Pakistan
Singapore
China: Grade III
China: Grade II
India*
India**
Philippines
Hong Kong SAR
Bangladesh
Malaysia
Republic of Korea
Sri Lanka
Thailand
Viet Nam
China: Grade I
Annual PM10 Standard (µg/m3)
Co
un
trie
s
WHO AQG
20 µg/m3
WHO IT-2
50 µg/m3
WHO IT-1
70 µg/m3
WHO IT-3
30 µg/m3
EU
40 µg/m3
16
Status of Air Quality Standards
Figure 12 24-Hr SO2 Standards in Asian countries vs. WHO AQG, US EPA and EU NAAQS.
Figure 13 Annual SO2 Standards in Asian countries vs. US EPA NAAQS.
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Afghanistan
Bhutan
Lao PDR
Pakistan
Bangladesh
Indonesia
Singapore
Hong Kong SAR
Cambodia
Thailand
China: Grade III
Philippines
China: Grade II
Republic of Korea
Viet Nam
Malaysia
India*
India**
Sri Lanka
Nepal
China: Grade I
Mongolia
24-hr SO2 Standard (µg/m3)
Co
un
trie
s
WHO AQG
20 µg/m3
WHO IT-2
50 µg/m3
WHO IT-1
125 µg/m3 US EPA
365 µg/m3EU
125 µg/m3
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Afghanistan
Bhutan
Lao PDR
Malaysia
Mongolia
Pakistan
Sri Lanka
Cambodia
China: Grade III
Thailand
Bangladesh
Hong Kong SAR
Philippines
Singapore
China: Grade II
Indonesia
Republic of Korea
India*
Nepal
Viet Nam
China: Grade I
India**
Annual SO2 Standard (µg/m3)
Co
un
trie
s
US EPA
78 µg/m3
17
Status of Air Quality Standards
Figure 14 24-Hr NO2 Standards in Asian countries.
Figure 15 Annual NO2 Standards in Asian countries vs. WHO AQG, US EPA and EU NAAQS.
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Afghanistan
Bangladesh
Bhutan
Lao PDR
Pakistan
Singapore
Thailand
Viet Nam
Hong Kong SAR
Indonesia
Philippines
China: Grade II
China: Grade III
Republic of Korea
Cambodia
Sri Lanka
China: Grade I
India*
India**
Nepal
Mongolia
Malaysia
24-Hr NO2 Standard (µg/m3)
Co
un
trie
s
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Afghanistan
Bhutan
Cambodia
Lao PDR
Malaysia
Mongolia
Pakistan
Philippines
Sri Lanka
Thailand
Bangladesh
Indonesia
Singapore
China: Grade II
China: Grade III
Hong Kong SAR
Republic of Korea
China: Grade I
India*
Nepal
Viet Nam
India**
Annual NO2 Standard (µg/m3)
Co
un
trie
s
WHO AQG
40 µg/m3
US EPA
100 µg/m3
EU
40 µg/m3
18
Status of Air Quality Standards
Figure 16 1-Hr O3 Standards in Asian countries vs. US EPA NAAQS.
Figure 17 8-Hr O3 Standards in Asian countries vs. WHO AQG, US EPA and EU NAAQS.
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Afghanistan
Bhutan
Lao PDR
Nepal
Pakistan
Singapore
Viet Nam
Hong Kong SAR
Bangladesh
Indonesia
Cambodia
China: Grade II
China: Grade III
Malaysia
Sri Lanka
Thailand
Republic of Korea
India*
India**
China: Grade I
Philippines
Mongolia
1-Hr O3 Standard (µg/m3)
Co
un
trie
sUS EPA
235 µg/m3
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Afghanistan
Bhutan
Cambodia
China: Grade I
China: Grade II
China: Grade III
Hong Kong SAR
Indonesia
Lao PDR
Mongolia
Nepal
Pakistan
Sri Lanka
Bangladesh
Singapore
Thailand
Malaysia
Viet Nam
Republic of Korea
India*
India**
Philippines
8-Hr O3 Standard (µg/m3)
Co
un
trie
s
WHO AQG
100 µg/m3
WHO IT-1
160 µg/m3
US EPA
147 µg/m3
EU
120 µg/m3
19
Status of Air Quality Standards
Figure 18 1-Hr CO Standards in Asian countries vs. WHO AQG and US EPA NAAQS.
Figure 19 8-Hr CO Standards in Asian countries vs. WHO AQG, US EPA and EU NAAQS.
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Afghanistan
Bhutan
Lao PDR
Mongolia
Nepal
Pakistan
Bangladesh
Cambodia
Singapore
Malaysia
Philippines
Thailand
Hong Kong SAR
Indonesia
Sri Lanka
Viet Nam
Republic of Korea
China: Grade III
China: Grade I
China: Grade II
India*
India**
1-Hr CO Standard (‘000) (µg/m3)
Co
un
trie
s
WHO AQG
30 µg/m3
US EPA
40 µg/m3
0 5 10 15 20 25
Afghanistan
Bhutan
China: Grade I
China: Grade II
China: Grade III
Indonesia
Lao PDR
Mongolia
Pakistan
Cambodia
Malaysia
Republic of Korea
Thailand
Bangladesh
Hong Kong SAR
Nepal
Philippines
Singapore
Sri Lanka
Viet Nam
India*
India**
8-Hr CO Standard (‘000) (µg/m3)
Co
un
trie
s
WHO AQG
10 µg/m3
US EPA
10 µg/m3
EU
10 µg/m3
20
Status of Air Quality Standards
Figure 20 Annual Pb Standards in Asian countries vs. WHO AQG and EU NAAQS.
Notes for Figure 8 to Figure 20.
China: Grade I = applies to specially protected areas, such as natural conservation areas, scenic spots, and
historical sites; China: Grade II = applies to residential areas, mixed commercial/residential areas, cultural,
industrial, and rural areas; China: Grade III = special industrial areas; India* = NAAQS for Industrial, Residential,
Rural and Other Areas; India** = NAAQS for Ecologically Sensitive Areas (notified by Central Government); SAR =
Special Administrative Region; PDR = People’s Democratic Republic; Pb = lead; PM10 = Particles with aerodynamic
particle diameters of 10 micrometers or less; PM2.5 = Particles with aerodynamic particle diameters of 2.5
micrometers or less; µg/m3 = micrograms per cubic meter; WHO = World Health Organization; IT = interim target;
AQG = air quality guidelines; US EPA = United States Environmental Protection Agency; EU = European Union.
Ozone (O3) Conversion factor for ppb to µg/m3: 1.962
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) Conversion factor for ppb to µg/m3: 2.616
Carbon monoxide (CO) Conversion factor for ppb to µg/m3: 1.145
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) Conversion factor for ppb to µg/m3: 1.880
Source: CAI-Asia Center, 2010. [Collected from various sources]
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Afghanistan
Bhutan
Cambodia
Hong Kong SAR
Lao PDR
Malaysia
Mongolia
Pakistan
Singapore
Sri Lanka
Thailand
China: Grade I
China: Grade II
China: Grade III
Indonesia
Philippines
Bangladesh
India*
India**
Nepal
Republic of Korea
Viet Nam
Annual Pb Standard (µg/m3)
Co
un
trie
s
WHO AQG
0.5 µg/m3
EU
0.5 µg/m3
©CAI-Asia Center,2010.
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