airborne imaging spectroscopy in mapping of heterogeneous

Airborne imaging spectroscopyin mapping of heterogeneous tropicalland cover in Eastern Africa

RAMI PIIROINEN

DEPARTMENT OF GEOSCIENCES AND GEOGRAPHY A69 / HELSINKI 2018

ACADEMIC DISSERTATIONTo be presented, with the permission of the Faculty of Science of the University of Helsinki, for public examination in Auditorium A129 of the Chemicum building of the University of Helsinki, on 9th November 2018, at 12 noon.

ISSN-L 1798-7911ISSN 1798-7911 (print)ISBN 978-951-51-3991-7 (paperback) ISBN 978-951-51-3992-4 (pdf)http://ethesis.helsinki.fi

Unigrafia OyHelsinki 2018

© Rami Piiroinen (Synopsis)© R. Piiroinen, J. Heiskanen, E. Maeda, A. Viinikka and P. Pellikka (Article II)© Creative Commons Attribution License (Article III)© Elsevier (Articles I and IV)

Author´s address: Rami Piiroinen Department of Gesciences and Geography, 00014 University of Helsinki, Finland [email protected]

Supervised by: Professor Petri Pellikka Department of Geosciences and Geography University of Helsinki

Dr. Janne Heiskanen Department of Geosciences and Geography University of Helsinki

Dr. Eduardo Maeda Department of Geosciences and Geography University of Helsinki

Pre-examiners: Associate Professor Mikko Vastaranta School of Forest Sciences University of Eastern Finland, Finland

Dr. Renaud Mathieu Natural resource and environment Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, South Africa

Opponent: Professor Onisimo Mutanga School of Agricultural, Earth and Environmental Sciences University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

Piiroinen, P., (2018). Airborne imaging spectroscopy in mapping of heterogenous tropical land cover in Eastern Africa. Department of Geosciences and Geography A69. Unigrafia. Helsinki.

Abstract

Understanding the patterns and changes in land cover is vital for determining how our actions as humans impact our planet. The science of modeling and mapping land cover using remote sensing (RS) has thus become increasingly important, as we are consuming natural resources and impacting our planet’s ecosphere at an unprecedented rate and scale. Through sensors aboard aircraft and satellites, RS can provide valuable information about these changes on both a local and global scale. During recent decades, for instance, Africa has experienced considerable loss of natural forests, woodlands, and grasslands, and the simultaneous expansion of agricultural land. Some of the native forests have been replaced by plantation forests, which have economic value but low species diversity compared to native forests and, in some cases, have a negative impact on the local ecosystem. Agroforestry systems have been proposed as possible solutions to mitigate the negative impact of deforestation and the expansion of agricultural land; in these systems trees and crops are planted side by side, which, when properly planned and maintained, is considered a more sustainable option in the tropics. The efficiency and sustainability of an agroforestry system is also affected by the composition of tree species and the planted crops.

At the regional and global level, low- and medium-resolution satellite-based RS data provide important insights into changes in land cover types. Since these technologies have a limited capability to map heterogeneous land cover at a detailed level (e.g. crop types and tree species), however, airborne imaging spectroscopy is considered the state-of-the-art technology for mapping land cover at the species level and for assessing the biophysical properties of vegetation. When airborne laser scanning data are collected simultaneously, the three-dimensional structural characteristics of land cover can be captured. Although these technologies have been studied widely in developed countries, fewer studies have been conducted in Africa, despite the urgent need for accurate land cover information in the area. In this thesis, I assess the current state of the research in the field of airborne imaging spectroscopy in Africa, then use the novel findings from the original research articles of this thesis to assess the potential and limitations of these technologies in accurate land cover modeling in support of sustainability and conservation efforts in tropical Africa. These original research articles, in which I present novel ways to apply imaging spectroscopy in the mapping of crops, tree species, and the flowering cycle, are based on studies carried out in the Taita Hills and Mwingi, Kenya.

4

DEPARTMENT OF GEOSCIENCES AND GEOGRAPHY A69

Piiroinen, P., (2018). Airborne imaging spectroscopy in mapping of heterogenous tropical land cover in Eastern Africa. Department of Geosciences and Geography A69. Unigrafia. Helsinki.

The results of this thesis show how, when using airborne imaging spectroscopy as the primary data source, major crops and tree species can be detected and mapped even in the complex rural African landscape. A novel approach for applying a one-class classification method for mapping potentially invasive species was introduced; this was particularly useful in the rural African context, where collecting field data is a laborious and time-consuming process. These invasive species were found abundantly in close proximity to the largest remaining native forest fragment (Ngangao) on the study site. This is valuable information for future conservation efforts of the remaining native forest fragments of the Taita Hills. A novel approach for mapping the short-term flowering cycle of melliferous plants using airborne imaging spectroscopy data was also introduced, providing detailed information on the changes of flowering intensity and thus contributing to a better understanding of the interrelationship between the flowering plants, bee diversity, and hive integrity. In conclusion, airborne imaging spectroscopy has many viable uses in tropical Africa in support of conservation and sustainability efforts, although the vast species diversity of the tropical ecosystems and the high costs of acquiring airborne imaging spectroscopy data are major limitations of these technologies.

5

Acknowledgements

The past four years have been the most extraordinary ones of my life. I have learned a lot about remote sensing, African land cover and land use questions, and how to apply machine learning to solve real-world problems. I have also gotten a chance to travel to far out destinations in Africa to collect field measurements and remote sensing data, and have met many wonderful people throughout the journey. Although this dissertation is in my name, numerous people have contributed to collecting and analyzing the data, commented the work, and generally helped in making all of this happen.

The first people I would like to acknowledge are my supervisors Professor Petri Pellikka, Dr. Janne Heiskanen and Dr. Eduardo Maeda, without whom this work could have not been possible. I would also like to thank all the co-authors who participated in producing the original research articles: Fabian Fassnacht, Tobias Landmann, Benjamin Mack, Arto Viinikka, David Makori, Elfatih Abdel-Rahman, Matti Mõttus, Sospeter Makau and Suresh Raina. I would also like to thank Professor Onisimo Mutanga for serving as opponent and Associate Professor Mikko Vastaranta and Dr. Renaud Mathieu for being the pre-examiners of this thesis.

I would like to thank all the fellow Ph.D. students and other member of the ECHOLAB group including Hari Adhikari, Jinxiu Liu, Vincent Markiet, Zhipeng Tang, Daniela Welsch, Sheila Wachiye, Edward Amara, Temesgen Abera, Pekka Hurskainen, Matti Räsänen, Dr. Andrew Rebeiro-Hargrave, Dr. Xiaochen Zou, Dr. Mika Siljander and Dr. Tino Johansson. I am also grateful to Captain Wachira for excellent piloting during the flight campaigns. Maik Spenthof and Markku Rantasuo helped to operate the cameras during the Mwingi flight campaigns, while Pekka Hurskainen and Tuure Takala operated the cameras during the Taita Hills campaigns.

Although the majority of the time spent on working this thesis was spent at the University of Helsinki’s Kumpula Campus, the trips to Kenya to collect field data and remote sensing data were the most memorable. During the field trips, it was a great privilege to stay at the University of Helsinki’s Taita Research Station. I would like to thank all the staff and field guides including James Mwang’ombe, Mwadime Mjomba, Granton Righa, Darius Kimuzi, Francis Namiseko, Rebecca Mwanyolo, Julius, Ken Gicheru and Elphinstone Kalaghe. I would also like to acknowledge all the wonderful people I met during the field campaigns and who participated in collecting the field data including Arto Viinikka, Kirsi Kivistö, Jesse Hietanen, Vuokko Heikinheimo, Jessica Broas, Elisa Schäfer, Åsa Stam, Risto Vesala, Pekka Niittynen and Johanna Hohenthal.

All of the research papers included in this thesis utilize Specim’s AISA Eagle hyperspectral camera system. I would like to thank everyone working at the Specim for their invaluable help and guidance in preprocessing and collecting the hyperspectral data. Special thanks goes to Petri Nygrén, who taught me the fine art and science of organizing airborne remote sensing campaigns. I was also privileged to work for Petri Nygrén and Professor Petri Pellikka as an employee at SMAPS Ltd. alongside the research work. In this position I got to travel to distant corners of Earth to collect hyperspectral and laser scanning data for our commercial clients.

During the Ph.D. journey I was able to participate in many other interesting projects in the fields of geoinformatics and Earth sciences. I would like to say special thanks to Henrikki Tenkanen, Joona

6


Repo and Karolina Mosiadz, and everyone else who have participated in the Mapple project, in which we are turning accessibility research and spatial analytics into business. Also, the field trips to the Kilpisjärvi research station together with Henri Riihimäki and all the wonderful people from Miska Luoto’s group were very memorable. The short research visit to Karlsruhe Institute of Technology to meet Fabian Fassnacht and his teammates to plan the last article of this thesis was also memorable.

I wish to thank all the financial bodies that helped me to get this work done. I am grateful to the Climate Change Impacts on Ecosystem Services and Food Security in Eastern Africa (CHIESA) project funded by the Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland and the TAITAWATER project funded by the Academy of Finland that provided the funding for the first two and a half years of my research. The next year was funded by University of Helsinki’s the Centre of Excellence in Atmospheric Science. The thesis was finished with a grant from the University of Helsinki. Other important collaborators were International Center of Insect Physiology and Ecology through CHIESA and World Agroforestry Centre through BIODEV project (Building Biocarbon and rural development in West Africa). I would also like to thank the Doctoral Programme in Atmospheric Sciences for providing funding to attend conferences that were great places to meet other researches in this field and to network with them.

Lastly, but perhaps most importantly, I would like to thank my wife Karoliina, whom I met at the very beginning of the Ph.D. journey and married by the end of the Ph.D. journey. You have been there for me during all the ups and downs of the Ph.D. process and supported me all the way through it. Thank you! Also, all the family and friends, and of course KCB, are warmly acknowledged.

7

Contents

Abstract ........................................................................................................................3Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................5Contents .......................................................................................................................7List of original publications .........................................................................................8Abbreviations ...............................................................................................................9List of figures and tables ............................................................................................10

1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................112 Background ..........................................................................................................14 2.1 Positioning the research ...............................................................................14 2.2 Geographical context ...................................................................................15 2.3 Imaging spectroscopy and laser scanning background ................................18 2.4 Image processing and classification algorithms ..........................................20 2.5 Modeling plant species and flowering cycle using remote sensing data .....213 Data ......................................................................................................................22 3.1 Remote sensing data ....................................................................................22 3.2 Field data .....................................................................................................244 Methods ................................................................................................................25 4.1 Radiometric calibration of the AISA Eagle data ..........................................26 4.2 Geometric correction of the AISA Eagle data .............................................27 4.3 Atmospheric correction of the AISA Eagle data ..........................................27 4.4 ALS derived data products and digital elevation models ............................28 4.5 Classification and modeling techniques .......................................................295 Results and discussion ..........................................................................................30 5.1 The spectral characteristics and important features for mapping common

agricultural crops, exotic tree species and flowering plants .................................30 5.2 Classification of crops and tree species and modeling of flowering cycle in

tropical Africa .......................................................................................................32 5.3 Occurrence of crops, tree species and flowering plants on the study sites ..35 5.4 Operational mapping of plant species and flowering cycle in support of

conservation efforts and sustainable development in Africa ................................376 Conclusions ..........................................................................................................39

References ..................................................................................................................41Article I ......................................................................................................................47Article II .....................................................................................................................57Article III ...................................................................................................................81Article IV ...................................................................................................................97

8


List of original publications

This thesis is based on the following publications:

I Piiroinen, R., Heiskanen, J., Mõttus, M., Pellikka, P., (2015). Classification of crops across heterogeneous agricultural landscape in Kenya using AisaEAGLE imaging spectroscopy data. International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation, 39, 1–8.

II Piiroinen, R., Heiskanen, J., Maeda, E., Viinikka, A., Pellikka, P., (2017). Classification of tree species in a diverse African agroforestry landscape using imaging spectroscopy and laser scanning. Remote Sensing, 9 (875), 1–20.

III Piiroinen, R., Fassnacht, F., Heiskanen, J., Maeda, E., Mack, B., Pellikka, P., (2018). Invasive tree species detection and mapping in the Eastern Arc Mountains biodiversity hotspot. Remote Sensing of Environment, 218, 119–131.

IV Landmann, T., Piiroinen, R., Makori, D.M., Abdel-Rahman, E.M., Makau, S., Pellikka, P., Raina, S.K., (2015). Application of hyperspectral remote sensing for flower mapping in African savannas. Remote Sensing of Environment, 166, 50–60.

Author contributions

I II III IV

Original idea RP, PP RP, JH, EM, PP, AV RP, FF, EM, JH TL, DM, SR

Study design RP, PP RP, JH RP, FF, JH, EM, BM TL, RP

Data collection RP, PP RP, AV, JH RP, JH RP, SM

Analysis RP, JH, MM RP, JH, EM RP, BM, FF, JH, EM TL, EA

Visualization RP RP RP, BM TLManuscript preparation RP, JH, PP RP, JH, EM, AV, PP RP, FF, JH, BM, EM, PP TL, RP, DM, EA, SM,

PP, SR

AV: Arto Viinikka EM: Eduardo Maeda PP: Petri Pellikka TL: Tobias Landmann

BM: Ben Mack FF: Fabian Fassnacht RP: Rami Piiroinen

DM: David Makori JH: Janne Heiskanen SM: Sospeter Makau

EA: Elfatih Abdel-Rahman MM: Matti Mõttus SR: Suresh Raina

9

Abbreviations

AGL Above ground levelAISA Airborne Imaging Spectrometer for ApplicationsAIS Airborne imaging spectroscopyALS Airborne laser scanningBSVM Biased support vector machineCHM Canopy height modelCVA Change vector analysisDEM Digital elevation modelDSM Digital surface modelDTM Digital terrain modelFWHM Full width at half maximumGNSS Global Navigation Satellite SystemIMU Inertial measurement unitIS Imaging spectroscopyLiDAR Light detection and rangingMNF Minimum noise fractionnDSM Normalized digital elevation modelOCC One-class classificationOOC Object-oriented classification OCSVM One-class support vector machineRF Random forestRS Remote sensingSVM Support vector machineSWIR Short-wavelength infraredUAV Unmanned aerial vehicleVNIR Visible and near-infrared

10


List of figures and tables

Figure 1. Study design and the interdisciplinary approach..............................................................................14Figure 2. Main data sources, important preprocessing steps and the main modeling techniques used in the studies presented in Article I-IV....................................................................................................................15Figure 3. a) Location of Kenya, b) location of Taita Hills and Mwingi, in Kenya, and typical landscape in c) Mwingi and d) Taita Hills study sites........................................................................................................16Figure 4. a) Acacia mearnsii tree in the Taita Hills (photo: Petri Pellikka), b) flowering tree in Mwingi, c) very dry maize in the lowlands of the Taita Hills, d) banana plant and e) Eucalyptuses in the Taita Hills.....18Figure 5. Cessna 208B Caravan I aircraft used in the campaign (left) and AISA Eagle sensor system and Nikon D3X sensors mounted on the bottom of the aircraft..............................................................................23Figure 6. Flowchart of the main preprocessing steps of the remote sensing data sources...........................25Figure 7. Example of the radiometrically corrected AISA Eagle data with spectra of a known mango tree in at-sensor spectral radiance values..................................................................................................................26Figure 8. Example spectra of a mango tree in at-sensor radiance values before atmospheric correction (left and the same target in at-ground reflectance values after the correction........................................................28Figure 9. Summary of important wavelength regions as identified by 13 studies making use of hyperspectral data and feature selection approaches................................................................................................................31Figure 10. a) End members used in Article IV (February 2013) for flowering plants, green vegetation and bare soil. b) The mean spectra of selected crops, tree species and other targets from Article I, c) Mean spectra of 10 most common tree species included in the classification in Article II and d) spectral mean and standard deviation for Persea Americana and Acacia mearnsii.................................................................32Figure 11. a) Pushbroom hyperspectral imagery (color infra-red) and ground truth map on a study site in Changzhou, China. b) AISA Eagle imagery (true color) and an example of field measurements from Taita Hills A dataset........................................................................................................................................................33Figure 12. Examples of a) crop classification from Article I, b) exotic tree species mapping from Article III and c) the flowering mapping results from Article IV...................................................................................36

Table 1. Three main categories of narrowband vegetation indices according to (Roberts et al., 2012).........19Table 2. The remote sensing data used in the thesis......................................................................................... 23Table 3. Technical details of the AISA Eagle sensor.........................................................................................23Table 4. Technical details of the Optech ALTM 3100 sensor..........................................................................24Table 5. Field data used in the thesis..................................................................................................................24Table 6. Software and the DEMs used to preprocess the AISA Eagle data...................................................26

11

1 Introduction

Human activities have altered 40–70% of the Earth’s surface area, replacing natural landscapes with human-affected land cover types such as croplands and built-up land (Sterling et al., 2013; Sterling & Ducharne, 2008; Luyssaert et al., 2014); 18–29% of land surface, for instance, has been converted for agricultural, infrastructural, and urban use, mainly through deforestation (Luyssaert et al., 2014). These land use and land cover changes (Foley et al., 2005) have impacted regional climates (Pielke et al., 2002; Kalnay & Cai, 2003), hydrological cycles (Postel et al., 1996; Vörösmarty et al., 2000), and surface runoff and river discharges (Sahin & Hall, 1996; Costa et al., 2003). Moreover, the loss, modification, and fragmentation of habitats, degradation of soil and water, and overexploitation of native species have led to a decline in biodiversity (Pimm & Raven, 2000). Meanwhile, global food production must double by 2050 to meet the global need for food (Rockström & Falkenmark, 2015; IAASTD, 2009).

Africa is at the epicenter of this change. Half of the anticipated global population growth between 2017 and 2050 is expected to occur in Africa (United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 2017), and a growing population increases pressure on natural environments. The dense tropical dry forests of Africa are experiencing high rates of forest loss, and the annual forest loss is increasing (Hansen et al., 2013). In eastern Africa, the rapid expansion of agricultural land—often at the cost of deforestation—has been observed over recent decades (Brink et al., 2014), while the region simultaneously experiences rapid urbanization (Cobbinah et al., 2015). One proposed solution to mitigate the negative impact of deforestation is agroforestry (Mbow et al., 2014; Luedeling

et al., 2014), a land use practice where annual and perennial plants (often woody perennials) are planted on agricultural or pasture land (Luedeling et al., 2014). According to Mbow et al., (2014), agroforestry must be viewed as a land use system that seeks to deliver sustainable improvements to food security through the integration of trees with other agricultural components in multifunctional landscapes. Agroforestry has gained a great deal of further attention in mitigating the impact of climate change, as trees also serve as carbon sinks (Negash & Kanninen, 2015). The productivity and environmental sustainability of an agroforestry system are dependent on the tree species planted on the cropland (Rodriguez-Suarez et al., 2011; Lott et al., 2003; Omoro & Nair, 1993).

Both regionally and globally, low- and medium-resolution satellite-based RS data are often used for the mapping of land use and land cover (e.g. Hansen et al., 2013; Chen et al., 2014). These sensors (e.g. Landsat OLI, Sentinel-2A) are well suitable for continuous monitoring of land cover on a large scale, as they produce global data at relatively short time intervals. In some instances, however, the spatial and spectral resolution of these sensor systems is not sufficient to map mixed land cover types accurately, especially when species-level information is needed. For instance, if a native forest is converted to a plantation forest, most of the species diversity is lost, but this change will not be visible in most global-scale land cover products (e.g. Hansen et al., 2013; Chen et al., 2014). This is an important aspect as, for instance, Pellikka et al., (2009) showed, using airborne remote sensing, that in the Taita Hills, Kenya (part of the Eastern Arc Mountains), the native forest cover decreased by 50% between

12


1955 and 2004, but the total forest cover area decreased only by 2% due to the establishment of exotic plantations. Although exotic tree plantations mitigate forest loss, they can have a negative impact on land and water resources (Chenje & Mohamed-Katerere, 2006), and some of the exotic tree species have turned invasive. In South Africa, for example, the adverse effects of Eucalyptus spp. and A. mearnsii are well understood (Nyoka 2003; Turpie et al., 2008) and these species are considered invasive (Henderson, 2001).

The Pellikka et al., (2009) study was conducted by detecting forest stands using manual interpretation of three-band RGB airborne images, a laborious and time-consuming technique. The state-of-the-art approach is to use high-resolution airborne imaging spectroscopy (AIS) and airborne laser scanning (ALS), which are common sources of RS data used in tree species classification and mapping (Fassnacht et al., 2016). The term “airborne” specifies that the data are collected from aircraft instead of a spaceborne platform or using field measurement devices. Imaging spectroscopy (IS) data are recorded at a continuous spectrum of light, often in the spectrum from 350 to 2500 nanometers (nm), with up to 500 contiguous bands of 5- to 10-nm intervals (Ustin et al., 2004). This high spectral resolution is desirable when landscapes with mixed communities and varying plant densities are mapped (Ustin et al., 2004). Airborne imaging spectroscopy data have been used in tree species mapping studies (Féret & Asner, 2011; Feret & Asner, 2013; Baldeck et al., 2015; Fassnacht et al., 2016), plant species diversity mapping (Schäfer et al., 2016; Baldeck & Asner, 2013), and various applications of plant biochemistry and physiology (Roberts et al., 2012), among others. Most tree species classification studies using RS data have been conducted in North America and Europe (Fassnacht et al., 2016). In

the tropics—where tree species diversity is often very high—tree species classification studies have been conducted in, for example, Central America (Baldeck et al., 2015; Graves et al., 2016; Clark et al., 2005) and Hawaii (Feret & Asner, 2013; Féret & Asner, 2011), while most African studies have been conducted in sub-tropical South Africa (Naidoo et al., 2012; Cho et al., 2012; Cho et al., 2010). The author of this study found no prior studies from eastern Africa, although this region is known for many natural sights with high ecological value (e.g. the Eastern Arc Mountains).

In agricultural studies, IS has been used to assess crop quality (Lelong et al., 1998; Mariotto et al., 2013), detect diseases (Calderón et al., 2013), and classify crops (Mariotto et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2016). In prior remote-sensing studies in tropical Kenya, the mapping of agricultural land was deemed challenging due to the mixed nature of the cropping systems (e.g. Clark & Pellikka, 2009). The use of AIS for mapping agricultural land in eastern Africa at high spatial resolution, however, has not been previously studied. Deforestation, land cover change, climate change, and changes in species composition also affect flowering cycles; for instance, in semi-arid Africa, the floral cycle and flowering intensity are highly variable spatially and temporally depending on the plant species as well as landform and local climate and edaphic conditions (Raina & Kimbu, 2005). In Africa, in situ observations of the floral cycle of key melliferous plants are often used to produce floral calendars for specific sites (Raina et al., 2011). Monitoring the floral cycle using RS-based technologies enables larger geographical coverage and more detailed information on changes in the flowering intensity; however, the author of this thesis found no preceding studies on mapping the flowering cycle in Africa using AIS. In general, the author could find only a

13

few studies conducted in Africa that utilize AIS, although Africa is perhaps the continent with the least-accurate land cover information available and is experiencing rapid land use and land cover changes. Thus, it is important to study to what extent AIS can contribute to detailed land cover mapping in tropical Africa and how it may contribute to conservation and sustainability efforts in the region.

The main objective of this thesis is to study AIS for mapping heterogeneous land cover in tropical Africa in support of conservation and sustainability efforts in the region. In the case studies, my focus was to explore to what extent different plant species and flowering patterns can be detected and mapped using high spatial and spectral resolution AIS data as the primary data source on study sites in the Taita Hills and Mwingi in Kenya. These overarching research questions are answered along with the following specific objectives:

1. To identify spectral wavelengths and structural features that are important for classification of crops, tree species, and the flowering cycle on the study sites;

2. To compare different classification approaches in the mapping of heterogeneous tropical African land cover;

3. To identify the key patterns in farming practices, the occurrence of invasive tree species, and flowering cycles based on the mapping results;

4. To evaluate the prospects of using imaging spectroscopy for operational mapping of crops, tree species, and flowering cycles in support of conservation and sustainability efforts in Africa.

These objectives were studied in four scientific

articles conducted on two study sites in Kenya:Article I studies a pixel-based supervised

classification approach for mapping common crops on a study site in the Taita Hills, Kenya. The pixel-based classification approach was selected to fully utilize the high spatial resolution imaging spectroscopy data.

Article II focuses on understanding the prospects and challenges of the mapping of tree species in the Taita Hills, Kenya using airborne imaging spectroscopy and laser scanning data. The performances of two supervised classification algorithms and different feature sets were compared and the tree species/groups of tree species that could be detected were identified. An object-based classification approach was used and the classification was performed at tree crown level.

Article III extends the results from Article II to the operational mapping of two selected exotic tree species (Eucalyptus spp. and Acacia mearnsii) in the Taita Hills, Kenya. These two species are considered invasive in some regions, but their occurrence is not well known in the Taita Hills. The classification was performed using the pixel-based one-class classification (OCC) approach (biased support vector machine) and the occurrence patterns of these species were mapped. The one class classification approach was used as it requires labeled training data only for the positive class (tree species of interest), which potentially saves a vast amount of fieldwork.

Article IV introduces a new technique for mapping short-term flowering cycles on a study site in Mwingi, Kenya. Imaging spectroscopy data was captured before the main flowering season and during the flowering season together with reference data of the flowering intensity. Linear spectral unmixing and change vector analysis was used to produce a short-term flowering cycle map.

14


2 Background

2.1 Positioning the research

Although the aims and themes of the original research articles are related to applying different classification and modeling approaches to mapping crops, tree species, and flowering cycles using IS and ALS, this study also contributes to conservation and sustainable development efforts in Africa. Detailed land cover maps are needed to understand the impact of humans on the landscape and to encourage political decision-making in support of conservation and sustainable development goals. The study

setting is interdisciplinary and I touch upon many branches of science including remote sensing, geographical information science, forest and agricultural sciences, machine learning, ecology, and sustainability sciences (Figure 1). The RS data and field measurements are the studies’ main data sources. Different machine learning techniques were then used to derive useful information from the RS data. The end products are land cover maps at the species level and a map of flowering abundance and the flowering cycle. I hope that these techniques will eventually support political decision-making and sustainable development through an enhanced capability to map cropping systems, tree species diversity, invasive tree species, and flowering cycles.

Figure 1. Study design and the interdisciplinary approach.

15

Figure 2 provides a summary of the main data sources, data processing steps, and modeling techniques. The raw RS data was preprocessed to mitigate systematic errors and atmospheric influences on the spectral signal and was converted into formats that would be easier to handle during the modeling phase. Field measurements were used to label targets (e.g. tree species, crop type, measured flowering intensity). Different modeling techniques (e.g. supervised support vector machine, biased support vector machine, random forest, linear unmixing) were used to model the studied phenomena. Next, the accuracy of the models was evaluated and finally, the generated models were applied over the full RS data sets to produce maps. The classification and mapping results were then assessed and discussed.

2.2 Geographical context

This thesis covers two study sites in Kenya (Figure 3). Three of the case studies (Articles I, II, and III) were conducted on a study site in the Taita Hills (3°25’ S, 38°20’ E) located in Taita-Taveta County; the fourth was conducted in Mwingi (0°56’ S, 38°03’ E) in Kitui County.

The Taita Hills were the main study site as well as the location of the Taita Research Station of the University of Helsinki. The Taita Hills rise from the Tsavo plains at 600–700 m and reach their highest point at Vuria Peak at 2208 m. As the location of the Taita Hills is isolated by the plains, the area has many endemic species and a high conservation value (Aerts et al., 2011; Burgess et al., 2007). The closest highland areas to the Taita Hills are the Sagala Hills (20 km to the east) and Mount Kasigau (50 km to the southeast). Mount Kilimanjaro, located in Tanzania, is 110 km to the west.

Figure 2. Main data sources, important preprocessing steps, and the main modeling techniques used in the studies presented in Articles I-IV.

Feature selection

Airborne hyperspectral Airborne laser scanningLocations of cropsand tree species Flowering intensity

Radiometric calibration

Data

pre

para

tion

Geo/orthorectification

Atmospheric correction

GNSS differentialcorrection

Data

Digital surface model

Mod

elin

g

Linear unmixing

One class classification Supervised classification

Point cloud featuresSpatial join

(RS and field data)

Change vector analysis

Interpretation of results

Feature reduction

Remote sensing data Field data

Digital terrain model

Canopy height model

Focal features

Tree crownsegmentation

Eval

uatio

n Cross-validation McNemar’s test Overall accuracy

KappaF-scorePrecision

(User’s accuracy)Recall

(Producer’s accuracy)

Visualization

16


Clark and Pellikka (2009) mapped the land cover change in the Taita Hills between 1987 and 2004. The results indicated a 10% loss in native forest cover, a 23.9% reduction in shrubland, and a 17.8% reduction in thicket. Agricultural expansion was identified as the main cause of forest conversion (Clark, 2010). Maeda, Clark,

et al., (2010) predicted that if the current trend in land cover change in the Taita Hills continues, agricultural land will occupy roughly 60% of the area by 2030, with the lowlands and foothills of the Taita Hills seeing the most agricultural expansion. This will increase spatial dependence on the distance to rivers and other bodies of water.

Figure 3. a) Location of Kenya, b) location of Taita Hills and Mwingi in Kenya, and typical landscapes in the c) Mwingi and d) Taita Hills study sites.

17

Maeda, Clark, et al., (2010) identified the distance to markets and roads as well as proximity to already established agricultural areas as the main driving factors of the agricultural expansion; they predicted that these land use changes will increase soil erosion, although most of the agricultural expansion will occur in the lowlands, where the potential for soil erosion is lower. Based on their study, rainfall erosivity is likely to increase during April and November, while a slight decrease tendency is observed during March and May. Increases in rainfall will have a significantly higher impact on soil erosion potential, particularly in the highlands. Based on these observations, the authors suggested that the highlands of the Taita Hills must be prioritized for soil conservation policies for the next 20 years. Pellikka et al., (2018) showed that land cover change caused a loss of carbon stock from 1987 to 2003; after 2003, however, carbon stocks have been increasing, especially on croplands due to intensified agroforestry practices. Whether or not the trees planted in these agroforestry systems are native, exotic, or even invasive does not play a role in carbon sequestration, but it does factor into biodiversity and ecosystem services.

The most common crop in the Taita Hills is maize (Figure 4c). Other crops include arrowroot, avocado, kale, banana (Figure 4d), beetroot, cauliflower, coconut, coffee, cotton, guava, hot pepper, lettuce, loquat, macadamia, onions, oranges, passionfruit, papaya, pumpkins, sweet pepper, Swiss chard, sugar cane, sunflowers, and tree tomatoes (Soini 2005). Farmers also plant various trees on their land to produce lumber, firewood, and fruits (Soini 2005). Thijs et al., (2015) showed that in the Taita Hills, 66.5% of tree species observed on croplands were exotic. The cloud forest tree species group and small-leaved indigenous group were significantly more present on wooded sites and homesteads (~42%) and less common on croplands. In the

study by Thijs et al., (2015), five of the most common tree species observed in the Taita Hills (based on field inventory) were the exotic species Acacia mearnsii (Figure 4a), Cupressus lusitanica, Eucalyptus saligna (Figure 4e), Grevillea robusta, and Persea Americana. This study was based on field sampling, which is an accurate but time-consuming technique and is sometimes impractical, especially in rugged terrain with poor road conditions.

As the landscape of the Taita Hills is typically a mix of cropland, trees, buildings, and bare soil without clear transitions between land use/land cover types, it is a challenging area for RS-based mapping that utilize medium and low-resolution RS data. Moreover, the high diversity of crops and tree species add additional challenges when the mapping is done at species level. Thus, using high spatial resolution AIS and ALS may have advantages in mapping this complex landscape.

Mwingi is a semi-arid area with two rainfall peaks in April and November. The average maximum temperature is 31°C and the minimum is 15°C. The main crops are maize (Zea mays) and sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), and additional income is generated from beekeeping. These main crops have their main flowering period in January (Nagarajan et al., 2007). The main flowering period for most of the other plants is from January to May (Raina & Kimbu, 2005), with a few plants flowering in December. The flowering is triggered by the relatively high rainfall amounts in November and December (Figure 4b). The main flowering tree species are Acacia spp., which bloom from February to April with a pronounced flowering peak in February. A better understanding of the flowering cycle and the changes in flowering intensity would be valuable for local beekeepers.

18


2.3 Background to imaging spectroscopy and laser scanning

According to Chen et al., (2016), RS is “the science and technology of capturing, processing and analysing imagery, in conjunction with

other physical data of the Earth and the planets, from sensors in space, in the air and on the ground.” In research literature, the terms “imaging spectroscopy,” “imaging spectrometry,” and “hyperspectral imaging” are often used interchangeably (Schaepman

Figure 4. a) Acacia mearnsii tree in the Taita Hills (photo: Petri Pellikka), b) flowering tree in Mwingi (photo: Tobias Landmann), c) very dry maize in the lowlands of the Taita Hills, d) banana plant, and e) Eucalyptuses in the Taita Hills (photo: Petri Pellikka).

19

et al., 2006). Schaepman et al., (2006) define imaging spectroscopy as “[the] simultaneous acquisition of spatially coregistered images, in many, spectrally contiguous bands, measured in calibrated radiance units, from a remotely operated platform.” In this thesis, AIS is distinguished from other remotely operated IS systems for the sake of clarity. The data produced by imaging spectrometers are referred to as “IS data,” although in research literature, the term “hyperspectral data” is often used interchangeably with “IS data” (Schaepman, 2009).

The spectral signal of different plants is impacted by both their structure and their biochemistry (Ustin et al., 2009). On plant leaf level, the plant pigments absorb light on the visible spectrum, which produces unique spectral reflectance signatures (Ustin et al., 2009; Kiang et al., 2007) (Figure 4a). For instance, chlorophyll a, when extracted in diethyl ether, has absorption maxima at 430 and 662 nm and chlorophyll b has peaks located at 453 and 642 nm (Ustin et al., 2009), whereas β-carotene extracted in hexane absorbs at 451 and 470 nm (Du et al., 1998). When the spectral measurements are collected from airborne or spaceborne platforms, the spectral signal (in addition to chemical traits and biophysical properties) of vegetation targets is also impacted by illumination; geometry of acquisition; background (soil, litter, understory vegetation); and atmospheric effects (Ferreira et al., 2018; Asner, 1998; Huesca et al., 2016).

A common approach to mapping vegetation properties using RS is to calculate vegetation indices (VIs) from the reflectance spectrum (Roberts et al., 2012). An additional set of indices, which can be acquired only using hyperspectral instruments (imaging spectrometers), are called narrowband (hyperspectral) vegetation indices (NVIs) (Roberts et al., 2012). Vegetation properties measured with NVIs can be divided into three main categories: 1) structure, 2) biochemistry, and 3) plant physiology/stress (Table 1). The biochemical and physiological stress indices are originally formulated mainly using laboratory or field instruments (> 10 nm spectral sampling); thus, they are predominately NVIs (Roberts et al., 2012).

Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) is a technology that produces distance measurements based on the return time of emitted light by the sensor (Vauhkonen et al., 2014; Næsset et al., 2004). The term “airborne laser” is used to distinguish between systems that acquire LiDAR data from aircraft and systems using spaceborne or terrestrial platforms (Vauhkonen et al., 2014). Acquiring LiDAR data with airborne lasers equipped with a scanning device that distributes the emitted light across a wide corridor along the aircraft’s flight is known as airborne laser scanning (ALS).

Airborne laser scanning data is typically delivered as point clouds that provide information on the position of each reflected and registered

Table 1. Three main categories of NVIs according to Roberts et al., (2012).

Structure Biochemistry Plant physiology/stress

Fraction cover, green leaf biomass, leaf area index (LAI),

senesced biomass, fraction absorbed photosynthetically

active radiation (FPAR).

Water, pigments (chlorophyll, carotenoids, anthocyanins), other

nitrogen-rich compounds (e.g. proteins and plant structural

materials [lignin and cellulose]).

Stress-induced change in the state of xanthophylls,

changes in chlorophyll content, fluorescence, changes in leaf

moisture.

20


echo (Koch et al., 2014). These data are often processed into rasterized data products that include averaged or classified information, although some information is lost in the process (Koch et al., 2014). For instance, digital surface models (DSMs) depict the highest points of the surface (e.g. top of the canopy), digital terrain models (DTMs) depict the bare ground elevations, and normalized DSMs (nDSMs) are obtained as the difference between DSMs and DTMs (Koch et al., 2014; Hyyppä et al., 2008). nDSM is also referred to as the canopy height model (CHM) when it is used to depict only tree heights (Hyyppä et al., 2008).

2.4 Image processing and classification algorithms

The RS community has adopted different machine learning techniques to extract useful information from the vast amounts of data generated by the sensors (Lary et al., 2016). Machine learning, a subdivision of artificial intelligence, is an effective empirical approach for regression and classification problems (Lary et al., 2016). In supervised classification training, data is needed for all of the classes that are present in the dataset (Mack et al., 2014). Common supervised classification algorithms used in RS-based tree species and land cover mapping studies include the support vector machine (SVM) (Vapnik 1998; Mountrakis et al., 2011) and the random forest (RF) (Breiman 2001; Belgiu & Drăguţ 2016). By contrast, OCC algorithms need labeled training data only for the class of interest (Mack et al., 2014). One-class classification algorithms that are often used in RS studies (Mack & Waske 2017) include the one-class support vector machine (OCSVM) (Scholkopf et al., 1999), the biased support vector machine (BSVM) (Liu et al., 2003), and

Maxent (Phillips et al., 2006). The one-class support vector machine uses only positive data as an input when the classifier is trained, while BSVM uses positive and unlabeled samples (random samples of all pixels or objects).

Although IS data is especially useful when mapping landscapes with mixed communities and varying plant densities (Ustin et al., 2004) or in the mapping of plant physiology, stress, and biochemistry (Roberts et al., 2012), the high number of correlated spectral bands can cause a phenomenon called the “curse of dimensionality” (Dalponte et al., 2013) or Hughes phenomenon (Hughes, 1968). The curse of dimensionality occurs in RS studies when a large number of predictors are extracted from the IS and ALS datasets (Fassnacht et al., 2016). Melgani and Bruzzone (2004) listed four main approaches for overcoming this methodological issue: 1) regularization of the sample covariance matrix; 2) adaptive statistics estimation through the exploitation of the classified samples; 3) preprocessing techniques based on feature selection/extraction, and 4) analysis of the spectral signatures to model the classes. In tree species classification studies using RS data, for instance, feature reduction algorithms (which include feature selection and feature extraction) are used most often (Fassnacht et al., 2016). Feature selection algorithms select a subset of the original predictor variables (features) most relevant for the classification task. Feature extraction algorithms, on the other hand, summarize information from many predictors into a new set of predictors. As feature extraction methods are usually not sensitive to what is relevant information for the particular classification task, the new transformed predictors with low information content are often removed from further analysis.

21

2.5 Modeling plant species and the flowering cycle using RS data

Imaging spectroscopy has many viable use cases in agricultural studies, including crop classification (Galvão et al., 2012; Zhang et al., 2016; Mariotto et al., 2013), detecting diseases (Dhau et al., 2018), assessing crop nitrogen content (Li et al., 2012), and various precision agriculture applications (Yao et al., 2012). In a recent study, for example, Dhau et al., (2018) used field spectrometry to detect maize streak geminivirus (MSV) in South Africa. They concluded that remotely sensed data (e.g. AIS) could offer a fast, accurate, and effective approach for monitoring and forecasting agricultural crop disease epidemics such as MSV, which have a severe impact on African food production. In rural Africa, the agricultural systems can be diverse mixes of different crops, trees, and other plant species, which is in contrast to many developed countries where agricultural land is often strictly separated from other land use and land cover classes. Thus, on many African sites, classification and mapping of the crops of interest are first needed prior to studying plant health using RS-based IS.

Tropical regions may have a high diversity of tree species even in a small area (Graves et al., 2016; Feret & Asner 2013; Schäfer et al., 2016); they are therefore especially challenging environments for tree species classification and mapping, and IS sensors are often used as a primary data source because they are capable of detecting subtle variations in the spectral response of tree species (Ferreira et al., 2018). Mapping tree species richness is possible when the spectral signatures of the plants differ more among species than within species (Asner et al., 2008; Cochrane 2000; Clark et al., 2005). Asner and Martin (2009) found that tropical forest tree

species often have unique chemical fingerprints and spectral signatures, and noted that chemical and spectral diversity should increase with taxonomic diversity. Feret and Asner (2013) showed that as species diversity grows, it is increasingly more challenging to differentiate the species based on their spectral characteristics; they concluded that high classification accuracy should not be expected when more than 30 species are discriminated at a time. Another important factor that affects the classification accuracy is the amount of available training data. Alonzo et al., (2013), for instance, showed how classification accuracy decreases as the number of trees in the training data was decreased on a dataset with 22 different tree species. Instead of trying to classify individual tree species using a supervised classification approach, Schäfer et al., (2016) used unsupervised learning to map the alpha diversity of a native forest fragment in the Taita Hills.

Feret and Asner (2013) compared pixel-based mapping, tree crown level mapping, and majority rule mapping for tree species classification. In tree crown level mapping, the tree crowns are delineated automatically from, for instance, the ALS point cloud or CHM (Koch et al., 2014). Individual tree crowns (ITC) can also be segmented from optical imagery or from a point cloud generated using optical imagery. In tropical forests, the canopy structure is often complex, which makes automatic tree crown segmentation challenging (Feret & Asner, 2013), while individual trees outside of forests are easier to detect even in the tropics (Graves et al., 2016). In majority-class rule, the classification is performed at pixel level, but the results are aggregated to tree crown level (the most frequent class determines the class for the whole crown). Feret and Asner (2013) concluded that the majority-class rule using only sunlit pixels gives the best classification accuracy at

22


the tree crown scale. Clark and Roberts (2012) compared classification accuracy at leaf, bark, pixel, and crown-level and achieved overall accuracies of 86.8% for leaves and 74.2% for bark, respectively, for tissue spectra measured in the laboratory. When the same classification was performed using AIS data, overall accuracies for ITCs were 71.5% for pixel spectra and 70.6% for crown-mean spectra. Using object-based, majority-class rule achieved 87.4% overall accuracy (Clark & Roberts, 2012). Although the object-based classification of tree species in the tropics has performed well in previous studies, successful results have also been achieved using pixel-based mapping approaches (e.g. Baldeck et al., 2015).

According to Clark and Roberts (2012), tree structure and phenology at the time of image acquisition are important factors that determine species spectral separability. Furthermore, Asner et al., (2008) reported subtle but significant differences in the spectral properties of highly invasive tree species in comparison to introduced species that did not proliferate across Hawaiian ecosystems. Invasive species also exhibit distinct floral cycles, which enhances their spectral differentiation at certain periods within the phenological cycle (Lawrence et al., 2006; Parker, Williams, & Hunt, 2002). Thus, the same changes in the spectral characteristics of flowering plants in different flowering stages also affect the classification accuracy of these species—for instance, in a study by Baldeck et al., (2015), only non-flowering crowns were considered during classification. Another study by Sánchez-Azofeifa et al., (2011) specifically targeted the flowering crowns of H. guayacan species using an automatic approach combining spectral angle mapping and one-class SVM. Although this subject has already been studied in extent, there are major knowledge gaps in

understanding the prospect of this technology in the mapping of invasive tree species and the flowering cycle in Africa.

3 Data

3.1 RS dataThe RS data were collected in four flight

campaigns (Table 2). The Airborne Imaging Spectrometer for Applications (AISA) Eagle imaging spectrometer (Spectral Imaging Ltd.; Oulu, Finland) of the University of Helsinki was used to collect IS data during all RS data acquisition campaigns. For the campaign organized in the Taita Hills in 2013, the oscillating mirror laser scanner Optech ALTM 3100 (Teledyne Optech; Vaughan, Ontario, Canada) was used to collect ALS data simultaneously with AISA Eagle. During the RS data acquisition campaigns, the sensors were attached in a small aircraft (Figure 5) and operated at a targeted elevation of 750–860 meters above ground level (AGL).

AISA Eagle is a pushbroom-type imaging spectrometer developed by Spectral Imaging (Specim) Ltd., in Oulu, Finland. During the RS data acquisition campaign in the Taita Hills in 2012, the sensor was mounted at the bottom of a Cessna 208B Caravan I aircraft (Figure 5). The used Cessna was modified for aerial surveying and had an opening in the bottom for the sensor system. For the campaigns in the Taita Hills in 2013 and in Mwingi, the basic setup was similar, but different aircraft were used. During the campaign in the Taita Hills in 2013, an Optech LiDAR system was mounted next to the AISA Eagle sensor system.

23

The main specifications for the AISA Eagle sensor system are given in Table 3. The raw data from the AISA Eagle sensor were stored as a 12-bit binary stream in ENVI BIL (Band Interleaved by Line) format. Each recorded line consists of 1024 pixels across the flight path at a maximum of 488 spectral bands; however, spectral binning can be used to reduce the number of bands and enhance the signal-to-noise ratio. During the data acquisition campaigns of this thesis, the sensor was operated in 4x and 8x spectral binning mode, resulting in 129 and 64 bands, respectively.

Figure 5. Cessna 208B Caravan I aircraft used in the Taita Hills 2012 data acquisition campaign (left) and AISA Eagle sensor system and Nikon D3X sensors mounted on the bottom of the aircraft. Photographs by Tuure Takala and Pekka Hurskainen.

Table 3. Technical details of the AISA Eagle sensor.

Dataset Sensors Altitude (m)*

Pixel size (m)**

Spectral bands Articles Date

Taita Hills 2012 AIS 750 0.5 64 I 20–22 January 2012

Taita Hills 2013 AIS and ALS 750 1*** 129 II & III 3–8 February 2013

Mwingi 2013**** AIS 860 0.6 64 IV 14 February 2013

Mwingi 2014**** AIS 860 0.6 64 IV 11 January 2014

* The maximum AGL elevation used in flight planning

** The pixel size for AISA Eagle after orthorectification

*** 2x spatial binning was used, doubling pixel size

**** The flight campaign planned and AISA Eagle sensor operated by Rami Piiroinen

Parameter Value

Numerical aperture F/2.4

Spectral range 400–1000 nm

FWHM 3.3 nm (max)

Spectral binning options 1, 2, 4, 8

Spectral sampling rate (bin 8) 8.64–9.55 nm

Number of bands 64–488

Field of view 37.7° (with FODIS)

Spatial pixels 1024 (total)

Radiometric resolution 12 bits

Frame rate, up to (frames/s) 30–160 (bin 1–8)

Table 2. The RS data used in the thesis.

24


The ALS data were captured with Optech ALTM 3100 (Teledyne Optech; Vaughan, Ontario, Canada) and delivered as a georeferenced point cloud by the data vendor (Topscan Gmbh; Rheine, Germany). Optech ALTM 3100 is an oscillating mirror laser scanner capable of recording up to four echoes (returns) from one pulse (Table 4).

3.2 Field dataThe field data consists of seven datasets

collected in years 2012–2015 (Table 5). The datasets Taita Hills A, B, and D are locations of different crops, tree species, and other plant species. The locations of the plant species were used during the training and validation of the classification models. The dataset Taita Hills C consists of circular 0.1 ha-sized plots. For these, the species were recorded, but their exact positions were not. This dataset was used only for checking false positives inside closed native forests in Article III. The datasets Mwingi A and B consist of locations of different plants for which flowering activity was recorded.

The Taita Hills A dataset was collected by manually delineating the different classes of interest over Nikon D3X digital camera images. These images were later digitized using ArcMap 10.1 (ESRI; Redlands, CA, USA). For the Taita Hills B, C and D field datasets, the GeoXH 6000 Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) receiver was used to position the field measurements. To enable differential correction of the data, Trimble Pro 6H (Trimble, Inc.; Sunnyvale, CA, USA) GNSS base station was logging in a known position during the field measurements.

Table 4. Technical details of the Optech ALTM 3100 sensor and parameters of the ALS dataset.

Table 5. Field data used in the thesis.

Parameter Value

Pulse rate (kHz) 100

Scan rate (Hz) 36

Scan angle (◦) ±16

Mean pulse density (pulses m-2) 9.6

Beam divergence at 1/e2 (mrad) 0.3

Mean footprint diameter (cm) 23

Dataset Measurements Articles Date

Taita Hills A* Crops and tree species I January 2012

Taita Hills B** Tree species II, III January–February 2013

Taita Hills C** Forest plots III January–February 2013 January–February 2014

Taita Hills D* Tree species II, III October 2015

Mwingi A*** Flowering data IV February 2013

Mwingi B *** Flowering data IV January 2014

* Author personally planned and executed the field campaign together with other participants

** Participated in collecting the data

*** Collected by other participants

25

4 Methods

In the following sections, I describe the main methodological steps used in processing, modeling and analyzing of the datasets. The preprocessing of AISA Eagle data is described in detail first. The used classification and modeling techniques are noted only briefly, as they are described in detail in Articles I–IV. The general workflow of preprocessing the AIS and ALS data is described in Figure 6, and the software and digital elevation models (DEMs) used during preprocessing are described in Table 6. The AISA Eagle data were first radiometrically calibrated to reduce sensor-related sources of error. The data were then geo- and orthorectified, during which different DEMs were used to mitigate the effects of image perspective (tilt) and relief (terrain) in

order to generate planimetrically correct images. Next, an atmospheric correction was applied. As the initial geo- and orthorectification results were not satisfactory in Articles II, III, and IV, an additional georectification was conducted using control points. In Articles II and III, the high precision of georectification was crucial, as the IS and ALS data were coregistered and features derived from both datasets were used during the modeling phase. In Article IV, accurate coregistration of the images was needed, as the changes between the two data sets (preflowering and peak flowering) were studied at the pixel level. In Article I, only AIS data was used and small georectification errors were acceptable, as data from only one period of time were used and the field measurements were located manually on top of the AIS data.

Figure 6. Flowchart of the main preprocessing steps of the RS data sources.

Radiometric calibration

Geo/orthorectification

Atmospheric correction

Digital surfacemodel

Digital terrain model

Canopy height model

AISA Eaglehyperspectral data

(Articles I-IV)

Optech ALTM 3100 laser scanning data

(Articles II & III)

Manual cleaning of outliers

Point cloud(preprocessed by the

data vendor)

DEM interpolated from50 feet contour lines

(Article I)

SRTM DEM(Article IV)

Additionalgeoreferencing using

control points(Articles II, III & IV)

WorldView-2 image(Article IV)

preprocessed hyperspectral data, georeferenced point cloud, canopy height model

Modeling

26


4.1 Radiometric calibration of the AISA Eagle dataThe CaliGeo and CaliGeoPro programs (Spectral Imaging, Ltd; Oulu, Finland) were used for the radiometric calibration of the AISA Eagle data sets. In the radiometric calibration process of the AISA

Eagle data, laboratory measurements (sensor calibration) and dark current measurements were used to reduce sensor-related sources of error and noise. Dark current was measured after each flight line by closing the shutter while the sensor continued recording, which allowed the sensor’s

Figure 7. Example of the radiometrically corrected AISA Eagle data with spectra of a known mango tree in at-sensor spectral radiance values.

Dataset Radiometric calibration Reference plane Geo- and

orthorectificationAtmospheric

correction

Taita Hills 2012 CaliGeo DEM interpolated from 50-

foot interval contour lines* Parge ATCOR-4

Taita Hills 2013 CaliGeo ALS-derived DSM CaliGeoPro ATCOR-4

Mwingi 2013 CaliGeoPro SRTM DEM with

90 m resolution CaliGeoPro ATCOR-4

Mwingi 2014 CaliGeoPro SRTM DEM with

90 m resolution CaliGeoPro ATCOR-4

* The contour lines were captured from Kenya topographic maps at 1:50,000 scale by Pellikka et al., (2005).

Table 6. Software and the DEMs used to preprocess the AISA Eagle data.

27

detector to record only the signal generated by the sensor itself. The average of these values on each spectral band was reduced from the raw image on the corresponding band, and the 12-bit digital number values were converted to at-sensor spectral radiances. An example of the AISA Eagle data after radiometric calibration and before georeferencing is shown in Figure 7.

4.2 Geometric correction of the AISA Eagle dataParge software (Schläpfer, 2011) was used for the geo- and orthorectification of the AISA Eagle data for the Taita 2012 dataset and CaliGeoPro for the other AISA Eagle datasets. Direct geo- and orthoreferencing was used, wherein pixel positions are calculated from the position and orientation of the sensor and georeferenced on a coordinate plane with elevation values derived from a DEM. The DEM is needed to alleviate the effects of image perspective (tilt) and relief (terrain) effects to create a planimetrically correct image. Boresight calibration was needed to correct the difference between the orientations of the Oxford RT3100 GNSS/Inertial measurement unit (IMU) system and the AISA Eagle sensor. The CaliGeo (Taita 2012 dataset) and CaliGeoPro (Taita 2013 and Mwingi datasets) programs were used to calculate the boresight parameters from three overlapping AISA Eagle images for the data sets. Three overlapping AISA Eagle images were used instead of an existing reference image because a high-quality reference image was not available for the study sites.

For the Taita Hills 2012 data, the used DEM was interpolated from 50-foot interval contour lines; the details of producing this DEM are described in an earlier study conducted in the same study area (Pellikka et al., 2005). For the Mwingi datasets, the DEM was derived from global C-band shuttle radar topographic mission

(SRTM) DEM with 90 m pixel resolution, which was interpolated to match the target resolution of 0.6 m (Rabus et al., 2003). For the Taita Hills 2013 dataset, available ALS data was used to generate a DSM that was used as a reference plane. As the initial georectification was not satisfactory for the Taita 2013 and Mwingi datasets, an additional georectification was applied using control points. As a final step, the geo- and orthorectified scanning lines were mosaicked together using nearest-neighbor resampling.

4.3 Atmospheric correction of the AISA Eagle dataATCOR-4 (Richter & Schläpfer, 2002) was used for atmospheric correction of the geo- and orthorectified AISA Eagle imagery. ATCOR-4 is a physically-based atmospheric correction program for airborne and spaceborne imagery. It uses MODTRAN (moderate resolution atmospheric transmission) code as the basis of the radiative transfer calculations. The correction was performed in flat ground mode, in which ATCOR-4 assumes that the target surface has Lambertian reflectance properties. The sensor model was created in ATCOR-4 from an unrectified AISA Eagle image. The model was configured to have a field of view of 34.58 degrees, 969 across-track pixels, and a radiance scaling factor of 1000. The sensor has a total of 1024 pixels per sensor row, but 55 of these were reserved for the Fiber Optic Downwelling Irradiance Sensor (FODIS) measurement unit (Homolova et al., 2009), which was not used in this study and thus these pixels were omitted from further analysis.

Next, the atmospheric correction workflow is described briefly for the Taita 2012 dataset. When AISA Eagle was operated in the 8x spectral binning mode, the sensor response type was set

28


to the recommended fourth-order butterworth with close to rectangular frequency response type. The flight altitude for each flight line was set as the average of the elevation values stored in the navigation files produced by the GNSS/IMU system. Solar zenith and azimuth angles were calculated for each flight line with ATCOR-4 solar calculator. Flight heading and altitude for each flight line were calculated as the averages of the values stored in navigation files. Scene elevations were calculated as the averages of the DEMs that were cut down to cover individual flight lines. These were the preliminary input values for the ATCOR-4.

ATCOR-4 corrects water vapor absorption by comparing the absorption regions of 823.3–833.9 nm (bands 46 and 47) to the adjacent non-absorbing regions of 795.2 and 842.9 nm (bands 43 and 48). Aerosol optical thickness was corrected by calculating visibility index based on dark dense vegetation (DDV) reference pixels that were collected from each image. DDV pixels are vegetation targets that have high reflectance in NIR region and strong absorption in red

region. DDV pixels are used with MODTRAN code to calculate the visibility index. Examples of the corrected spectra can be seen in Figure 8.

4.4 ALS-derived data products and digital elevation modelsThe georeferenced ALS point cloud delivered by the data vendor was further processed with TerraScan software (Terrasolid, Ltd.; Helsinki, Finland) to remove any buildings, power lines, and erroneous measurements from steep slopes. Next, different rasterized data products were derived from the point cloud data that were used during the geo/orthorectification of the AISA Eagle data in Articles II and III and for calculating input features used in the classification model in Article III. In Article II, the CHM was created with LAStools software (version 170201, rapidlasso Gmbh; Gilching, Germany) using a pit-free method (Khosravipour et al., 2014). This CHM was also used when the tree crowns were segmented in Article II. In Article III, focal features calculated from the CHM were used as predictors in the tree species classification model.

Figure 8. Example spectra of a mango tree in at-sensor spectral radiance values before atmospheric correction (left) and the same target in at-ground reflectance values after the correction.

29

4.5 Classification and modeling techniquesIn this section, I provide a summary of the used modeling and classification techniques. The methods are described in detail in Articles I–IV. In Article I, supervised SVM classification algorithm with radial basis function (RBF) kernel was used to perform pixel-level classification of common agricultural crops (and other targets). In Article II, the performances of SVM and RF classifiers were compared in tree species classification at the tree crown level. In Article III, the OCC algorithm BSVM was used to detect potentially invasive and harmful tree species (A. mearnsii and Eucalyptus spp.). Feature extraction (dimensionality reduction) algorithm minimum noise fraction (MNF) transformation (Green et al., 1988) was used in Articles I, II, and III to remove band-to-band correlations, reduce noise, and pack the coherent information into a smaller subset of features. R package VSURF (variable selection using random forests) was used in Article II to perform feature selection.

In Article IV, a new technique for mapping flowering intensity and short-term flowering cycle AIS was introduced. First, a subset of the field data was used to extract representative spectral endmembers for green vegetation, flowering vegetation, and bare soil. Unconstrained linear spectral unmixing (Yang et al., 2010) was used to map the abundance of each endmember per pixel. The end result was endmember abundance maps where the abundance of the flowering endmember depicts the flowering intensity. In the next step, change vector analysis (CVA) (Chen et al., 2003) was applied to detect the changes in flowering from January to February.

30


selection algorithm did select bands centered at 632 and 674 nm in Article II, but they were the least important of the selected features. Wavelength regions between 800–1000 nm were not important for tree species discrimination in the Taita Hills, which also was the case in three out of four studies in the Fassnacht et al., (2016) review that had only VNIR data available (Figure 9).

Figure 10a shows the spectral separability between the green vegetation (chlorophyll active vegetation) and the flowering plants in the 500 nm to 680 nm spectral region (Article IV). Narrowband vegetation indices’ chlorophyll absorption in reflectance index (CARI) and modified CARI (MCARI) that are known to correlate with chlorophyll activity use spectral wavelengths from the same spectral region (Roberts et al., 2012). As seen in Figure 10b, the mean spectra of maize differed clearly from typical green vegetation spectra on the Taita Hills study site, and the chlorophyll absorption valley (around 650 nm) is missing completely. The reason for this was that most of the maize found on the study site was very dry and likely exhibited little or no photosynthetic activity. Figure 10c highlights the similarities between the mean spectra of most of the tree species in the study area, which made the classification task challenging. Figure 10d shows that the within-species spectral variability is high in the NIR region at 750–1000 nm. This spectral region is useful, for instance, in estimating biomass, leaf area index, and water content (Roberts et al., 2012; Thenkabail et al., 2012) and was found to be important for tree species discrimination only in a few previous studies (Fassnacht et al., 2016).

In terms of separating different plant species using hyperspectral data, previous research has suggested that applying MNF transformation on the reflectance data before classification

5 Results and discussion

In the four articles of this thesis, different use cases for imaging spectroscopy (IS) were studied for mapping heterogeneous tropical African land cover. The airborne laser scanning (ALS) data were used as an auxiliary dataset when they were available in Articles II and III. In this chapter, these results are discussed in detail.

5.1 Spectral characteristics and important features for mapping common agricultural crops, exotic tree species, and flowering plants

Before this study, there was no existing information on the important wavelengths that separate common tree species in Kenya. Most studies where important wavelengths have been identified were conducted in temperate and boreal regions and in tropical Central America (e.g. Fassnacht et al., 2016). In a review made by Fassnacht et al., (2016) the spectral regions near 450, 500, 550, 650, 700, 1150, 1200, 1450, and 2000 nm were most commonly observed important wavelength areas in tree species mapping studies (Figure 9). Five of these spectral regions are in the visible and near-infrared (VNIR) spectral range and four are in the short-wavelength infrared (SWIR) spectral range. Most commercially available IS systems operate in the VNIR, SWIR, or VNIR+SWIR ranges. AISA Eagle operates in VNIR and has a spectral range of 400–1000 nm, which excludes the important SWIR wavelengths. The most important wavelength regions for mapping tree species in the Taita Hills were 400–450 nm, 550–570 nm, and 700–800 nm (Article II and Figure 9), while the most commonly observed important spectral region in the review by Fassnacht et al., (2016) was at 650 nm. The VSURF feature

31

Figu

re 9

. Sum

mar

y of

impo

rtant

wav

elen

gth

regi

ons

as id

entifi

ed b

y 13

stu

dies

mak

ing

use

of h

yper

spec

tral d

ata

and

feat

ure

sele

ctio

n ap

proa

ches

. Cov

ered

= n

umbe

r of s

tudi

es th

at

cove

red

the

wave

leng

th re

gion

; per

c. s

el. =

num

ber (

perc

enta

ge) o

f stu

dies

that

sel

ecte

d th

e wa

vele

ngth

regi

on a

s be

ing

rele

vant

for t

ree

spec

ies

class

ificat

ion.

Mod

ified

from

F. E

. Fa

ssna

cht,

H. L

atifi,

K. S

tere

ncza

k, A

. Mod

zele

wska

, M. L

efsk

y, L.

T. W

aser

, C. S

traub

, and

A. G

hosh

, “Re

view

of s

tudi

es o

n tre

e sp

ecie

s cla

ssific

atio

n fro

m re

mot

ely

sens

ed d

ata,

” Re

mot

e Se

ns. E

nviro

n., v

ol. 1

86, p

p. 6

4–87

, 201

6.

nmnmnmnmnmnmnmnmnmnmnmnmnmnmnmnmnmnmnmnmnmnmnmnmnmnmnmnmnmnmnmnmnmnmnmnmnmnmnmnmnmnmnmnm

Firs

t au

thor

Yea

r3504004505005506006507007508008509009501000105011001150120012501300135014001450150015501600165017001750180018501900195020002050210021502200225023002350240024502500

Alo

nzo

2013

Cho

2010

Dal

pont

e20

13

Dat

t20

00

Fass

nach

t20

14

Geor

ge20

14

Pape

s20

10

Peer

bhay

2013

Shan

g20

13

vanA

ardt

2007

Alo

nzo

2014

Dal

pont

e20

12

Nai

doo

2012

Piiro

inen

2017

1113

1313

1313

1313

1313

1313

1211

1110

99

99

99

99

99

99

88

88

88

88

88

88

88

85

25

77

74

127

43

34

42

14

57

32

10

51

31

24

12

02

14

21

32

21

21

00

1838

5454

5431

9254

3123

2331

3318

940

5678

3322

110

5611

3311

2244

1325

025

1350

2513

3825

2513

2513

00

Sele

cted

in m

ore

than

50%

of t

he c

onsid

ered

stud

ies

Thi

s stu

dy

cove

red

sele

cted

perc

enta

ge se

l.

VIS

NIR

SWIR

Sele

cted

feat

ures

Spec

tral

rang

e of

sens

or in

stud

y

32


improves classification accuracy (Fassnacht et al., 2016; Ghosh et al., 2014). Our results are in line with this observation, as using a subset of MNF-transformed reflectance bands produced higher classification accuracies than reflectance bands or NVIs in the classification of tree species on the Taita Hills study site (Article II). The feature selection used in Article II had only a minor impact on the classification results for all of the tested different feature sets for both SVM and RF classifiers. Including ALS point cloud features enhanced classification accuracy in some instances (with statistical significance), but when the point cloud features were used together with MNF data and the SVM classifier, the increase was not statistically significant. Only a limited number of different point cloud features was

tested, however, and full waveform ALS data, which could have yielded a larger increase in classification accuracy, was not available (Hovi et al., 2016). Furthermore, ALS data were needed for the automatic delineation of ITCs in Article II and for masking non-tree pixels in Article III, so the ALS data played an important role in the overall mapping frameworks.

5.2 Classification of crops and tree species and modeling of the flowering cycle in tropical AfricaIn Article I, high classification accuracies were achieved for the most common crops on the study site (maize and sugarcane) using a pixel-based, supervised SVM classification approach and MNF-transformed reflectance

Figure 10. a) End members used in Article IV (February 2013) for flowering plants, green vegetation, and bare soil; b) the mean spectra of selected crops, tree species, and other targets from Article I; c) mean spectra of the 10 most common tree species included in the classification in Article II, and d) spectral mean and standard deviation for Persea Americana and Acacia mearnsii.

33

data. The limitation of this result is that only seven classes were considered due to limited field data and the background class (all other species) could not be appropriately excluded from the analysis. The results are nevertheless promising, and this approach has potential for the mapping of crops planted by farmers on their fields in rural Africa. An alternative to the pixel-based approach for crop classification is to use object-oriented classification (OOC) (Zhang et al., 2016). The challenge of using OOC when mapping a heterogeneous agroecological mosaic like the Taita Hills is that there are often no clear boundaries between agricultural land and other

land use/land cover types. Even during the field data acquisition campaigns of this thesis, it was challenging to assess where the transition from agriculture (agroforestry) to, for instance, the woodland class occurred. This difference is highlighted in Figure 11, where the ground truth map used in an OOC crop classification study in China is compared with the field measurements used in Article I. The heterogeneous nature of the agricultural land in the Taita Hills affected our choice to use a pixel-based classification approach, but as very promising results have been achieved with the OOC approach, this technique should also be tested in the Taita Hills

Figure 11. a) Pushbroom hyperspectral imagery (color infra-red) and ground truth map on a study site in Changzhou, China (with permission from Professor Xia Zhang); b) AISA Eagle imagery (true color) and an example of field measurements from the Taita Hills A dataset.

34


in future studies. When all of the tree species with more than

three samples (n = 31) were classified as their own classes in Article II, the overall accuracy was low (57.1%); high classification accuracy was not anticipated, however, since an earlier study by Feret and Asner (2013) concluded that high classification accuracy should not be expected when more than 30 canopy species are discriminated at a time. Furthermore, although two field data acquisition campaigns were organized and a total of 950 tree individuals were positioned in the field, many of the tree species did not have enough field observations available for training a robust classification model. If the interest is in mapping tree species diversity without the need to label each pixel or tree object into a predefined class, an alternative approach is to use unsupervised learning techniques—these are particularly viable options in systems with high species diversity (e.g. Schäfer et al., 2016). Moreover, as AISA Eagle operates only in the VNIR spectral region, using an IS sensor that operates in VNIR+SWIR may yield better classification results (Fassnacht et al., 2016).

As the classification accuracy was low when each species was classified separately, Jeffreys-Matusita distance was used to group tree species that shared similar spectral characteristics in Article II; for instance, a group of fruit-bearing tree species was identified that could be classified with moderate accuracy. In addition, many exotic tree species were classified with higher accuracies than the native tree species. Some of these exotic tree species are also considered invasive (e.g. A. mearnsii and Eucalyptus spp.) (Henderson, 2001). Similarly, Asner et al., (2008) reported subtle but significant differences in the spectral properties of highly invasive tree species in comparison to introduced species across a study site in Hawaii. Some invasive plant species also exhibit distinct floral cycles that enhance

their spectral differentiation at certain periods of their phenological cycles (Lawrence et al., 2006; Parker, Williams, & Hunt, 2002). In our study, these species were also among the most common outside the closed forests, and better detection rates for these species can be partially explained by the higher number of available training samples.

A common problem when using high spatial resolution data is that when the pixels are used directly, pixels from the same object (e.g. an individual tree) may be classified into multiple classes. Ghosh et al., (2014) even achieved slightly higher classification accuracy in a tree species classification study with eight-meter spatial resolution IS data than with four-meter resolution data. In their study, however, only five tree species were considered and the same tree species were found adjacent to one another. In Article II, an object-based tree species classification approach was used, and each segmented crown was classified using a majority-class rule approach (Feret & Asner, 2013). Although this approach worked well for Eucalyptus spp., A. mearnsii, and Grevillea robusta (all exotic tree species), the challenge was to find an ITC segmentation algorithm that works simultaneously in dense tropical cloud forests, agroforestry areas, and woodlands. Different ITC segmentation algorithms have been compared on a study site in Finland, for example, where the majority of trees belonged to only three species (Kaartinen et al., 2012), but we could not find a similar study of a tropical agroecological mosaic with high species diversity and varying canopy structure like the Taita Hills.

In Article III, a pixel-based OCC approach was introduced for mapping invasive tree species. Although OCC approaches have been shown to result in performance loss compared to supervised approaches (Mack & Waske, 2017), they are viable options if the training data is limited or

35

there is interest in only some of the tree species. The tree crown level F-scores for A. mearnsii were comparable to the results with supervised classification in Article II. For Eucalyptus spp., there was a reduction in F-score compared to supervised binary classification when the OCC approach was used. These results are not directly comparable, however, as automatic delineation of tree crowns was used in Article II and manual delineation of tree crowns was used in Article III. In Article IV, linear spectral unmixing and CVA were used to map the spatial distribution and abundance of flowering plants and the short-term flowering cycle based on two IS data sets collected before and during the main flowering season. The overall accuracy for mapping all flowering plants was 80.7% (n = 752) for the January 2014 data and 83% (n = 512) for the February 2013 data. The flowering group of “White forbs” was mapped with the highest accuracy for both datasets.

5.3 Occurrence of crops, tree species, and flowering plants on the study sitesIn Article I, a map of common agricultural crops was produced for a study site in the lowlands of the Taita Hills (Figure 12a). Sugarcane fields were observed near the stream that passes through the study area in the north-south direction. Maize plants were located near buildings and roads. Bananas were found in small clusters near the buildings and the small stream flowing through the study area. Mapping common crops provides insights into agricultural practices, but this information alone has limited value. Nevertheless, when the crop maps have been produced, the same AIS data can be used to model the vegetation properties and help to detect patterns that may indicate food security problems. In a recent study, for instance, Dhau et al., (2018) used field spectroscopic

measurements to detect MSV in South Africa. Mapping MSV using AIS would enable rapid mapping of the extent of this virus, which could be used in controlling its spread. In areas like the Taita Hills, however, where farming practices are often mixed and there are no detailed records on what is being farmed and where, the maize individuals must first be detected before the sick individuals can be separated from the healthy.

In Article III, the occurrence of Eucalyptus spp. and A. mearnsii in the Taita Hills was mapped. Both species were especially prevalent in the higher altitudes and steeper slopes. Eucalyptus spp. and A. mearnsii trees covered 0.8% and 1.6% of the study area, respectively. These exotic and potentially invasive tree species were found in abundance in close proximity to the remaining native forest fragments of the Taita Hills (Figure 12b). This can be seen as a potential threat, as the native forests play a significant role in ecosystem services: for instance, Eucalyptus spp. is blamed by locals as one of the main reasons for the decrease in water resources in the Taita Hills (Hohenthal & Minoia, 2018). A. mearnsii trees were found all over the higher altitude areas, which could potentially be explained by the species’ high invasiveness (Lowe et al., 2000); this cannot, however, be verified based on these results alone, as there are no records as to which of the A. mearnsii trees have been planted purposefully and which are the result of invasive behavior. Our results reveal the potential ecological threat of these species on the ecosystem of the Taita Hills, and further research is needed to understand their invasiveness potential in the region and their impact on biodiversity, water resources, and increased risk of forest fire.

In Article IV, the short-term flowering cycle was mapped on a study site in Mwingi (Figure 12c). In January 2014, flowering made up 3.9% of the total study area in Mwingi and 7.8% of

36


all vegetation within the study area. In February 2013, 3% and 6.2% of the total study area and all vegetation targets were modeled as being in flowering state, respectively. The relatively high flowering in January can be explained by the presence of flowering maize and sorghum fields.

In February 2013, most common flowering species (n the field reference data) were Acacia tortilis and Acacia nilotica. The Acacia species were predominantly found scattered on lower altitude planes or clustered near riverside vegetation communities.

Figure 12. Examples of a) crop classification from Article I, b) exotic tree species mapping from Article III, and c) the flowering mapping results from Article IV.

37

5.4 Operational mapping of plant species and the flowering cycle in support of conservation efforts and sustainable development in Africa

In this section, I evaluate the feasibility of AIS and ALS, and the introduced mapping approaches in operational use in support of conservation efforts and sustainable development in Africa. Maintaining healthy vegetation cover in the tropics is crucial, as water resources can be affected by increasing surface runoff (Costa et al., 2003) and nutrients poured into water bodies (Mello et al., 2018). Reducing vegetation cover also raises land surface temperature by reducing latent heat flux and increases the vulnerability of ecosystems to droughts, as heat stress is more likely to occur (Abera et al., 2018). Thus, the overly rapid expansion of agricultural land without proper planning may have a highly negative impact on the local ecosystem. Although the people behind deforestation and the expansion of agricultural land may have positive intentions and wish to provide more food for their families, the end results may be the opposite in the long term if proper planning and regulations are not followed. In response to the negative impact of land cover change, the government of Kenya has issued the Forest Policy—implemented through the Forest Act (2005) by the Kenya Forest Service—which requires them to attain 10% tree cover (Hohenthal et al., 2015; GoK 2010; MEMR 2007). One of the Forest Act’s strategies for increasing forest cover that has been adopted by the Ministry of Agriculture is “farm forestry” (GoK, 2005). The Agriculture Act on Farm Forestry Rules (2009) states that farm owners must maintain at least 10% forest cover in their land holdings (GoK 2012); monitoring the success rate of these policies at country level is feasible only using RS-based approaches. Even if these policies are successful and the success rate can be measured through RS-based techniques, merely increasing

forest cover on farmland or maintaining 10% tree cover in Kenya may lead to very different outcomes depending on what trees are being planted and what kind of cropping systems are used. Airborne imaging spectroscopy and ALS are viable options for monitoring the success rate of these policies, as the canopy structure can be measured accurately using ALS (Korhonen et al., 2011) and the crops and tree species can be identified with AIS using the mapping techniques presented in this thesis.

Since both study areas (the Taita Hills and Mwingi) have poor road conditions and rugged terrain, collecting field data is laborious and in some instances impossible; mapping approaches that require only a small amount of field data have additional value in operational mapping. Remote sensing-based mapping approaches generally have this advantage. Furthermore, the OCC approach presented in Article III requires even fewer field measurements, as the models require labeled training only for the species of interest (e.g. Eucalyptus spp.). Thus, OCC classification approaches may prove especially useful in the context of rural Africa in operational use, when results are needed in a short time frame and collecting vast field datasets is not a viable option. For instance, organizations may have existing databases of invasive plant species that they have collected, but the background data (all other plant species) may be missing. In these cases, the OCC-based mapping approach is especially useful, as initial mapping products can be generated without any fieldwork. The flowering mapping technique introduced in Article IV provides valuable insights into the short-term flowering cycle of the main flowering species on a study site in Mwingi. This information is valuable, for example, in understanding the relationship between the flowering species and beekeeping.

In this thesis, change detection was performed only on the Mwingi study site for

38


flowering intensity (Article IV). In Articles I, II, and III, data were available only from one period of time. Although mapping the plant species at a given time is important for understanding the state of the vegetation cover and the abundance of different species, it may be even more interesting to understand the changes in species composition over time. To understand the invasiveness of A. mearnsii and Eucalyptus spp. in more detail on the Taita Hills study site, for instance, data from different periods of time are needed; however, IS data were available only for the years 2012 and 2014, which is not sufficient for detecting changes in the occurrence patterns of these species. In a recent study, Kganyago et al., (2018) used Landsat 8 OLI and SPOT 6 data for discriminating invasive alien species in the South African savannah landscape with a supervised classification approach. The OCC classification approach introduced in Article III could be tested in a future study with the same satellite-based data sources for mapping Eucalyptus spp. and A. mearnsii in the Taita Hills. Furthermore, follow-up studies using IS and ALS should be performed on the same study sites after enough time has passed for changes in the species composition to better understand if these species show actively invasive behavior.

Although IS and ALS have advantages in detailed land cover mapping that support conservation efforts and sustainable development, they are not always easy to implement. Careful assessment of their benefits and challenges should therefore be made before any decision to start using these techniques. For instance, the AIS data used in this thesis were collected and preprocessed by the research group, which required a great deal of resources and work hours. Additionally, basic knowledge about many fields is needed in order to apply the techniques to real-world problems, including RS, machine learning, statistical analysis, and

plant physiology. As organizing these airborne RS data acquisition campaigns is still laborious, more regional collaboration efforts are needed in Africa to look for synergies. In South Africa, for instance, IS has been used in vegetation studies (Naidoo et al., 2012; Cho et al., 2012; Cho et al., 2010) and there would be clear synergies in organizing joint data acquisition campaigns between eastern and southern Africa in the future. For instance, the sensor equipment used in this thesis was shipped from Europe only for these remote sensing data acquisition campaigns and were then sent back.

Since acquiring AIS and ALS data is expensive and in practice cannot be performed continuously to a large extent, these methods are not feasible for continuous monitoring of land cover at the level of whole countries, especially developing countries. These techniques do provide valuable information at the local scale, however, and the author of this thesis proposes that a network of control sites be established across Africa in key locations where these data can be collected continuously. These control sites would be valuable in that the changes in species composition and flowering could be monitored on a deeper level than can be provided by the present global-scale land cover products. An additional benefit would be that these control sites could be used as ground truth data to train and validate global mapping products (e.g. Hansen et al., 2013; Chen et al., 2014). New IS sensors that are light enough to be mounted on unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) should be tested on these study sites, as UAV technology has the potential to reduce the high acquisition cost of IS data—for instance, the AISA Kestrel system (Spectral Imaging, Ltd.) provides similar wavelength domain and spectral resolution as AISA Eagle in a more compact package that can be mounted on a UAV. Other UAV-based hyperspectral systems include HySpex

39

Mjolnir (Norsk Elektro Optikk, Norway) and the RIKOLA Hyperspectral camera (SENOP; Oulu, Finland). Another major limitation of the mapping techniques introduced in this thesis is that not all of the studied crops or tree species could be identified accurately; the results of the original research articles of this thesis, however, shed more light on these limitations in the context of rural tropical Africa. Additionally, the flowering mapping worked well in this study, but for understanding the full floral cycle and implementing this knowledge in practice, the same technique should be tested with UAV or satellite-based data sources, as using fixed-wing manned aircraft is expensive in continuous use.

In this thesis, radiometric calibration, geometric correction, and atmospheric correction of hyperspectral data were performed using commercial software, and some analysis was performed using commercial software (e.g. ENVI and ArcMap). Most of the analyses and data processing, however, were performed using open-source packages in R (R Development Core Team 2013). In the African context, the possibility of using open-source software for the analysis of AIS and ALS data is especially important, as it reduces overall monetary costs and enables the teaching of these technologies in local universities without the need to purchase software licenses.

Boadi et al., (2005) argued that sustainable development should focus not only on safeguarding the environment or alleviating poverty but also on ensuring that human development is consistent with the sustainable use of environmental resources. Thus, sustainable development should help to improve people’s welfare and ensure better urban management, as well as protect Africa’s natural environment and threatened flora and fauna (Coria & Calfucura, 2012; Cobbinah et al., 2015). The solutions presented in this thesis for the mapping of

plant species and the flowering cycle using AIS and ALS techniques help in monitoring the environment at a detailed level and thus add their own small contribution to the progress of conservation efforts as well as sustainable development.

6 Conclusions

Airborne imaging spectroscopy and ALS were shown to be viable and effective tools for mapping plant species and the flowering cycle in rural Kenya.

Airborne imaging spectroscopy was suitable for the classification and mapping of agricultural crops on a subset of the Taita Hills study site. The used approach worked well for maize and sugarcane and is, to the author’s best knowledge, the first high-resolution crop map produced using AIS in Africa. Although the pixel-based approach was effective, the prospect of using the OOC approach is also worth exploring in the rural African context, as it has performed well in other studies. The main challenge of OOC in rural Africa is that there are often no clear boundaries between different land cover/land use types, and intercropping techniques are frequently practiced; thus, techniques developed for areas where monocultures are practiced are not directly applicable. When the crop-level mapping results are combined with other land cover data (e.g. tree cover, slope, aspect, elevation, proximity to water bodies, soil type), the complex agroecological mosaics of rural Africa can be characterized in a more descriptive manner in contrast to many RS studies, where all agricultural land is put into one class.

In Article II, the tree species on the Taita Hills study site outside the closed native forests were classified. The MNF+ALS dataset yielded the highest classification accuracy, and the

40


SVM classifier performed better than the RF classifier. All three tree species classified with the highest accuracy were exotic and considered either invasive or mildly invasive. These species were also the most abundant in the field data. In previous studies, it has been observed that invasive and exotic tree species have exhibited distinct spectral characteristics that enhance their separation from native species, and that they may exhibit unique flowering cycles that enhance their spectral separability during the flowering season—a possible explanation for their high classification accuracy. In Article IV, a short-term flowering cycle map of melliferous plants was created for the Mwingi study site with a unique mapping technique utilizing high-resolution IS data. This information contributes to the understanding of the interrelationship between the flowering plants, bee diversity, hive integrity, and decision-making around bee hive productivity and thus adds to our understanding of food security issues in rural Africa. The differences in the flowering cycles of native and exotic species in Africa are not well-known, and this may be an interesting topic for further study.

Furthermore, if only a few selected tree species (e.g. invasive or environmentally harmful species) in the tropics are mapped, the OOC approach may be a viable option. The OOC classification approach introduced in Article III is especially useful, for example, if only positive data are available (e.g. reported locations of invasive species) or when collecting comprehensive field data for supervised classification is unfeasible due to a high abundance of possible classes (e.g. plant species) or challenging terrain (e.g. rugged landscape with poor road conditions). In our mapping results, A. mearnsii was found throughout the higher altitudes of the Taita Hills study site, suggesting possible invasive behavior, although further studies are needed to validate this observation. Eucalyptus spp.

was found especially in the higher altitudes and steeper slopes, but it was not as widespread as A. mearnsii. Both of the species are very common in the study area and were found in large quantities in close proximity to the largest remaining native forest patch in the Taita Hills (Ngangao). The results highlight the need to monitor the occurrence of these species as well as other possibly invasive plant species, both in the study area and more generally across the Eastern Arc Mountains biodiversity hotspot, which is known for its high ecological value.

To conclude, AIS has many viable use cases for land cover mapping and modeling in tropical Africa. Only a few of its potential use cases were explored in this thesis, and there are very few studies in which this state-of-the-art technology has been explored in Africa. The main limitation of this technology in the context of land cover monitoring in support of conservation and sustainability efforts in Africa is the high acquisition cost of the airborne datasets; moreover, there are no standardized procedures or pipelines for preparing the data and setting up the classification and mapping workflows, which may be a challenge in the operational use of these technologies in Africa. Many of the classification and mapping techniques that use AIS as their primary data source have been developed in Europe, North America, and East Asia, and they are not always directly applicable in the African context. In general, this technology has a great deal of potential for environmental monitoring in the region, and the results of this thesis call for more research on applying this technology in support of conservation and sustainability efforts in Africa.

41

ReferencesAbera, T.A., Heiskanen, J., Pellikka, P. & Maeda, E.E.,

(2018). Rainfall–vegetation interaction regulates temperature anomalies during extreme dry events in the Horn of Africa. Global and Planetary Change, 167(September 2017), pp.35–45.

Aerts, R., Thijs, K.W., Lehouck, V., Beentje, H., et al., (2011). Woody plant communities of isolated Afromontane cloud forests in Taita Hills, Kenya. Plant Ecology, 212(4), pp.639–649.

Alonzo, M., Roth, K. & Roberts, D., (2013). Identifying santa barbara’s urban tree species from AVIRIS imagery using canonical discriminant analysis. Remote Sensing Letters, 4(5), pp.513–521.

Asner, G.P., (1998). Biophysical and biochemical sources of variability in canopy reflectance. Remote Sensing of Environment, 64(3), pp.234–253.

Asner, G.P., Jones, M.O., Martin, R.E., Knapp, D.E., et al., (2008). Remote sensing of native and invasive species in Hawaiian forests. Remote Sensing of Environment, 112(5), pp.1912–1926.

Asner, G.P. & Martin, R.E., (2009). Airborne spectranomics: Mapping canopy chemical and taxonomic diversity in tropical forests. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 7(5), pp.269–276.

Baldeck, C. a. & Asner, G.P., (2013). Estimating vegetation beta diversity from airborne imaging spectroscopy and unsupervised clustering. Remote Sensing, 5(5), pp.2057–2071.

Baldeck, C.A., Asner, G.P., Martin, R.E., Anderson, C.B., et al., (2015). Operational Tree Species Mapping in a Diverse Tropical Forest with Airborne Imaging Spectroscopy. PLoS ONE, 10(7), pp.1–21.

Belgiu, M. & Drăguţ, L., (2016). Random forest in remote sensing: A review of applications and future directions. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 114, pp.24–31.

Boadi, K., Kuitunen, M., Raheem, K. & Hanninen, K., (2005). Urbanisation without development: Environmental and health implications in African cities. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 7(4), pp.465–500.

Breiman, L.E.O., (2001). Random Forests. Machine Learning, 45, pp.5–32.

Brink, A.B., Bodart, C., Brodsky, L., Defourney, P., et al., (2014). Anthropogenic pressure in East Africa — Monitoring 20 years of land cover changes by means of medium resolution satellite data. International Journal of Applied Earth Observations and Geoinformation, 28, pp.60–69.

Burgess, N.D., Butynski, T.M., Cordeiro, N.J., Doggart, N.H., et al., (2007). The biological importance of the Eastern Arc Mountains of Tanzania and Kenya. Biological Conservation, 134(2), pp.209–231.

Calderón, R., Navas-Cortés, J. a., Lucena, C. & Zarco-Tejada, P.J., (2013). High-resolution airborne hyperspectral and thermal imagery for early detection of Verticillium wilt of olive using fluorescence, temperature and narrow-band spectral indices. Remote Sensing of Environment, 139, pp.231–245.

Chen, J., Chen, J., Liao, A., Cao, X., et al., (2014). Global land cover mapping at 30 m resolution: A POK-based operational approach. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 103, pp.7–27.

Chen, J., Dowman, I., Li, S., Li, Z., et al., (2016). Information from imagery: ISPRS scientific vision and research agenda. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 115, pp.3–21.

Chen, J., Gong, P., He, C., Pu, R., et al., (2003). Land-Use/Land-Cover Change Detection Using Improved Change-Vector Analysis. Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing, 69(4), pp.369–379.

Chenje, M. & Mohamed-Katerere, J., (2006). Invasive Alien Species. In Africa Environment Outlook 2. Nairobi: United Nations Environment Programme, pp. 1–542.

Cho, M.A., Debba, P., Mathieu, R., Naidoo, L., et al., (2010). Improving discrimination of savanna tree species through a multiple-endmember spectral angle mapper approach: Canopy-level analysis. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, 48(11), pp.4133–4142.

Cho, M.A., Mathieu, R., Asner, G.P., Naidoo, L., et al., (2012). Mapping tree species composition in South African savannas using an integrated airborne spectral and LiDAR system. Remote Sensing of Environment, 125, pp.214–226.

Clark, B. & Pellikka, P., (2009). Landscape analysis using multi-scale segmentation and objectoriented classification. In A. Roeder & J. Hill, eds. Recent Advances in Remote Sensing and Geoinformation Processing for Land Degradation Assessment. London: Taylor & Francis Group, pp. 323–341.

Clark, B.J.F., (2010). Enhanced processing of SPOT multispectral satellite imagery for environmental monitoring and modelling. Academic dissertation. University of Helsinki.

Clark, M.L. & Roberts, D.A., (2012). Species-Level Differences in Hyperspectral Metrics among Tropical Rainforest Trees as Determined by a Tree-Based. Remote Sensing, 4(6), pp.1820–1855.

Clark, M.L., Roberts, D.A. & Clark, D.B., (2005). Hyperspectral discrimination of tropical rain forest tree species at leaf to crown scales. Remote Sensing of Environment, 96(3–4), pp.375–398.

Cobbinah, P.B., Erdiaw-Kwasie, M.O. & Amoateng, P., (2015). Africa’s urbanisation: Implications for

42


sustainable development. Cities, 47, pp.62–72.Cochrane, M.A., (2000). Using vegetation reflectance

variability for species level classification of hyperspectral data. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 21(10), pp.2075–2087.

Coria, J. & Calfucura, E., (2012). Ecotourism and the development of indigenous communities: The good, the bad, and the ugly. Ecological Economics.

Costa, M.H., Botta, A. & Cardille, J.A., (2003). Effects of large-scale changes in land cover on the discharge of the Tocantins River, Southeastern Amazonia. Journal of Hydrology, 283, pp.206–217.

Dalponte, M., Ørka, H.O., Gobakken, T., Gianelle, D., et al., (2013). Tree species classification in boreal forests with hyperspectral data. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, 51(5), pp.2632–2645.

Dhau, I., Adam, E., Mutanga, O. & Ayisi, K.K., (2018). Detecting the severity of maize streak virus infestations in maize crop using in situ hyperspectral data. Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa, 73(1), pp.8–15.

Du, H., Fuh, R.-C.A., Li, J., Corkan, L.A., et al., (1998). PhotochemCAD: A computer-aided design and research tool in photochemistry. Photochemistry and Photobiology.

Fassnacht, F.E., Latifi, H., Sterenczak, K., Modzelewska, A., et al., (2016). Review of studies on tree species classification from remotely sensed data. Remote Sensing of Environment, 186, pp.64–87.

Féret, J.-B. & Asner, G.P., (2011). Spectroscopic classification of tropical forest species using radiative transfer modeling. Remote Sensing of Environment, 115(9), pp.2415–2422.

Feret, J.-B. & Asner, P.G., (2013). Tree Species Discrimination in Tropical Forests Using Airborne Imaging Spectroscopy. IEEE Trans. Geoscience Remote Sensing, 51(1), pp.73–84.

Ferreira, M.P., Féret, J.B., Grau, E., Gastellu-Etchegorry, J.P., et al., (2018). Retrieving structural and chemical properties of individual tree crowns in a highly diverse tropical forest with 3D radiative transfer modeling and imaging spectroscopy. Remote Sensing of Environment, 211(March), pp.276–291.

Foley, J. a, Defries, R., Asner, G.P., Barford, C., et al., (2005). Global Consequences of Land Use. Science, 309(5734), pp.570–574.

Galvão, L., Epiphanio, J., Breunig, F. & Formaggio, A., (2012). Crop Type Discrimination Using Hyperspectral Data. In P. S. Thenkabail, G. Lyon, John, & A. Huete, eds. Hyperspectral Remote Sensing of Vegetation. Boca Raton: CRC, pp. 397–422.

Ghosh, A., Fassnacht, F.E., Joshi, P.K. & Kochb, B., (2014). A framework for mapping tree species combining hyperspectral and LiDAR data: Role

of selected classifiers and sensor across three spatial scales. International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation, 26(1), pp.49–63.

GoK, (2012). Agriculture (Farm forestry) Rules, 2009., Nairobi, Kenya: Government of Kenya.

GoK, (2010). The Constitution of Kenya, 2010. Laws of Kenya., Nairobi, Kenya: Government of Kenya.

GoK, (2005). The Forest Act, 2005, Laws of Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya: Government of Kenya.

Graves, S.J., Asner, G.P., Martin, R.E., Anderson, C.B., et al., (2016). Tree Species Abundance Predictions in a Tropical Agricultural Landscape with a Supervised Classification Model and Imbalanced Data. Remote Sensing, 8(161), pp.1–21.

Green, A.., Berman, M., Switzer, P. & Craig, M.D., (1988). A transformation for ordering multispectral data in terms of image quality with implications for noise removal. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, 26(1), pp.65–74.

Hansen, M.C., Potapov, P. V, Moore, R., Hancher, M., et al., (2013). High-resolution global maps of 21st-century forest cover change. Science, 342(6160), pp.850–853.

Henderson, L., (2001). Plant Protection Research Institute Agricultral Research Council - Alien weeds and invasive plants - A complete guide to declared invaders in South Africa, Cape Town, South Africa: Paarl Printers.

Hohenthal, J., Räsänen, M., Owidi, E., Andersson, B., et al., (2015). Community and institutional perspectives on water management and environmental changes in the Taita Hills , Kenya, University of Helsinki.

Hohenthal, J. & Minoia, P., (2018). Political ecology of asymmetric ecological knowledges : diverging views on the eucalyptus-water nexus in the Taita Hills , Kenya. Journal of political ecology, 25, pp.1–19.

Homolova, L., Alanko-Huotari, K. & Scheapman, M.E., (2009). Sensitivity of the ground-based downwelling irradiance recorded by the FODIS sensor in respect of different angular positions. WHISPERS ’09 - 1st Workshop on Hyperspectral Image and Signal Processing: Evolution in Remote Sensing, pp.3–6.

Hovi, A., Korhonen, L., Vauhkonen, J. & Korpela, I., (2016). LiDAR waveform features for tree species classification and their sensitivity to tree- and acquisition related parameters. Remote Sensing of Environment, 173, pp.224–237.

Huesca, M., García, M., Roth, K.L., Casas, A., et al., (2016). Canopy structural attributes derived from AVIRIS imaging spectroscopy data in a mixed broadleaf/conifer forest. Remote Sensing of Environment, 182, pp.208–226.

Hughes, G., (1968). On the mean accuracy of

43

statistical pattern recognizers. IEEE Transactions on Information Theory, 14(1).

Hyyppä, J., Hyyppä, H., Leckie, D., Gougeon, F., et al., (2008). Review of methods of small ‐ footprint airborne laser scanning for extracting forest inventory data in boreal forests. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 29(5), pp.1339–1366.

IAASTD, (2009). Agriculture at a Crossroads: Global report. In B. McIntyre et al., eds. International assessment of Agricultural Knowledge, Science and Technology for Development. Washington, p. 606.

Kaartinen, H., Hyyppä, J., Yu, X., Vastaranta, M., et al., (2012). An international comparison of individual tree detection and extraction using airborne laser scanning. Remote Sensing, 4(4), pp.950–974.

Kalnay, E. & Cai, M., (2003). Impact of urbanization and land-use change on climate. Nature, 423(6939), pp.528–531.

Kganyago, M., Odindi, J., Adjorlolo, C. & Mhangara, P., (2018). Evaluating the capability of Landsat 8 OLI and SPOT 6 for discriminating invasive alien species in the African Savanna landscape. International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation, 67(January), pp.10–19.

Khosravipour, A., Skidmore, A.K., Isenburg, M., Wang, T., et al., (2014). Generating Pit-free Canopy Height Models from Airborne Lidar. Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing, 80(9), pp.863–872.

Kiang, N.Y., Siefert, J., Govindjee & Blankenship, R.E., (2007). Spectral signatures of photosynthesis. I. Review of Earth organisms. Astrobiology, 7(1), pp.222–251.

Koch, B., Kattenborn, T., Straub, C. & Vauhkonen, J., (2014). Segmentation of Forest to Tree Objects. In M. Maltamo, E. Næsset, & J. Vauhkonen, eds. Forestry Applications of Airborne Laser Scanning: Concepts and Case Studies. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 89–112.

Korhonen, L., Korpela, I., Heiskanen, J. & Maltamo, M., (2011). Airborne discrete-return LIDAR data in the estimation of vertical canopy cover, angular canopy closure and leaf area index. Remote Sensing of Environment, 115(4), pp.1065–1080.

Landmann, T., Piiroinen, R., Makori, D.M., Abdel-Rahman, E.M., et al., (2015). Application of hyperspectral remote sensing for flower mapping in African savannas. Remote Sensing of Environment, 166, pp.50–60.

Lary, D.J., Alavi, A.H., Gandomi, A.H. & Walker, A.L., (2016). Machine learning in geosciences and remote sensing. Geoscience Frontiers, 7(1), pp.3–10.

Lawrence, R.L., Wood, S.D. & Sheley, R.L., (2006). Mapping invasive plants using hyperspectral imagery and Breiman Cutler classifications (randomForest). Remote Sensing of Environment, 100(3), pp.356–362.

Lelong, C.C.D., Pinet, P.C. & Poilvé, H., (1998). Hyperspectral imaging and stress mapping in agriculture: A case study on wheat in Beauce (France). Remote Sensing of Environment, 66(2), pp.179–191.

Li, J., Li, C., Zhao, D. & Gang, C., (2012). Hyperspectral narrowbands and their indices on Assessing nitrogen contents of cotton crop applications. In P. S. Thenkabail, J. Lyon, & A. Huete, eds. Hyperspectral Remote Sensing of Vegetation. Boca Raton: CRC press, pp. 579–590.

Liu, B., Dai, Y., Li, X., Lee, W.S., et al., (2003). Building text classifiers using positive and unlabeled examples. In Third IEEE International Conference on Data Mining. Melbourne, pp. 179–186.

Lott, J.E., Khan, A.A.H., Black, C.R. & Ong, C.K., (2003). Water use in a Grevillea robusta-maize overstorey agroforestry system in semi-arid Kenya. Forest Ecology and Management, 180(1–3), pp.45–59.

Lowe, S., Browne, M., Boudjelas, S. & De Poorter, M., (2000). 100 of the World´s Worst Invasive Alien Species a Selection From the Global Invasive Species Database. Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG). A specialist group of the Species Survival Commission (SSC) or the World Conservation Union (IUCN)., p.12.

Luedeling, E., Kindt, R., Huth, N.I. & Koenig, K., (2014). Agroforestry systems in a changing climate — challenges in projecting future performance. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 6, pp.1–7.

Luyssaert, S., Jammet, M., Stoy, P.C., Estel, S., et al., (2014). Land management and land-cover change have impacts of similar magnitude on surface temperature. Nature Climate Change, 4(5), pp.389–393.

Mack, B., Roscher, R. & Waske, B., (2014). Can i trust my one-class classification? Remote Sensing, 6(9), pp.8779–8802.

Mack, B. & Waske, B., (2017). In-depth comparisons of MaxEnt, biased SVM and one-class SVM for one-class classification of remote sensing data. Remote Sensing Letters, 8(3), pp.290–299.

Maeda, E.E., Clark, B.J.F., Pellikka, P. & Siljander, M., (2010). Modelling agricultural expansion in Kenya’s Eastern Arc Mountains biodiversity hotspot. Agricultural Systems, 103(9), pp.609–620.

Maeda, E.E., Pellikka, P.K.E., Siljander, M. & Clark, B.J.F., (2010). Potential impacts of agricultural expansion and climate change on soil erosion in the Eastern Arc Mountains of Kenya. Geomorphology, 123(3–4), pp.279–289.

Mariotto, I., Thenkabail, P.S., Huete, A., Slonecker, E.T., et al., (2013). Hyperspectral versus multispectral crop-productivity modeling and type discrimination for the HyspIRI mission. Remote

44


Sensing of Environment, 139, pp.291–305.Mbow, C., van Noordwijk, M., Prabhu, R. & Simons,

T., (2014). Knowledge gaps and research needs concerning agroforestry’s contribution to Sustainable Development Goals in Africa. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 6(1), pp.162–170.

Melgani, F. & Bruzzone, L., (2004). Classification of hyperspectral remote sensing images with support vector machines. Geoscience and Remote Sensing, IEEE Transactions on, 42(8), pp.1778–1790.

Mello, K.D., Valente, R.A., Randhir, T.O. & Vettorazzi, C.A., (2018). Impacts of tropical forest cover on water quality in agricultural watersheds in southeastern Brazil. Ecological Indicators, 93, pp.1293–1301.

MEMR, (2007). Sessional paper No. 1 of 2007 on Forest policy., Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources. Nairobi, Kenya.

Mountrakis, G., Im, J. & Ogole, C., (2011). Support vector machines in remote sensing: A review. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 66(3), pp.247–259.

Næsset, E., Gobakken, T., Holmgren, J., Hyyppä, H., et al., (2004). Laser scanning of forest resources: The nordic experience. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research, 19(6), pp.482–499.

Nagarajan, P., Jones, R. & Smale, M.L.A., (2007). Seed Provision and Dryland Crops in the Semiarid Regions of Eastern Kenya., Washington DC. International Food Policy Research Institute.

Naidoo, L., Cho, M. a., Mathieu, R. & Asner, G., (2012). Classification of savanna tree species, in the Greater Kruger National Park region, by integrating hyperspectral and LiDAR data in a Random Forest data mining environment. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 69, pp.167–179.

Negash, M. & Kanninen, M., (2015). Modeling biomass and soil carbon sequestration of indigenous agroforestry systems using CO2FIX approach. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 203, pp.147–155.

Nyoka, B., (2003). Biosecurity in forestry: a case study on the status of invasive forest tree species in Southern Africa. Forest Biosecurity Working Paper FBS/1E, Rome.

Omoro, L.M. a & Nair, P.K.R.K.R., (1993). Effects of mulching with multipurpose-tree prunings on soil and water run-off under semi-arid conditions in Kenya. Agroforestry Systems, 22(3), pp.225–239.

Parker Williams, A. & Hunt, E.R., (2002). Estimation of leafy spurge cover from hyperspectral imagery using mixture tuned matched filtering. Remote Sensing of Environment, 82(2–3), pp.446–456.

Pellikka, P.K.E., Lötjönen, M., Siljander, M. & Lens, L., (2009). Airborne remote sensing of spatiotemporal change (1955-2004) in indigenous

and exotic forest cover in the Taita Hills, Kenya. International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation, 11(4), pp.221–232.

Pellikka, P.K.E., Clark, B.J.F., Sirviö, T. & Masalin, K., (2005). Environmental change monitoring applying satellite and airborne remote sensing data in the Taita Hills , Kenya. Area, pp.223–232.

Pellikka, P.K.E., Heikinheimo, V., Hietanen, J., Schäfer, E., et al., (2018). Impact of land cover change on aboveground carbon stocks in Afromontane landscape in Kenya. Applied Geography, 94(March), pp.178–189.

Phillips, S.J., Anderson, R.P. & Schapire, R.E., (2006). Maximum entropy modeling of species geographic distributions. Ecological Modelling, 190, pp.231–259.

Pielke, R.A., Marland, G., Betts, R.A., Chase, T.N., et al., (2002). The influence of land-use change and landscape dynamics on the climate system- relevance to climate change policy beyond the radiative effect of greenhouse gases. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A, 360, pp.1705–1719.

Pimm, S.L. & Raven, P., (2000). Extinction by numbers. Nature, 403(6772), pp.843–845.

Postel, S.L., Daily, G.C. & Ehrlich, P.R., (1996). Human Appropriation of Renewable Fresh Water. Science, 271(5250), pp.785–788.

R Development Core Team, (2013). R Software. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing.

Rabus, B., Eineder, M., Roth, A. & Bamler, R., (2003). The shuttle radar topography mission - A new class of digital elevation models acquired by spaceborne radar. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 57(4), pp.241–262.

Raina, S.K., Kioko, E., Zethner, O. & Wren, S., (2011). Forest Habitat Conservation in Africa Using Commercially Important Insects. Annual Review of Entomology.

Raina, S.K. & Kimbu, D.M., (2005). Variations in races of the honeybee Apis mellifera (Hymenoptera: Apidae) in Kenya. International Journal of Tropical Insect Science, 25(04), pp.281–291.

Richter, R. & Schläpfer, D., (2002). Geo-atmospheric processing of airborne imaging spectrometry data. Part 2: Atmospheric/topographic correction. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 23(13), pp.2631–2649.

Roberts, D.A., Roth, K.. L. & Perroy, R.L., (2012). Hyperspectral vegetation indices. In P. S. Thenkabail, J. G. Lyon, & A. Huete, eds. Hyperspectral Remote Sensing of Vegetation. CRC press, pp. 309–328.

Rockström, J. & Falkenmark, M., (2015). Agriculture: Increase water harvesting in Africa. Nature, 519(7543), pp.283–285.

Rodriguez-Suarez, J.A., Soto, B., Perez, R. & Diaz-Fierros, F., (2011). Influence of Eucalyptus

45

globulus plantation growth on water table levels and low flows in a small catchment. Journal of Hydrology, 396(3–4), pp.321–326.

Sahin, V. & Hall, M.J., (1996). The effects of afforestation and deforestation on water yields. Journal of Hydrology, 178(1–4), pp.293–309.

Sánchez-Azofeifa, A., Rivard, B., Wright, J., Feng, J.L., et al., (2011). Estimation of the distribution of Tabebuia guayacan (Bignoniaceae) using high-resolution remote sensing imagery. Sensors, 11(4), pp.3831–3851.

Schaepman, M.E., (2009). Imaging Spectrometers. Spectroscopy, pp.166–178.

Schaepman, M.E., Green, R.O., Ungar, S.G., Curtiss, B., et al., (2006). The future of imaging spectroscopy - Prospective technologies and applications. International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS), pp.2005–2009.

Schäfer, E., Heiskanen, J., Heikinheimo, V. & Pellikka, P., (2016). Mapping tree species diversity of a tropical montane forest by unsupervised clustering of airborne imaging spectroscopy data. Ecological Indicators, 64, pp.49–58.

Schläpfer, D., (2011). Parametric geocoding - Orthorectification for airborne scanner data - User manual, version 3.1,

Scholkopf, B., Williamson, R., Smola, A., Shawe-Taylor, J., et al., (1999). Support Vector Method for Novelty Detection. NIPS’99 Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems, pp.582–588.

Soini, E., (2005). Livelihood capital, strategies and outcomes in the Taita hills of Kenya. ICRAF Working Paper no. 8., Nairobi, Kenya.

Sterling, S. & Ducharne, A., (2008). Comprehensive data set of global land cover change for land surface model applications. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 22(3), pp.1–20.

Sterling, S.M., Ducharne, A. & Polcher, J., (2013). The impact of global land-cover change on the terrestrial water cycle. Nature Climate Change, 3(4), pp.385–390.

Thenkabail, P.S., Lyon, J.G. & Huete, A., (2012). Hyperspectral Remote Sensing of Vegetation and Agricultural Crops: Knowledge Gain and Knowledge Gap After 40 Years of Research. In P. S. Thenkabail, J. G. Lyon, & A. Huete, eds. Hyperspectral Remote Sensing of Vegetation. Boca Raton: CRC press, pp. 663–668.

Thijs, K.W., Aerts, R., van de Moortele, P., Aben, J., et al., (2015). Trees in a human-modified tropical landscape: Species and trait composition and potential ecosystem services. Landscape and Urban Planning, 144, pp.49–58.

Turpie, J.K., Marais, C. & Blignaut, J.N., (2008). The working for water programme: Evolution of a payments for ecosystem services mechanism that addresses both poverty and ecosystem service delivery in South Africa. Ecological Economics,

65(4), pp.788–798.United Nations Department of Economic and Social

Affairs, (2017). World Population Prospects: The 2017 Revision, New York.

Ustin, S.L., Gitelson, a. a., Jacquemoud, S., Schaepman, M., et al., (2009). Retrieval of foliar information about plant pigment systems from high resolution spectroscopy. Remote Sensing of Environment, 113, pp.S67–S77.

Ustin, S.L., Roberts, D. a., Gamon, J. a., Asner, G.P., et al., (2004). Using Imaging Spectroscopy to Study Ecosystem Processes and Properties. BioScience, 54(6), p.523.

Vapnik, V., (1998). Statistical learning theory, New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Vauhkonen, J., Maltamo, M., McRoberts, R.E. & Næsset, E., (2014). Introduction to Forestry Applications of Airborne Laser Scanning. In M. Maltamo, E. Næsset, & J. Vauhkonen, eds. Forestry Applications of Airborne Laser Scanning: Concepts and Case Studies. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 1–16.

Vörösmarty, C., Green, P., Salisbury, J. & Lammers, R., (2000). Global Water Resources: Vulnerability from Climate Change and Population Growth. Science, 289(5477), pp.284–288.

Yang, C., Everitt, J. & Du, Q., (2010). Applying linear spectral unmixing to airborne hyperspectral imagery for mapping yield variability in grain sorghum and cotton fields. Journal of Applied Remote Sensing, 4(1), pp.1–11.

Yao, H., Tang, L., Tian, L., Brown, R., et al., (2012). Using hyperspectral data in precision farming applications. In P. S. Thenkabail, J. Lyon, & A. Huete, eds. Hyperspectral Remote Sensing of Vegetation. Boca Raton: CRC press, pp. 591–610.

Zhang, X., Sun, Y., Shang, K., Zhang, L., et al., (2016). Crop Classification Based on Feature Band Set Construction and Object-Oriented Approach Using Hyperspectral Images. IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Applied Earth Observations and Remote Sensing, 9(9), pp.4117–4128.

airborne imaging spectroscopy in mapping of heterogeneous

Documents