airport and airways

8/17/2019 Airport and Airways

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The Aviation Community

The Three Sector of Aviation Community

A. Commercial Aviation - is the part of civil aviation (both general aviation and scheduledairline service) that involves operating aircraft for hire. In most countries, a flight may be

operated for money only if it meets three criteria:

• the pilot must hold a valid commercial pilot's license• the aircraft must hold a valid commercial registration• the operator must hold a certificate or some other authorization for commercia

operations

There are some exceptions for example, a flight instructor is normally allo!ed to fly formoney in a private aircraft o!ned by the student but the above re"uirements hold for mostflights !here money changes hands.

Typically, a commercial license or registration re"uires higher standards than a private one.#or example, a commercial pilot may have to demonstrate more maneuvers to a higherstandard, and may need to pass more fre"uent medical examinations. $ commercially%registered plane may re"uire more fre"uent or more extensive maintenance.

It is the purpose of the flight, not the type of aircraft or pilot, that determines !hether theflight is commercial. #or example, a t!o%seat &essna to!ing a banner for money !ould bea commercial flight, !hile a large *et flo!n by its o!ners for a private vacation !ould not be,even if the pilots !ere commercially licensed and the *et !ere commercially registered

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_aviationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_aviationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airlinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airlinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aviatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cessna_150http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_aviationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airlinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airlinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aviatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cessna_150http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_aviation


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B. Military aviation - is the use of aircraft and other flying machines for the purposes ofconducting or enabling !arfare, including national airlift (cargo) capacity to providelogistical supply to forces stationed in a theater or along a front.

Air power includes the national means of conducting such !arfare including theintersection of transport and !ar craft. The !ide variety of military aircraft includesbombers, fighters, fighter bombers, transports, trainers, and reconnaissance aircraftThese varied types of aircraft allo! for the completion of a !ide variety of ob*ectives.

C. General Aviation- is one of t!o categories of civil aviation. It refers to all flightsother than military and scheduled airline flights, both private and commercial.+eneral aviation flights range from gliders and po!ered parachutes to large, non%scheduled cargo *et flights. $s a result, the ma*ority of the !orld's air traffic fallsinto this category, and most of the !orld's airports serve general aviationexclusively.

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cargohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bomberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bomberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fighter_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fighter_bomberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fighter_bomberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_aviationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_aviationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scheduled_air_transporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_aviationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_aviationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Powered_parachutehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cargohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bomberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fighter_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fighter_bomberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_aviationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_aviationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scheduled_air_transporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_aviationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_aviationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Powered_parachutehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_aircraft


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Contents

• rigins • - Types of military aircraft

o -. $ttac aircraft o -.- /ombers o -.0 #ighters o -.1 2econnaissance aircraft o -. 3ogistics aircraft o -.4 5elicopters o -.6 7xperimental $ircraft o -.8 9ultirole

• 0 $ir forces • 1 ee also • 2eferences • 4 7xternal lins

$n $% Thunderbolt II, #%84 abre, ;%08 3ightning and ;% 9ustang fly in formation duringan air sho! at 3angley $ir #orce /ase,


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TYPES OF MILITARY AIRCRAFT

Attack aircraft

$ttac aircraft are !hat the >.. ?avy and 9arines have traditionally called their lightand medium bombers, such as the A-7 Corsair II and A-6 Intruder respectively. The >.. $i#orce labels their light ground attac aircraft lie the A-10 Thundero!t II , as @fighters@, eventhough they have virtually no air%air capability

Bombers

/ombers are normally larger, heavier, and less maneuverable than fighter aircraft. Theyare capable of carrying large payloads of bombs. /ombers are used almost exclusively forground attacs and not fast or agile enough to tae on enemy fighters head%to%head. $ fe!have a single engine and re"uire one pilot to operate and others have t!o or more engines

and re"uire cre!s of t!o or more. $ limited number of bombers, such as the /%- pirit, havestealth capabilities that eep them from being detected by enemy radar. $n example of aconventional modern bomber !ould be the /%- tratofortress. $n example of a ==II bomber!ould be a /%6 #lying #ortress.

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A-7_Corsair_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A-6_Intruderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A-10_Thunderbolt_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B-2_Spirithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stealthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B-52_Stratofortresshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B-17_Flying_Fortresshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A-7_Corsair_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A-6_Intruderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A-10_Thunderbolt_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B-2_Spirithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stealthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B-52_Stratofortresshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B-17_Flying_Fortress


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!G"T#$S

i%hters are fast, highly maneuverable, and capable of destroying enemy aircraft andground targets. Their main role is air%to%air combat, offensive or defensive. 7scorting bombersor other aircraft is also a common tas. They are capable of carrying a variety of !eapons,including machine guns, cannons, rocets, guided missiles and bombs, depending on themission. They can also be used to provide support for friendly ground troops. ome fighters,called fighter%bombers, are able to carry conventional or nuclear !eapons far behind enemy

lines to strie priority ground targets.

9any modern fighters can attac enemy fighters from a great distance, before theenemy even sees them. 7xamples of air%superiority fighters include the #%-- 2aptor and the9i+%-A. ==II fighters include the ;% 9ustang and /f A. $n example of an interceptor (afighter designed to tae%off and "uicly intercept and shoot do!n enemy planes) !ould be the9i+%-.

$econnaissance aircraft

2econnaissance aircraft are primarily used to gather intelligence. They are e"uipped!ith photographic, infrared, radar, and television sensors. These aircraft may be speciallydesigned or may be modified from a basic fighter or bomber type. ome are e"uipped !ithspecial electronic gear for detecting submarines, such as sonar, and others can give early!arnings of enemy approach.

Bue to the gro!ing number and reliability of satellites, most reconnaissance aircraft are"uicly becoming useless. 2econnaissance aircraft are normally the fastest aircraft in themilitary an example being the 2%6 /lacbird and the >%-.

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-22_Raptorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MiG-29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-51_Mustanghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bf_109http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MiG-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satelliteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SR-71_Blackbirdhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-22_Raptorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MiG-29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-51_Mustanghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bf_109http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MiG-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satelliteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SR-71_Blackbird


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&o%istics Aircraft

&o%istics aircraft are primarily used to transport troops and !ar supplies. &argo can beattached to pallets, !hich are easily loaded, secured for flight, and "uicly unloaded for

delivery. &argo also may be discharged from flying aircraft on parachutes, eliminating the needfor landing. $lso included in this category are aerial tanersC these planes can refuel fightersbombers, and helicopters !hile in flight. $n example of a transport aircraft is the &%6 +lobemaster III. $ ==II example !ould be the &%16. $n example of a taner craft !ould be the D&%0 tratotaner .

"elicopters

5elicopters may be used to transport troops, attac targets, provide support, deliversupplies, and search and rescue. The ability of helicopters to land and tae off vertically givesthem the option to land in areas fixed !ing aircraft !ould not be able to access. $n example ofa military helicopter is the &hinoo helicopters.

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parachutehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In-flight_refuelinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C-17_Globemaster_IIIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C-17_Globemaster_IIIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C-47http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KC-135_Stratotankerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KC-135_Stratotankerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Search_and_rescuehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed_wing_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parachutehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In-flight_refuelinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C-17_Globemaster_IIIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C-17_Globemaster_IIIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C-47http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KC-135_Stratotankerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KC-135_Stratotankerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Search_and_rescuehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed_wing_aircraft


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Air For"es

=here they exist, air forces are usually tased !ith the air defense of a country, as !ellas strategic bombing, interdiction, close air support, intelligence gathering, battle spacemanagement and transport functions. $ir #orce operations may also include space%basedoperations such as reconnaissance or satellite operations. 9ilitaries may have a branchdedicated to aviation (an air force) or may distribute aviation bet!een other branches such asthe army or navy. 7ven !hen a country has a dedicated air force, the other branches !illgenerally utilize aviation.

General Aviation- is one of t!o categories of civil aviation. It refers to all flights other thanmilitary and scheduled airline flights, both private and commercial. +eneral aviation flightsrange from gliders and po!ered parachutes to large, non%scheduled cargo *et flights. $s a

result, the ma*ority of the !orld's air traffic falls into this category, and most of the !orld'sairports serve general aviation exclusively.

3ist of +eneral $viation $ctivities

A general aviation scene at Kemble Airfield , England. The aircraft in the foreground is ahomebuilt Vans RV-4

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_forcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_aviationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_aviationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scheduled_air_transporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_aviationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_aviationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Powered_parachutehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_general_aviation_activitieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemble_Airfieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homebuilt_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vans_RV-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Genav.vansrv4.arp.750pix.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_forcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_aviationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_aviationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scheduled_air_transporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_aviationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_aviationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Powered_parachutehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_general_aviation_activitieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemble_Airfieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homebuilt_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vans_RV-4


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Aircraft at general aviation airport Helsini-!almi, "inland.

The #eneral Aviation Terminal at Raleigh $urham %nternational Airport . Terminal A is in thebacground.

+eneral aviation covers a huge range of activities, both commercial and non%commercial, including private flying, flight training, air ambulance, police aircraft, aeriafirefighting, air charter , bush flying, gliding, and many others. 7xperimental aircraft, light%sportaircraft and very light *ets have emerged in recent years as ne! trends in general aviation.

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helsinki-Malmi_Airporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raleigh_Durham_International_Airporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight_traininghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_ambulancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Police_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_firefightinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_firefightinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_charterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bush_flyinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glidinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimental_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-sport_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-sport_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Very_light_jethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gardu1.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Helsinki-Malmi_2008-001.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helsinki-Malmi_Airporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raleigh_Durham_International_Airporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight_traininghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_ambulancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Police_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_firefightinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_firefightinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_charterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bush_flyinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glidinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimental_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-sport_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-sport_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Very_light_jet


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Contents

• 2egulation and safety • - ee also • 0 2eferences

• 1 7xternal lins

Regu!ation and sa#et$

9ost countries have authorities that oversee all civil aviation, including general aviationadhering to the standardized codes of the International &ivil $viation rganization (I&$)7xamples include the #ederal $viation $dministration (#$$) in the >nited tates, the &ivi

$viation $uthority (&$$) in +reat /ritain, the 3uftfahrt%/undesamt (3/$) in +ermany, andTransport &anada in &anada.

ince it includes both non%scheduled commercial operations and private operations,!ith aircraft of many different types and sizes, and pilots !ith a variety of different training and

experience levels, it is not possible to mae blanet statements about the regulation or safetyrecord of general aviation.

$t one extreme, in most countries business *ets and large cargo *ets face most of thesame regulations as scheduled air transport and fly mostly to the same airports. &ommerciabush flying and air ambulance operations normally do not operate under as heavy a regulatoryburden, and often only use small airports or off%airport strips, !here there is less governmentaloversight. ?onetheless they must obey the same regulations as any other type of flying.

$viation accident rate statistics are necessarily estimates. $ccording to the >.?ational Transportation afety /oard, in - general aviation in the >nited tates (excluding

charter) suffered .0 fatal accidents for every , hours of flying in that countrycompared to .4 for scheduled airline flights. In &anada, recreational flying accounted for.6 fatal accidents for every , hours, !hile air taxi accounted for . fatal accident forevery , hours.

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_aviation#Regulation_and_safetyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_aviation#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_aviation#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_aviation#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_aviationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Civil_Aviation_Organizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Aviation_Administrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_Aviation_Authority_of_the_United_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_Aviation_Authority_of_the_United_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Britainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luftfahrt-Bundesamthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_Canadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aviation_safetyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_jetshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cargo_airlinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scheduled_air_transporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bush_flyinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_ambulancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transportation_safety_in_the_United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Transportation_Safety_Boardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_aviation#Regulation_and_safetyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_aviation#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_aviation#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_aviation#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_aviationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Civil_Aviation_Organizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Aviation_Administrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_Aviation_Authority_of_the_United_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_Aviation_Authority_of_the_United_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Britainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luftfahrt-Bundesamthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_Canadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aviation_safetyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_jetshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cargo_airlinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scheduled_air_transporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bush_flyinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_ambulancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transportation_safety_in_the_United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Transportation_Safety_Board


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CAT#G($!#S ( A) A!$C$AT

&i%hter than Air Aircraft - 3ighter than air refers to gases !hich are buoyant in air becausethey have densities lo!er than that of air (about .- gFm0, .- gFl). ome of these gases areused as lifting gases in lighter%than%air craft, !hich include free balloons, moored balloons, andairships, to mae the !hole craft, on average, lighter than air. (5eavier%than%air aircraft includeaeroplanes, gliders and helicopters.

Contents

• >sage as lifting gas o . $mmonia o .- 9ethane o .0 5ydrogen and helium

• -


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Methane

9ethane (the chief component of natural gas) is sometimes used as a lift gas !henhydrogen and helium are not available. It has the advantage of not leaing through balloon!alls as rapidly as the small%molecule hydrogen and helium. (9ost lighter%than%air balloons aremade of aluminized plastic that limits such leaageC hydrogen and helium lea rapidly throughlatex balloons.)

"y*ro%en an* helium

5ydrogen and helium are the most commonly used lift gases. $lthough helium is t!iceas heavy as (diatomic) hydrogen, they are both so much lighter than air that this difference isinconse"uential. 5ydrogen has about 8G more buoyancy than helium (as sho!n here). /othprovide about A.8 ? of lift (the force to lift g) per cubic meter of gas at room temperature andsea level pressure. 5elium is preferred because it is not combustible.

'a"uu( a!!oon

#irst proposed by Italian mon #rancesco de 3ana in 46, the vacuum balloon !ould

be the ultimate expression of displacement lift po!er. $ fre"uent topic of blue sy thining, thebasic principle has remained the same: $ container strong enough to preserve a vacuum thatdisplaces sufficient air to lift the container and an additional load.

5o!ever, construction of a container strong enough to !ithstand atmospheric pressure!hile at the same time being lighter than the air it displaces is currently far from the realm ofpossibility given current technology H (see unobtainium). $lthough this is perhaps an example oflinear thining: plasma !indo!s could be used to contain a vacuum. 3ess exotically, magneticfields could be used to eep the balloon from collapsing. $ vacuum balloon !ould be able to lift.-A- (gF3) at sea level maing it 4G more efficient than helium and 6G more efficient thanhydrogen.

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lifting_gas#Hydrogen_and_heliumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton_(unit)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_levelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_pressurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unobtainiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_windowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lifting_gas#Hydrogen_and_heliumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lifting_gas#Hydrogen_and_heliumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton_(unit)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_levelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_pressurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unobtainiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_windowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lifting_gas#Hydrogen_and_helium


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&ontents

• &lasses of rotorcraft o . 5elicopter o .- $uto gyro o .0 +yro dyne o .1 Tilt rotors o . 5ybrids and compounds

• - 2otor configuration o -. ?umber of blades o -.- ?umber of rotors o -.0 Intermeshing o -.1 Bucted rotors

• 0 ee also • 1 2eferences

• 7xternal lins

CLASSES OF ROTORCRAFT

"elicopter

$ helicopter is a rotorcraft !hose rotors are driven by the engine(s) throughout the flight,to allo! the helicopter to tae off vertically, hover, fly for!ards, bac!ards and laterally, as !elas to land vertically. 5elicopters have several different configurations of one or more mainrotors.

5elicopters !ith one driven main rotor re"uire some sort of anti tor"ue device such as atail rotor , fantail, or ?T$2, except some rare examples of helicopters using tip *et propulsion!hich generates almost no tor"ue.

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotorcraft#Classes_of_rotorcrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotorcraft#Helicopterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotorcraft#Autogyrohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotorcraft#Gyrodynehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotorcraft#Tiltrotorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotorcraft#Hybrids_and_compoundshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotorcraft#Rotor_configurationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotorcraft#Number_of_bladeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotorcraft#Number_of_rotorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotorcraft#Intermeshinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotorcraft#Ducted_rotorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotorcraft#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotorcraft#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotorcraft#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tail_rotorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fenestronhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NOTARhttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/AS32_Cougar_HongKong.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotorcraft#Classes_of_rotorcrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotorcraft#Helicopterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotorcraft#Autogyrohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotorcraft#Gyrodynehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotorcraft#Tiltrotorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotorcraft#Hybrids_and_compoundshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotorcraft#Rotor_configurationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotorcraft#Number_of_bladeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotorcraft#Number_of_rotorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotorcraft#Intermeshinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotorcraft#Ducted_rotorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotorcraft#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotorcraft#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotorcraft#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tail_rotorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fenestronhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NOTAR


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Auto %yro

A #erman-registered auto g&ro

$n auto gyro (sometimes called gyrocopter, gyroplane, or rot plane) utilizes anunpo!ered rotor driven by aerodynamic forces in a state of autorotation to develop lift, and anengine%po!ered propeller, similar to that of a fixed%!ing aircraft, to provide thrust. =hile similarto a helicopter rotor in appearance, the auto gyros rotor must have air flo!ing up and throughthe rotor dis in order to generate rotation.

7arly auto gyros resembled the fixed%!ing aircraft of the day, !ith !ings and a front%mounted engine and propeller in a tractor configuration to pull the aircraft through the air. 3ate%model auto gyros feature a rear%mounted engine and propeller in a pusher configuration.

Gyro *yne

"aire& Rotod&ne protot&pe.

The rotor of a gyro dyne is normally driven by its engine for taeoff and landinghovering lie a helicopter!ith anti%tor"ue and propulsion for translational flight provided byone or more propellers mounted on short or stub !ings. $s po!er is increased to the propeller,less po!er is re"uired by the rotor to provide for!ard thrust resulting in reduced pitch anglesand rotor blade flapping. $t cruise speeds !ith most or all of the thrust being provided by thepropellers, the rotor receives po!er only sufficient to the amount needed to overcome theprofile drag and maintain lift. The effect is a rotorcraft operating in a more efficient manner than

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autorotationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propellerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed-wing_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SFF_002-1055526_Fairey_Rotodyne.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Autogyro_D-MBHV.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autorotationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propellerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed-wing_aircraft


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the free!heeling rotor of an autogyro in autorotation, and minimizing the adverse effects ofretreating blade stall of helicopters at higher airspeeds.

Tilt $otors

A '(A" )V-** in flight

The po!ered rotors of a tilt rotor (sometimes called pro protors) are mounted on rotatingshafts or nacelles at the end of a fixed !ing, and used for both lift and propulsion. #or verticaflight, the rotors are angled to provide thrust up!ards, lifting the !ay a helicopter rotor does. $sthe aircraft gains speed, the rotors progressively rotate or tilt for!ard, !ith the rotors eventuallybecoming perpendicular to the fuselage of the aircraft, similar to a propeller . In this mode, the!ing provides the lift and the rotor provides thrust. The !ing's greater efficiency helps the tiltrotor achieve higher speeds than helicopters.

"ybri*s an* Compoun*s

$ hybrid or compound rotorcraft utilizes the !ings of a fixed%!ing or the envelope of anaerostat, along !ith the rotor(s) of a helicopter or an autogyro. 9ost have existed in design orexperimental versions only, and none have entered production.

The "oce-+ulf Triebflgel !as a design by ?azi +ermany to utilize pulse*ets to po!era rotor that rotated about the fuselage axis behind the cocpit. imilar to a coleopter aircraftthe Triebflugel too off and landed on its tail and then rotated for!ard on the pitch axis aftertaeoff and acceleration for for!ard flight. The design !as never been built beyond model !ind

tunnel testing, due to $llied bombing of the development facilities.

The Vertol V-* !as a research aircraft developed in the late As. >nlie othertilt!ing aircraft,


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continue providing lift as tandem !ings in an E configuration. The program !as canceledbefore the aircraft had attempted any flights !ith the rotor system.

/iaseci Helicopter developed the ;iaseci ;$%A6 5elistat using the rotor systems fromfour obsolete helicopters and a surplus ?avy blimp, in order to provide a capability to liftheavier loads than a single helicopter could provide. The aircraft suffered a fatal accidentduring a test flight. In -8, /oeing and y 5oo International resurrected the concept andannounced a proposed design of the y 5oo L53%1.

ROTOR CO)FI&%RATIO)

)umber of Bla*es

$ rotary !ing is characterized by the number of blades. Typically this is bet!een t!oand six.

)umber of $otors

$ rotorcraft may have one or more rotors.


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"eavier Than- Air- Aircraft

Aero*ynes

5eavier%than%air aircraft must find some !ay to push air or gas do!n!ards, so that areaction occurs (by ?e!ton's la!s of motion) to push the aircraft up!ards. This dynamicmovement through the air is the origin of the term aerodyne. There are t!o !ays to producedynamic upthrust: aerodynamic lift, and po!ered lift in the form of engine thrust.

$erodynamic lift is the most common, !ith fixed%!ing aircraft being ept in the air by thefor!ard movement of !ings, and rotorcraft by spinning !ing%shaped rotors sometimes calledrotary !ings. $ !ing is a flat, horizontal surface, usually shaped in cross%section as an aerofoil.

To fly, the !ing must move for!ard through the airC this movement of air over theaerofoil shape deflects air do!n!ard to create an e"ual and opposite up!ard force, called lift,according to ?e!ton's third la! of motion. $ flexible !ing is a !ing made of fabric or thin sheetmaterial, often stretched over a rigid frame. $ ite is tethered to the ground and relies on thespeed of the !ind over its !ings, !hich may be flexible or rigid, fixed or rotary.

=ith po!ered lift, the aircraft directs its engine thrust vertically do!n!ards.

The initialism


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An Airbus A

The /orl* &ar%est 0assen%er Airliner

A!$0&A)# C&ASS!!CAT!()

• Transport 1 refers to airplane andFor other large aircraft that exceeds certain limits. $ircraft design primary for carriage of personnel andFor cargo.

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• &imite* - refers to military aFc that are ne! allo!ed to be use only for limited propose incircle aviation. &ombat aFc or lie fighter bombers are represent only a minority of thisclassification.

• #'perimental 1 aFc used to test ne! designed in general. an experimental aFc that hasnot yet been fully proven in flight.

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• 0rovisional 1 an internal measure !Fc have not met all re"uirements but still can beoperated to certain purpose.

• Aerobatic 1 aFc have the fe!est operating limitation because their design re"uirementdemand more strength than others.

• )ormal an* utility 1 common to the most smallest aFcp use in flight training arecertified both of there classification.

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luis2

&!G"T S#$3!C# STAT!() 4SS5

$ir traffic facilities !hich provide pilot briefing, en route communications and


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feasibility of their flight, and should be updated by the pilot to either (a) or (b),above. $lthough this type of briefing is available, it should only be considered for long flights of six (4) hrs or more.

2. 0ilot Assistance

a. #n $oute Communications M ;rovide assistance !ith active $T& controller fre"uencies along the route.

b. 3$ Search an* $escue M ;rovide search and rescue services for


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. SS acility re:uencies

# facilities can cover large sector areas. +enerally, for # facilities located !ithindifferent I


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>. 0osition $ankin% $e:uirements

$s a general rule, # facility positions re"uire an in depth no!ledge of I


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The # also relays $T& clearances, and generates the recordings for its area's 0otices to Airmen 102TA!s3. The # broadcasts aviation !eather and ?ational $irspace ystem (?$)information. The tation receives and processes nited tates.

Lust as electronics and ne! technology have updated the cocpit, modernization has cometo the #light ervice tation. The $utomated #light ervice tation is e"uipped !ith ne!ertechnology to better assist the pecialists there in providing $ir Traffic services to pilots. Thereare 4 $utomated #light ervice tations ($#) in the >nited tates.

$ control tower , or more specifically an air traffic control to!er, is the name of the airportbuilding from !hich the air traffic control unit controls the movement of aircraft on and aroundthe airport. 9ost of the !orld's airports are non%to!ered or mandatory fre"uency only aminority of airports have enough traffic to *ustify a control to!er, though some airports may

open temporary to!er units during special events lie the shosh airsho!.

;ermanent control to!er structures generally rise high above other buildings at an airport togive air traffic controllers a vie! of aircraft moving on the ground and in the air around theairport, though temporary to!er units may operate from trailers or even portable radiosoutside.

9edium%traffic airports may have only one controller staffing the control to!er, and may noteep the to!er open -1 hours per day. /usier airports usually have space for severacontrollers and other support staff, and operate -1 hours per day, 04 days per year.

#ull control to!er structures usually have !indo!s that circle the entire top floor, giving allround vision. The !indo!s are usually tilted out!ards at degrees, because other!ise thecontrollers !ould see the reflection of their e"uipment. The ceiling may also be painted blac. HK

Control towers typically contain the followin%?

• radios for communication !ith aircraft, lined to controllers' headsets or to microphonesand speaersC

• a telephone system that connects dedicated voice lines and public telephone lines via"uic%dial systems to controllers' headsets, allo!ing them to tal to other controllers andoutside partiesC

• a strip board allo!ing #light ;rogress trips to be used (ho!ever in some to!ers thesehave been replaced by a computerised system)C

• a light gun for communication !ith aircraft via aviation light signals in the event of aradio failureC

• !ind and pressure gauges.• &ab glass may be impact resistant laminated, or the typical insulated annealed glass.

Testing includes the determination of acceptable tolerances regarding double imaging.

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(ther e:uipment may inclu*e the followin%?

• an aerodrome traffic monitor, !hich is a small radar display that is not used forseparation purposes but allo!s controllers to see the aircraft flying in the vicinity of theairportC

• a surface movement radar displaying aircraft and vehicles on the airport to assistcontrollers at night and in poor visibilityC

• computerized meteorological information, flight data and briefing systems.

;reventing collisions is referred to as separation, !hich is a term used to preventaircraft from coming too close to each other by use of lateral, vertical and longitudinalseparation minimaC many aircraft no! have collision avoidance systems installed to act as abacup to $T& observation and instructions. In addition to its primary function, the $T& canprovide additional services such as providing information to pilots, !eather and navigationinformation and ?T$9s (?tices To $ir9en).

In many countries, $T& services are provided throughout the ma*ority of airspace, andits services are available to all users (private, military, and commercial). =hen controllers areresponsible for separating some or all aircraft, such airspace is called @controlled airspace@ incontrast to @uncontrolled airspace@ !here aircraft may fly !ithout the use of the air trafficcontrol system. Bepending on the type of flight and the class of airspace, $T& may issueinstructions that pilots are re"uired to follo!, or merely flight information (in some countriesno!n as advisories) to assist pilots operating in the airspace. In all cases, ho!ever, the pilot

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in command has final responsibility for the safety of the flight, and may deviate from $T&instructions in an emergency.

!@#+ BAS#+ (0#$AT!()

In the aviation industry, a fixed base operator (also no!n as fixed base of operation)

or #/, is a service center at an airport that may be a private enterprise or may be adepartment of the municipality that the airport serves. The term is originally ?orth $merican,but it is becoming more common in 7urope and the >D.

$t a minimum, most #/ offer aircraft fuel, oil, and paring, along !ith access to!ashrooms and telephones. ome #/ offer additional aircraft services such as hangar(indoor) storage, maintenance, aircraft charter or rental, flight training, deicing, and groundservices such as to!ing and baggage handling. #/ may also offer services not directlyrelated to the aircraft, such as rental cars, lounges, and hotel reservations.

.istor$

In the early days of aviation in the >nited tates, there !ere no airports. @/arn%stormier@!as pilots !ho performed aerobatic sho!s and landed in farmer's fields, moving across the

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country as traveling performers. 9echanics and flight instructors follo!ed the sho!s, offeringtheir services.

$s aviation matured airports !ere built, businesses sprang up around them. 2epairstations, flight instructors, charter operators, and fuel suppliers could no! be foundconsistently at these businesses, or @fixed bases.@ =hen the first regulations !ere !ritten bythe federal &ivil $eronautics /oard (predecessor of the #$$) it !as deemed necessary todistinguish bet!een those !ho !ere offering business services at a fixed base and those !ho

!ere acting independently. Thus, the term #/ !as born, and "ualified #/ !ere grantedsome!hat more lenient regulations in some areas in return for more stringent documentationand staffing standards.

This distinction !ithin the #$$ regulations continues today, as for example, a privateflight instructor is regulated differently under ;art 4 than a fully%"ualified school operatingunder ;art 1.

Seri"es o##ered

ver the years, as most aviation services became centered on airports, the term #/

has changed in common usage. Today it usually means that an operator sells fuel for generalaviation aircraft, and provides some facilities for receiving and handling charter flights andpassengers.

$lthough many #/ still house little more than a tattered old sofa and a table for flightplanning, today most have bright, airy modern facilities. ?early all provide a computer !ith!eather depiction or an Internet connection so pilots can begin their briefings online. Inaddition to a passenger lounge, many also have a "uiet room !here a !eary cre! can leanbac and snooze !hile !aiting out the !eather or !aiting for passengers. 5ungry cre!members can fre"uently borro! a car for a "uic ride into to!n for lunch or dinner. If a car isnot available, it is not unusual for an #/ operator to provide a lift into to!n for a meal or a

hotel room.

&ommonly there is a store, or *ust a single counter, selling charts, manuals, and otheraccessories such as headsets and @sic%sacs@. If there isn't a restaurant or other food serviceon the field, there may be a vending machine or even a refrigerator stoced and maintained onthe @honor system@. ?early every #/ has a pot of coffee !aiting on the burner.

There is often a hangar available for maintenance or to protect airplanes from !eather.ther times it is necessary to @tie%do!n@ small aircraft outside near the #/.

#ancier #/ may re"uire a landing fee or an overnight fee that usually varies according

to the size of plane. In some cases, the fee is !aived if fuel is purchased.

9ost importantly, nearly every #/ provides a telephone that can be used -1%hours a day sothat pilots can close their flight plans and get a briefing for their next flight. T!enty%four hourbathrooms are another necessity

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$ ) / A & ! G " T ! ) G A ) + M A $ ! ) G S

2un!ays may intersect each other. The additional run!ays enable aircraft to land into the!ind. ingle run!ays can be difficult if there is a strong cross!ind. =here there is only onerun!ay, every effort is made to build the alignment in the direction of the prevailing !ind.

ingle

;arallel

pen%<

2un!ays are referred to after their compass heading.

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$ ) / A ) M B # $ ! ) G S S T # M

$ run!ay's compass direction is indicated by a large number painted at the end of eachrun!ay. $ run!ay's number is not !ritten in degrees, but is given a shorthand format. #orexample, a run!ay !ith a maring of @1@ is actually close to (if not a direct heading of) 1degrees. This is a southeast compass heading. $ run!ay !ith a maring of @0@ has acompass heading of 0 degrees, that is, a north!est direction. #or simplicity, the preciseheading is rounded off to the nearest tens. #or example, run!ay 6 might have a precise

heading of 48 degrees, but is rounded off to 6 degrees. It is still good practice to chec yourcompass prior to tae%off or landing as it has been no!n that the numbers have been paintedon the !rong endsS

Nour bro!ser does notsupportinlineframes or iscurrentlyconfigurednot todisplayinlineframes.

ccasionally there may be parallel run!ays. '3' and '2' is then added to the run!ay number.7ven more rarely there are three parallel run!ays. The central run!ay is called '&'.

/elo! are sho!n typical run!ay marings.

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Nour bro!ser does not support inline frames or is currently configured not to display inlineframes.

2elocation of a Threshold !ith 9arings forTaxi!ay $ligned !ith 2un!ay

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$)/A &!G"T!)G

It is relatively easy to navigate around small airports, but large airports can be a nightmare forpilots using them for the first fe! times. ;ilots can inform the ground controller they areunfamiliar !ith the airport, and re"uest progressive taxi instructions. The ground controllers arehappy to help ne!comers. The airborne vie! of BallasF#t. =orth airport !ill give you a pictureof ho! complex and confusing a large airport can be to pilots !ho do not !or out of B#=regularly. The vie! looing north sho!s nine run!ays and dozens of taxi!ays and high%speedturnoffs.

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$irports also use standardized lighting to provide direction and identification to all airand ground cre!s. To assist pilots in differentiating at night bet!een airport run!ays and ma*orroads, airports have rotating beacon lights. These beacons usually flash green and !hite lightsto indicate a civilian airport. These beacons are visible from the air long before the entire

airport is recognizable.

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9ilitary identification beacons flash re*.

To help pilots at night "uicly identify the beginning of a run!ay, green threshold lightsline the run!ay's edge. $e* li%hts mar the ends of run!ays and indicate obstructions. Blueli%hts run alongside taxi!ays !hile run!ays have white or yellow li%hts maring their edges

$ll these marings and lights serve to set a safety standard for all pilots to follo!.

"istory

The first run!ay lighting appeared in A0 at &leveland 9unicipal $irport (no non as)leveland Hopins %nternational Airport ) in &leveland, hio.

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Technical Specifications

2un!ay lighting is used at airports !hich allo! night landings. een from the air, run!ay lightsform an outline of the run!ay.H $ particular run!ay may have some or all of the follo!ing.

• $unway #n* !*entification &i%hts (27I3H0K) M >nidirectional (facing approach direction)or omnidirectional pair of synchronized flashing lights installed at the run!ay threshold,one on each side.

• $unway en* li%hts M $ pair of four lights on each side of the run!ay on precisioninstrument run!ays, these lights extend along the full !idth of the run!ay. These lightssho! green !hen vie!ed by approaching aircraft and red !hen seen from the run!ay. H

• $unway e*%e li%hts M =hite elevated lights that run the length of the run!ay on eitherside. n precision instrument run!ays, the edge%lighting becomes yello! in the last-, ft (4 m) of the run!ay. Taxi!ays are differentiated by being bordered by bluelights, or by having green centre lights, depending on the !idth of the taxi!ay, and thecomplexity of the taxi pattern.H

• $unway Centerline &i%htin% System (2&3H0K) M 3ights embedded into surface of therun!ay at ft ( m) intervals along the run!ay centerline on some precisioninstrument run!ays. =hite except the last 0, ft (A1 m), alternate !hite and red fornext -, ft (4 m) and red for last , ft (0 m).

• Touch*own Done &i%hts (TBJ3H0K) M This consists of ro!s of !hite light bars (!ith threein each ro!) on either side of the centerline over the first 0, ft (A1 m) (or to themidpoint, !hichever is less) of the run!ay.

• Ta'iway Centerline &ea*-(ff &i%hts M Installed along lead%off marings, alternategreen and yello! lights embedded into the run!ay pavement. It starts !ith green light

about run!ay centerline to the position of first centerline light beyond holding positionon taxi!ay.

• Ta'iway Centerline &ea*-(n &i%hts M Installed the same !ay as taxi!ay centerlinelead%off 3ights.

• &an* an* "ol* Short &i%hts M $ ro! of !hite pulsating lights installed across therun!ay to indicate hold short position on some run!ays !hich are facilitating land andhold short operations (3$5).

• Approach &i%htin% System ($3H0K) M $ lighting system installed on the approach end

of an airport run!ay and consists of a series of lightbars, strobe lights, or a combinationof the t!o that extends out!ard from the run!ay end.

$ccording to Transport &anada's regulations, the run!ay%edge lighting must be visible forat least - mi (0 m). $dditionally, a ne! system of advisory lighting, 2un!ay tatus 3ights, iscurrently being tested in the >nited tates.

The edge lights must be arranged such that:

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• the minimum distance bet!een lines is 6 ft (-0 m), and maximum is - ft (4 m)C• the maximum distance bet!een lights !ithin each line is - ft (4 m)C• the minimum length of parallel lines is ,1 ft (1-6 m)C• the minimum number of lights in the line is 8.

Control of &i%htin% System % Typically the lights are controlled by a control to!er , a #ligh

ervice tation or another designated authority. ome airportsFairfields ( particularl&uncontrolled ones) are e"uipped !ith ;ilot &ontrolled 3ighting, so that pilots can temporarilyturn on the lights !hen the relevant authority is not available. This avoids the need forautomatic systems or staff to turn the lights on at night or in other lo! visibility situations. Thisalso avoids the cost of having the lighting system on for extended periods. maller airportsmay not have lighted run!ays or run!ay marings. ;articularly at private airfields for lightplanes, there may be nothing more than a !indsoc beside a landing strip.

There are three types of runways?

• 3isual $unways are used at small airstrips and are usually *ust a strip of grass, gravel,asphalt or concrete. $lthough there are usually no marings on a visual run!ay, theymay have threshold marings, designators, and centerlines. $dditionally, they do notprovide an instrument%based landing procedureC pilots must be able to see the run!ayto use it. $lso, radio communication may not be available and pilots must be self%reliant.

• )on-0recision !nstrument $unways are often used at small% to medium%size airportsThese run!ays, depending on the surface, may be mared !ith threshold marings,designators, centerlines, and sometimes a , ft (0 m) mar (no!n as an aimingpoint, sometimes installed at , ft (16 m)). They provide horizontal positionguidance to planes on instrument approach via ?on%directional beacon (?B/),


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• 2un!ays in ?or!ay have yello! marings instead of the usual !hite ones. This alsooccurs on some airports in Lapan. The yello! marings are used to ensure bettercontrast against sno!.

• 2un!ays may have different types on each end. To cut costs, many airports do notinstall precision guidance e"uipment on both ends. 2un!ays !ith one precision endand any other type of end can install the full set of touchdo!n zones, even if some arepast the midpoint. If a run!ay has precision marings on both ends, touchdo!n zones!ithin A ft (-61 m) of the midpoint are omitted, to avoid pilot confusion over !hich end

the maring belongs to. 2un!ay safety

everal terms fall under the flight safety topic of runway safety, including incursione'cursion, and confusion.

$unway #'cursion is an incident involving only a single aircraft !here it maes aninappropriate exit from the run!ay. This can happen because of pilot error, poor !eather,emergency, or a fault !ith the aircraft. (verrun is a type of excursion !here the aircraft isunable to stop before the end of the run!ay. An e5ample of such an event is Air "rance "light678 in *997. "urther e5amples can be found in the overruns categor& .

2un!ay excursion is the most fre"uent type of landing accident, slightly ahead ofrunway incursion. #or run!ay accidents recorded bet!een AA and -6, A4G !ere of the'excursion' type.

$unway event is another term for a runway acci*ent.

2un!ay incursion involves a first aircraft, as !ell as a second aircraft, vehicle, orperson. It is defined by the >.. #ederal $viation $dministration (#$$) as: @$ny occurrence atan aerodrome involving the incorrect presence of an aircraft, vehicle or person on theprotected area of a surface designated for the landing and tae off of aircraft.@ HAK

$unway Confusion involves a single aircraft, and is used to describe the error !hen theaircraft maes @the unintentional use of the !rong run!ay, or a taxi!ay, for landing or tae%[email protected]

The active run!ay is the run!ay at an airport that is in current use for taeoffs andlandings. ince taeoffs and landings are usually done as close to @into the !ind@ (seehead!ind) as possible, !ind direction generally determines the active run!ay (or *ust theactive in aviation vernacular).

election of the active run!ay, ho!ever, depends on a number of factors. $t a non%to!ered airport, pilots usually select the run!ay most nearly aligned !ith the !ind, but they are

not obliged to use that particular run!ay. #or example, a pilot arriving from the east may electto land straight in to an east%!est run!ay despite a minor tail!ind or significant cross!ind, inorder to expedite his arrival, although it is recommended to al!ays fly a regular traffic patternto more safely merge !ith other aircraft.

$t controlled airports, the active is usually determined by a to!er supervisor. 5o!everthere may be constraints, such as policy from the airport manager (calm !ind run!ayselection, for example, or noise abatement guidelines) that dictate an active run!ay selectionthat isn't the one most nearly aligned !ith the !ind.

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T A@ ! / A & ! G " T ! ) G A ) + M A $ ! ) G S

The most important rule to remember is that any sign that has !hite letters on red ismandatory. >sually they mar points that must not be passed !ithout permission from air trafficcontrol.

Taxi!ays should have centreline marings and run!ay holding position marings !heneverthey intersect a run!ay. Taxi!ay edge marings are present !henever there is a need toseparate the taxi!ay from a pavement that is not intended for aircraft use or to delineate theedge of the taxi!ay. Taxi!ays may also have shoulder marings and holding position maringsfor Instrument 3anding ystemF9icro!ave 3anding ystem (I3F93) critical areas, andtaxi!ayFtaxi!ay intersection marings.

The taxi!ay centreline is a single continuous yello! line, 4 inches ( cm) to - inches (0 cm)in !idth. This provides a visual cue to permit taxiing along a designated path. Ideally theaircraft should be ept centred over this line during taxi to ensure !ing%tip clearance.

Ta'iway #*%e Markin%s. Taxi!ay edge marings are used to define the edge of the taxi!ay.They are primarily used !hen the taxi!ay edge does not correspond !ith the edge of thepavement. There are t!o types of marings depending upon !hether the aircraft is suppose tocross the taxi!ay edge:

6. Continuous Markin%s. These consist of a continuous double yello! line, !ith each linebeing at least 4 inches ( cm) in !idth spaced 4 inches ( cm) apart. They are used todefine the taxi!ay edge from the shoulder or some other abutting paved surface not intendedfor use by aircraft.

9. +ashe* Markin%s. These marings are used !hen there is an operational need to define

the edge of a taxi!ay or taxi%lane on a paved surface !here the ad*oining pavement to thetaxi!ay edge is intended for use by aircraft. e.g., an apron. Bashed taxi!ay edge maringsconsist of a broen double yello! line, !ith each line being at least 4 inches ( cm) in !idthspaced 4 inches ( cm) apart (edge to edge). These lines are feet (1. m) in length !ith -foot (6. m) gaps. (ee #I+ -%0%A.)

Ta'i Shoul*er Markin%s. Taxi!ays, holding bays, and aprons are sometimes provided !ithpaved shoulders to prevent blast and !ater erosion. $lthough shoulders may have theappearance of full strength pavement they are not intended for use by aircraft, and may beunable to support an aircraft. >sually the taxi!ay edge maring !ill define this area. =hereconditions exist such as islands or taxi!ay curves that may cause confusion as to !hich side

of the edge stripe is for use by aircraft, taxi!ay shoulder marings may be used to indicate thepavement is unusable. Taxi!ay shoulder marings are yello!.

Surface 0ainte* Ta'iway +irection Si%ns. urface painted taxi!ay direction signs have ayello! bacground !ith a blac inscription, and are provided !hen it is not possible to providetaxi!ay direction signs at intersections, or !hen necessary to supplement such signs. Thesemarings are located ad*acent to the centreline !ith signs indicating turns to the left being onthe left side of the taxi!ay centreline and signs indicating turns to the right being on the rightside of the centreline.

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Surface 0ainte* Ta'iway +irection Si%ns

Surface 0ainte* &ocation Si%ns. urface painted location signs have a blac bacground!ith a yello! inscription. =hen necessary, these marings are used to supplement locationsigns located along side the taxi!ay and assist the pilot in confirming the designation of thetaxi!ay on !hich the aircraft is located. These marings are located on the right side of thecenterline.

Surface 0ainte* &ocation Si%ns

Geo%raphic 0osition Markin%s. These marings are located at points along lo! visibility taxroutes designated in the airport's urface 9ovement +uidance &ontrol ystem (9+&) plan.They are used to identify the location of taxiing aircraft during lo! visibility operations. 3o!visibility operations are those that occur !hen the run!ay visible range (2


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number and letter. The number corresponds to the consecutive position of the maring on theroute.

Geo%raphic 0osition Markin%s

" o l * i n % 0 o s i t i o n M a r k i n % s

$unway "ol*in% 0osition Markin%s.

#or run!ays these marings indicate !here an aircraft is supposed to stop. Theyconsist of four yello! lines t!o solid, and t!o dashed, spaced six or t!elve inches apart andextending across the !idth of the taxi!ay or run!ay. The solid lines are al!ays on the side!here the aircraft is to hold. There are three locations !here run!ay holding position maringsare encountered.

$unway "ol*in% 0osition Markin%s on Ta'iways.

These marings identify the locations on a taxi!ay !here an aircraft is supposed to stop!hen it does not have clearance to proceed onto the run!ay. =hen instructed by $T& @5oldshort of (run!ay @xx@)@ the pilot should stop so no part of the aircraft extends beyond theholding position maring. =hen approaching the holding position maring, a pilot should notcross the maring !ithout $T& clearance at a controlled airport or !ithout maing sure ofade"uate separation from other aircraft at uncontrolled airports. $n aircraft exiting a run!ay isnot clear of the run!ay until all parts of the aircraft have crossed the applicable holdingposition maring.

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$unway "ol*in% 0osition Markin%s on $unways.

These marings are installed on run!ays only if the run!ay is normally used by airtraffic control for @land, hold short@ operations or taxiing operations and have operationalsignificance only for those t!o types of operations. $ sign !ith a !hite inscription on a red

bacground is installed ad*acent to these holding position marings. (see above) The holdingposition marings are placed on run!ays prior to the intersection !ith another run!ay, or somedesignated point. ;ilots receiving instructions @cleared to land, run!ay @xx@@ from air trafficcontrol are authorized to use the entire landing length of the run!ay and should disregard anyholding position marings located on the run!ay. ;ilots receiving and accepting instructions@cleared to land run!ay @xx,@ hold short of run!ay @yy@@ from air traffic control must either exitrun!ay @xx,@ or stop at the holding position prior to run!ay @yy.@

Ta'iways &ocate* in $unway Approach Areas.

These marings are used at some airports !here it is necessary to hold an aircraft on ataxi!ay located in the approach or departure area of a run!ay so that the aircraft does notinterfere !ith the operations on that run!ay. This maring is collocated !ith the run!ayapproach area holding position sign.

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Ta'iways &ocate* in $unway Approach Areas

"ol*in% 0osition Markin%s for !nstrument &an*in% System 4!&S5.

5olding position marings for I3F93 critical areas consist of t!o yello! solid linesspaced t!o feet apart connected by pairs of solid lines spaced ten feet apart extending acrossthe !idth of the taxi!ay as sho!n. $ sign !ith an inscription in !hite on a red bacground isinstalled ad*acent to these hold position marings. =hen the I3 critical area is being

protected, the pilot should stop so no part of the aircraft extends beyond the holding positionmaring. =hen approaching the holding position maring, a pilot should not cross the maring!ithout $T& clearance. I3 critical area is not clear until all parts of the aircraft have crossedthe applicable holding position maring.

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"ol*in% 0osition Markin%s for Ta'iway= Ta'iway !ntersections.

5olding position marings for taxi!ayFtaxi!ay intersections consist of a single dashedline extending across the !idth of the taxi!ay as sho!n. They are installed on taxi!ays !hereair traffic control normally holds aircraft short of a taxi!ay intersection. =hen instructed by $T&@hold short of (taxi!ay)@ the pilot should stop so no part of the aircraft extends beyond theholding position maring. =hen the maring is not present the pilot should stop the aircraft at apoint !hich provides ade"uate clearance from an aircraft on the intersecting taxi!ay.

Surface 0ainte* "ol*in% 0osition Si%ns.

urface painted holding position signs have a red bacground !ith a !hite inscriptionand supplement the signs located at the holding position. This type of maring is normally used!here the !idth of the holding position on the taxi!ay is greater than - feet(4m). It islocated to the left side of the taxi!ay centreline on the holding side and prior to the holdingposition maring.

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3ehicle $oa*way Markin%s.

The vehicle road!ay marings are used !hen necessary to define a path!ay for vehicleoperations on or crossing areas that are also intended for aircraft. These marings consist of a!hite solid line to delineate each edge of the road!ay and a dashed line to separate lanes!ithin the edges of the road!ay. In lieu of the solid lines, zipper marings may be used todelineate the edges of the vehicle road!ay.

3ehicle $oa*way Markin%s

$oa*way #*%e Stripes, /hite, Dipper Style

)on-movement Area Boun*ary Markin%s.

These marings delineate the movement area, i.e., area under air traffic control. Thesemarings are yello! and located on the boundary bet!een the movement and non%movementarea. The non%movement area boundary marings consist of t!o yello! lines (one solid andone dashed) 4 inches (cm) in !idth. The solid line is located on the non%movement area side

!hile the dashed yello! line is located on the movement area side.

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)on-movement Area Boun*ary Markin%s

A ! $ 0($ T S ! G) S

There are six types of signs installed on airfields: mandatory instruction signs, location signs

direction signs, destination signs, information signs, and run!ay distance remaining signs.

M a n * a t o r y ! n s t r u c t i o n S i % n s

a. These signs have a red bacground !ith a !hite inscription and are used to denote:

6. $n entrance to a run!ay or critical area andC

9. $reas !here an aircraft is prohibited from entering.

b . T yp i c a l m a n * a t o r y s i % n s a n * a p p l i c a t i o n s a r e ?

$unway "ol*in% 0osition Si%n.

This sign is located at the holding position on taxi!ays that intersect a run!ay or onrun!ays that intersect other run!ays. The inscription on the sign contains the designation ofthe intersecting run!ay as sho!n in #I+ -%0%-1. The run!ay numbers on the sign arearranged to correspond to the respective run!ay threshold. #or example, @%00@ indicatesthat the threshold for 2un!ay is to the left and the threshold for 2un!ay 00 is to the right.

$unway "ol*in% 0osition Si%n

n taxi!ays that intersect the beginning of the taeoff run!ay, only the designation ofthe taeoff run!ay may appear on the sign, !hile all other signs !ill have the designation ofboth run!ay directions.

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"ol*in% 0osition Si%n at Be%innin% of Takeoff $unway

If the sign is located on a taxi!ay that intersects the intersection of t!o run!ays, the

designations for both run!ays !ill be sho!n on the sign along !ith arro!s sho!ing theapproximate alignment of each run!ay. In addition to sho!ing the approximate run!ayalignment, the arro! indicates the direction to the threshold of the run!ay !hose designationis immediately next to the arro!.

"ol*in% 0osition Si%n for a Ta'iway that !ntersects the !ntersection of Two $unways

$ run!ay holding position sign on a taxi!ay !ill be installed ad*acent to holding position

marings on the taxi!ay pavement. n run!ays, holding position marings !ill be located onlyon the run!ay pavement ad*acent to the sign, if the run!ay is normally used by air trafficcontrol for @3and, 5old hort@ operations or as a taxi!ay.

$unway Approach Area "ol*in% 0osition Si%n.

$t some airports, it is necessary to hold an aircraft on a taxi!ay located in the approachor departure area for a run!ay so that the aircraft does not interfere !ith operations on thatrun!ay. In these situations, a sign !ith the designation of the approach end of the run!ayfollo!ed by a @dash@ (%) and letters @$;&5@ !ill be located at the holding position on thetaxi!ay. 5olding position marings !ill be located on the taxi!ay pavement. $n example of this

sign is sho!n belo!. In this example, the sign may protect the approach to 2un!ay andForthe departure for 2un!ay 00.

"ol*in% 0osition Si%n for a $unway Approach Area

!&S Critical Area "ol*in% 0osition Si%n.

$t some airports, !hen the instrument landing system is being used, it is necessary to

hold an aircraft on a taxi!ay at a location other than the holding position described inparagraph -%0%, 5olding ;osition 9arings. In these situations the holding position sign forthese operations !ill have the inscription @I3@ and be located ad*acent to the holding positionmaring on the taxi!ay described in paragraph -%0%. $n example of this sign is sho!n belo!.

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"ol*in% 0osition Si%n for !&S Critical Area

)o #ntry Si%n.

This sign, sho!n in belo!, prohibits an aircraft from entering an area. Typically, this sign!ould be located on a taxi!ay intended to be used in only one direction or at the intersectionof vehicle road!ays !ith run!ays, taxi!ays or aprons !here the road!ay may be mistaen asa taxi!ay or other aircraft movement surface.

Si%n 0rohibitin% Aircraft #ntry into an Area

& o c a t i o n S i % n s

3ocation signs are used to identify either a taxi!ay or run!ay on !hich the aircraft islocated. ther location signs provide a visual cue to pilots to assist them in determining !henthey have exited an area. The various location signs are described belo!.

Ta'iway &ocation Si%n. This sign has a blac bacground !ith a yello! inscription and yello!border as sho!n belo!.

Ta'iway &ocation Si%n

The inscription is the designation of the taxi!ay on !hich the aircraft is located. Thesesigns are installed along taxi!ays either by themselves or in con*unction !ith direction signs or

run!ay holding position signs.

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Ta'iway &ocation Si%n Collocate* with$unway "ol*in% 0osition Si%n

fi% 6 +irection Si%n Array with &ocation Si%n on ar Si*e of !ntersection

$unway &ocation Si%n.

This sign has a blac bacground !ith a yello! inscription and yello! border. Theinscription is the designation of the run!ay on !hich the aircraft is located. These signs areintended to complement the information available to pilots through their magnetic compass andtypically are installed !here the proximity of t!o or more run!ays to one another could causepilots to be confused as to !hich run!ay they are on.

$unway &ocation Si%n

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$unway Boun*ary Si%n.

This sign has a yello! bacground !ith a blac inscription !ith a graphic depicting thepavement holding position maring. This sign, !hich faces the run!ay and is visible to the pilotexiting the run!ay, is located ad*acent to the holding position maring on the pavement. Thesign is intended to provide pilots !ith another visual cue !hich they can use as a guide indeciding !hen they are @clear of the run!ay.@

$unway Boun*ary Si%n

!&S Critical Area Boun*ary Si%n.

This sign has a yello! bacground !ith a blac inscription !ith a graphic depicting theI3 pavement holding position maring as sho!n in #I+ -%0%01. This sign is located ad*acentto the I3 holding position maring on the pavement and can be seen by pilots leaving thecritical area. The sign is intended to provide pilots !ith another visual cue !hich they can useas a guide in deciding !hen they are @clear of the I3 critical area.@

!&S Critical Area Boun*ary Si%n

+ i r e c t i o n S i % n s

a. Birection signs have a yello! bacground !ith a blac inscription. The inscriptionidentifies the designation(s) of the intersecting taxi!ay(s) leading out of the intersection that apilot !ould normally be expected to turn onto or hold short of. 7ach designation isaccompanied by an arro! indicating the direction of the turn.

b. 7xcept as noted in subparagraph e, each taxi!ay designation sho!n on the sign isaccompanied by only one arro!. =hen more than one taxi!ay designation is sho!n on thesign each designation and its associated arro! is separated from the other taxi!aydesignations by either a vertical message divider or a taxi!ay location sign.

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c. Birection signs are normally located on the left prior to the intersection. =hen usedon a run!ay to indicate an exit, the sign is located on the same side of the run!ay as the exit.The illustration belo! sho!s a direction sign used to indicate a run!ay exit.

+irection Si%n for $unway #'it

*. The taxi!ay designations and their associated arro!s on the sign are arrangedcloc!ise starting from the first taxi!ay on the pilot's left.

e. If a location sign is located !ith the direction signs, it is placed so that thedesignations for all turns to the left !ill be to the left of the location signC the designations forcontinuing straight ahead or for all turns to the right !ould be located to the right of the locationsign.

f. =hen the intersection is comprised of only one crossing taxi!ay, it is permissible tohave t!o arro!s associated !ith the crossing taxi!ay as sho!n belo!. In this case, thelocation sign is located to the left of the direction sign.

+irection Si%n Array for Simple !ntersection

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! n f o r m a t i o n S i % n s

Information signs have a yello! bacground !ith a blac inscription. They are used toprovide the pilot !ith information on such things as areas that cannot be seen from the controlto!er, applicable radio fre"uencies, and noise abatement procedures. The airport operatordetermines the need, size, and location for these signs.

$ u n w a y + i s t a n c e $ e m a i n i n % S i % n s

2un!ay distance remaining signs have a blac bacground !ith a !hite numeral inscriptionand may be installed along one or both side(s) of the run!ay. The number on the signsindicates the distance (in thousands of feet) of landing run!ay remaining. The last sign, i.e.,the sign !ith the numeral @,@ !ill be located at least A feet from the run!ay end. Theillustration belo! sho!s an example of a run!ay distance remaining sign.

$unway +istance $emainin% Si%n !n*icatin% , feet of $unway $emainin%

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Ta' i way & i %h t i n%

;hiladelphia International $irport. The !hite lighting of the 0 run!ays is clearly visible, !hilethe taxi!ays are lit in blue.

Ta'iway #*%e &i%hts. Taxi!ay edge lights are used to outline the edges of taxi!ays duringperiods of darness or restricted visibility conditions. These fixtures emit blue light.

)OTE- At most ma:or airports these lights have variable intensit& settings and ma& be ad:usted at pilotre;uest or hen deemed necessar& b& the controller.

Ta'iway Centreline &i%hts. Taxi!ay centreline lights are used to facilitate ground traffic under

lo! visibility conditions. They are located along the taxi!ay centreline in a straight line onstraight portions, on the centreline of curved portions, and along designated taxiing paths inportions of run!ays, ramp, and apron areas. Taxi!ay centreline lights are steady burning andemit green light.

Clearance Bar &i%hts. &learance bar lights are installed at holding positions on taxi!ays inorder to increase the conspicuity of the holding position in lo! visibility conditions. They mayalso be installed to indicate the location of an intersecting taxi!ay during periods of darness.&learance bars consist of three in%pavement steady%burning yello! lights.

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$unway Guar* &i%hts. 2un!ay guard lights are installed at taxi!ayFrun!ay intersections.They are primarily used to enhance the conspicuity of taxi!ayFrun!ay intersections during lo!visibility conditions, but may be used in all !eather conditions. 2un!ay guard lights consist ofeither a pair of elevated flashing yello! lights installed on either side of the taxi!ay, or a ro! ofin%pavement yello! lights installed across the entire taxi!ay, at the run!ay holding positionmaring.

)OTE-

(ome airports ma& have a ro of three or five in-pavement &ello lights installed atta5ia&


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The #$$ includes over - different run!ay layouts in their advisory materials. There are 1basic run!ay configuration s!ith the rest being variations of the original patterns. The basic

run!ay configurations are the follo!ing:

Sin%le $unway

This is the simplest of the 1 basic configurations. It is one run!ay optimally positioned forprevailing !inds, noise, land use and other determining factors. Buring


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B5 0arallel $unways

There are 1 types of parallel run!ays. These are named according to ho! closely they areplaced next to each other.perations per hour !ill vary depending on the total number ofrun!ays and the mix of aircraft. In I#2 conditionsfor predominantly light aircraft, the number ofoperations !ould range bet!een 41 to -8 per hour.

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C5 (pen-3 $unways

T!o run!ays that diverge from different directions but do ?T intersect form a shape thatloos lie an @open%


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The capacity for the number of operations varies greatly !ith this run!ay configuration. It reallydepends on the location of the intersection and the manner in !hich the run!ays are operated(I#2,


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A ! $ ! # & + M A $ ! ) G S

In the good old, bad old days, airfields !ere *ust that..... a field. $ pilot may !ell havefound it by follo!ing a road or rail!ay line, and *ust to mae sure, the name of the airfield !asoften painted in large letters on the hanger roof. $ lo! and slo! pass over the field to see the!ind soc and the pilot !ould then land into the !ind.

3ie everything else in this !orld, things have got a lot more complicated than that.Trainee pilots at first become very concerned that they can never identify an airfield from the

air. 2est assured that after only a short time, you !ill notice even long defunct airstrips !ith notrouble at all. In any case, !ith the use of radio navigation e"uipment including of course the+; system it is not at all hard to locate any published airfield. $ dying practice tocommunicate !ith pilots in the air is the use of the si%nals s:uare. $ - metre s"uare on theground has movable symbols that if remembered !ill give information about the airfield. If theyexist at all, they are al!ays mared on the airfiel* plate as a ETE. In the current environmentthey are "uite difficult to see, and the use of radio communication and the provision of goodairfield data maes them largely unnecessary. 9any pilots !ould agree that their eyesight isbetter employed eeping a looout for other aircraft.

$irfield plate of hobdon (>D)

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These Groun* Si%nals Are se* (utsi*e The Si%nals S:uare

A**itional Si%nals (n Military iel*s

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Si%ns for aircraft on the %roun*

The pilot reporting point is *ust about al!ays present, often at the control to!er or office.That's !here they collect the landing feeS $s for the rest, they hardly exist at all, although oneis supposed to no! about them to pass the exam.

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The /in*sock

3ast but definitely not the least is the !indsoc. Installed on every airfield, they are themost direct indication to the pilot of !ind direction. Bue to local conditions, some airfields mayhave more than one, and they may very !ell sho! different !ind direction. The most famousexample is the airfield of +ibraltar. ?ot only does the run!ay bisect the main +ibraltar road,but !ind direction may be completely opposite at one end of the run!ay to the other due to theeffect of the '2oc'.

+ibraltar #ield

The position of the !indsoc is al!ays published on airfield plates. They may be - not or 0not socs. It is rather important to no! !hich they are, and sadly, not every airfield plate !illspecify. If the soc is completely horizontal, the !ind strength !ill be -F0 nots or more.

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AT C & ! G " T S ! G ) A & S

In the event that aircraft radios have failed or the that the pilot is silly enough to fly !itha non radio e"uipped aircraft, the $T& unit can communicate !ith the pilot by light signals.

li%ht si%nal

from ATC 4probably tower5

to aircraft in fli%htto aircraft on

%roun*

give !ay to otheraircraft andcontinue to circle

top

do not land % !aitfor permission

do not land % airfield isnot available forlanding

move clear oflanding area

return toaerodrome: !ait forpermission to land

to an aircraftyou may move on

manoeuvring areaand apronto a vehicleyou may move onthe manoeuvringarea

you may land you may tae off

you may land afterreceivingcontinuous greenlight, then afterreceiving greenflashes proceed toapron

return to yourstarting point onthe airfield

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in the hi%hly unlikely event that your aircraft is suitablye:uippe* you can communicate with the %roun* by usin% li%ht

si%nals

li%ht si%nal from aircraft to airfiel*

red pyrotechnic or red flare

immediate assistance isre"uired (!hich is probablybecause you have *ust setyour aircraft alightS)

steady green flashes or pyrotechnic

by ni%htmay I landVby *aymay I land in a direction

different from that indicatedby the landing T

!hite flashes, s!itching onand off landing lights orirregular flashing ofnavigation lights

I am compelled to land

Ta' i i n% " an* S i %n a l s

FI& -2-7 Si%nalman +irects Towin%

FI& -2-3 Si%nalmanEs 0osition

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FI& -2-4

All Clear 4(..5

FI& -2-10

Start #n%ine

FI& -2-11

0ull Chocks

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FI& -2-13

Cut #n%ines

FI& -2-14 )i%ht (peration

FI& -2-50

Stop

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A!$C$AT

$n aircraft is a vehicle !hich is able to fly by being supported by the air , or in generalthe atmosphere of a planet. $n aircraft counters the force of gravity by using either static lift (as!ith balloons, blimps and dirigibles) or by using the dynamic lift of an airfoil (as !ith vehiclesthat plane the air !ith !ings in a straight manner, such as airplanes and gliders, or vehiclesthat generate lift !ith !ings in a rotary manner , such as helicopters or gyrocopters).HK

$lthough rocets and missiles also travel through the atmosphere, most are notconsidered aircraft because they use rocet thrust instead of aerodynamics as the primarymeans of lift ($ cruise missile may be considered to be an aircraft because it relies on a lifting!ing).

The human activity !hich surrounds aircraft is called aviation. 9anned aircraft are flo!nby an onboard pilot. >nmanned aerial vehicles may be remotely controlled or self%controlled byonboard computers. Target drones are an example of >$


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"eavier than air - aero*ynes

5eavier%than%air aircraft must find some !ay to push air or gas do!n!ards, so that areaction occurs (by ?e!ton's l

airport and airways

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