akurgal, ekrem_the early period and the golden age of ionia_aja, 66, 4_1962_369-379

8/9/2019 Akurgal, Ekrem_The Early Period and the Golden Age of Ionia_AJA, 66, 4_1962_369-379

1/20

The Early Period and the Golden Age of IoniaAuthor(s): Ekrem AkurgalSource: American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 66, No. 4 (Oct., 1962), pp. 369-379Published by: Archaeological Institute of AmericaStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/502024 .

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2/20

T h e

E a r l y

P e r i o d

n d

t h

o l d e n

g e

o

I o n i a

EKREM

AKURGAL

The

excavations and

researches

carried

out

in

recent

years

in

western

Asia

Minor

provide

us with

some new evidence

about the

Aeolians

and

Ionians

who,

coming

from

mainland

Greece,

established

themselves

in

their new

homeland

after

the

Trojan

War and

the

collapse

of the Hittite

Empire.2

The

present

article

aims to

discuss

the

emergence

and

development

of these

colonies,

and to examine

the

position

of

Ionian

art within

the

Hellenic

world

in

the

light

of new

archaeological

materials.3

The

Early

Period

(1050-650)

FIRST

PHASE

(1050-750).

ESTABLISHMENT

OF

THE

COLO-

NIES

AND

EXPANSION

OF

THE

IONIAN

CITIES

(PAN-

IONION)

The

Anglo-Turkish

excavations

at

Bayrakli,

that

is

ancient

Smyrna,

have

yielded

successive

habita-

tion

levels

from

the

Protogeometric

period

to

Hel-

lenistic

times.4

The

earliest

Greek cultural

remains

are

Protogeometric

vases

which

represent

note-

worthy

products

made after

Attic

models

(pl.

96,

figs.

1-2).

They

have been found in

Bayrakli

in a

relatively

noticeable

quantity,

although

this

level

was

excavated

to a rather

limited

extent

only.

Some

of the

pieces

may

date

from the

i

ith

century.

A

small

well-preserved

cottage

of oval

form

be-

longs

to the

latter

part

of

this

Protogeometric

level

and

dates

from

the

end of

the

ioth

century

(pl.96,

fig.3).

It

is a

primitive

house with

mud-brick

walls

PLATES

96-103

and

most

probably

with

straw

roof,

consisting

of

a

single

room. But

it

represents,

with

its

handsome

courses

of mud-brick

and

intact

ground plan,

the

best

preserved

of

early

Greek

buildings,

and in

fact

is

the

earliest

one

in existence.

In

the next

level,

characterized

by

east

Greek

pottery

of

Early

Geometric

style

and

dating

back

to

the

9th

century,

rectangular

houses

appear;

these

likewise

consist

of a

single

but

large

room with

stone

foundations.

Three

well-preserved

houses

of

this level have been uncovered.6

In one

of

them

primitive

domestic

installations

of

unbaked

clay

were

found

in

position

on the

floor.

The

Protogeometric

and

Early

Geometric

levels

of

Bayrakli

represent

the first

phase

of

the

Aeolo-

Ionian

civilization.

Miletus

is the

next

Greek

city

of Anatolia

which

has

yielded

remains

belonging

to

this

time.'

Here

were

found

Protogeometric

and

Early

Geometric

pottery

in noticeable

quantity.

The

excavations

at

Phocaea

also

provided

some

Proto-

geometric

sherds.

And

finally,

John

Cook

has

dis-

covered

a stratum

with

Protogeometric

pottery

on

a small

peninsular

site near

Kugadasi,8

down the

coast

from

Ephesus.

He

likewise

found

Protogeo-

metric sherds

in

Mordogan

and

Clazomenae.f

Thus

the

present

state

of

research

shows

clearly

enough

that

the western

coast

of

Anatolia

was

in-

habited

by

the

Aeolians

and

Ionians

during

the

ioth

century

at

least.'0

It

is

even

possible

that

the

upper

limit

may

go

back

to

the

middle

of

the

i ith

1

This

paper

presents

a

part

of the lectures

which

the writer

has

given

as

visiting

Professor

at

Princeton

University

in the

academic

year 1961-1962.

2 The systematiccolonization of western Asia Minor and the

adjacent

islands

by

the

Greeks

took

place

after

the

Trojan

War

and

the

downfall

of

the Hittite

Empire,

as

a continuation

of

the

Mycenaean

establishments

which were

founded

in this

area

during

the

third

quarter

of

the

second

millennium.

For the

problems

of

Ionian

colonization

see:

F.

Cassola,

La

lonia

nel

Mondo

Miceneo

(1957)

and

M.

B.

Sakellarion,

La

Migration

Grecque

en

lonie

(1958).

The

Mycenaean

trade

settlements

and

the

kingdom

of

Ahhi-

jawa

are,

on the other

hand,

certainly

related

to the

first Indo-

european

invasion

dating

back

to

the

end of

the

third

mil-

lennium,

when

the

Hittites,

Luwians,

Lydians

and

many

other

Indoeuropean peoples

immigrated

into

Anatolia. See

in

this

connection

A.

Goetze,

Kleinasien

(Miinchen 1956)

and

G.

L.

Huxley,

Achaeans

and Hittites

(1960).

3

For

the

position

of

Ionian

art

within

the

Hellenic

world

see

George

M.

A.

Hanfmann,

Ionia,

Leader

or Follower?

HSCP

61(1953)1-37;

see also

E.

Akurgal,

Die

Kunst

Anatoliens

(Berlin

1961).

Die Kunst

Anatoliens

will

be

quoted

hereafter

as DKA.

4

Concerning

the results

of

the

excavations

of Old

Smyrna

see

John

M.

Cook,

JHS

67(1949)42ff;

70(1950)10-12;

71(1951)

247-249;

72(1952)104-10o6

and

BSA

53-54(1958-1959)I-34.

E.

Akurgal,

DKA

8ff,

175-190.

5

Akurgal,

DKA

9.

6

ibid.

9-12,

fig.

2.

7

IstMitt

7(1957)102-132;

9-10o(1959-60)1-96.

8

John

M.

Cook, Greek

Archaeology

in

Asia Minor

(1960)

40.

9

ibid.

40.

10

For

the

historical

and

archaeological

problems

of

the

Aeo-

lian

and

Ionian

cities

see

John

M.

Cook,

CAH

II

chapter

38(1961)1-33;

cf. also

J.

M.

Cook, Greek Archaeology

in

West-

ern

Asia Minor

(1960)1-57.

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3/20

370 EKREM AKURGAL

[AIA

66

century.

The

future

excavations

on the western coast

of Anatolia and further

research into

the

chronol-

ogy

of

Protogeometric

pottery

will

provide

us

with

a more definite idea about the

date

of

the founda-

tion of the Greek

colonies.

As of the

present

mo-

ment the writer has proposed the date 1050,which

is

approximately

that

given by

Eusebios for

the

foundation of the Aeolian

cities. The

lower

limit

of

this

first

phase

may

be fixed

to

the

middle

of

the

8th

century,

since

the

corresponding period

in

Old

Smyrna

(levels

I-II)

ends without

showing any

late

geometric

pottery.

The Greeks of

the

western coast of Asia

Minor

during

this

first

phase

of

their civilization led a

very

simple

existence

based

mainly

on

agriculture.

In the levels

I-II

of

Old

Smyrna

there are no

no-

ticeable

remains of

any

cultural artifacts

besides

pottery.

There is

no

sign

at all of

imports

from the

Orient

and

of

course we

do not

expect

the use

of

writing

in

this

early

time. But

we

may

assume

that

the settlers

in their

struggle

with the native

peoples

kept

alive

the

custom of

singing

tales

of the

achieve-

ments of

their ancestors. Thus

they

must have

pre-

served

as

an oral tradition

the

song

of the

deeds of

Achilles

and

Agamemnon

and

of

all

Achaean

he-

roes

who

preceded

them in the

adventure of coloni-

zation.

The tumuli of

Assarlik near

Bodrum,

in

which

Protogeometric pottery

was

found,'2

re-

veal another

Mycenaean

element 3brought

to Ana-

tolia

by

the Greek invaders.

These

tumuli,

showing

a

krepis,

a

dromos

and

a stone

chamber,

observe

strictly

the

tradition

of

the

Mycenaean

tholoi.

The

best known

example

of

this kind

of

tumulus is

the

so-called

Tumulus

of

Tantalus at

Smyrna, 4

ocated

on

the

southern

slopes

of

Mount

Sipylus.

The

low

standard of

living

in

this first

phase

of

Aeolo-Ionian

civilization

is

distinctly

reflected

by

the

primitiveness

of the

houses

of

Smyrna

I-II

de-

scribed

above.

Certainly

we

may

expect

that

the

buildings dominating the sea side of the city-mound

of

ancient

Smyrna,

and

especially

the

dwellings

of

great

and

famous

cities like

Ephesus

and

Miletus,

were

better and

had

more

elaborate

domestic

in-

stallations than these houses

beside

the

city

wall fac-

ing

the

rocky

southern

slopes

of

Mount

Sipylus.

However, it does not seem likely that the difference

could

be a

very

great

one.

The

rectangular

houses

of

the

second

level of

Bayrakli

are

covered

with

a

burnt

layer

which

shows

us

that

they

have been

destroyed by

violence.

Perhaps

this

destruction

of the

buildings

and

the

city

wall is connected

with

the

conquest

of

the

Aeo-

lian

Smyrna

by

the

lonians of

Colophon,

an

event

recorded

by

Mimnermus

and

Herodotus.'5

The

originally

non-Ionian

cities

of

Clazomenae

and

Phocaea must have

been

conquered

by

the

Ioni-

ans also

as

early

as the

capture

of Old

Smyrna.

Thus

it

seems

that

the

expansion

of

the

Ionians,

which

was

directed

two centuries

later

towards the north-

ern

parts

of

western

Anatolia,

had

begun

at

the

end

of

the

9th

century.'

This

means that the

Panionion,

actually

a

political

league

of the

Ionian

cities,

was

founded

at least

by

the end

of

the

9th

century.'

The rise of

the

Ionian

cities is

due

to

their

early

political

union which enabled them to

enlarge

their

territories

to

the

disadvantage

of

the

Aeolian

cities.

SECOND

HASE

750-650).

THE

RISE

OF IONIAN

CIVILI-

ZATION;

CONTACT WITH THE ORIENT. CREATION OF THE

HOMERIC

EPIC

The

Early

Geometric level

of

Smyrna

(Bayrakli

II),

with

the

rectangular buildings,

was succeeded

by

a third stratum

(Bayrakli

III)

which

reaches

from somewhere before the

middle of

the

8th

cen-

tury

down

into the

middle

ranges

of

the

7th,

and

has

yielded

east Greek

pottery

of

late

geometric

style.

In this

level

the

oval house is

dominant

and

rectangular

ones

rarely appear.

Curved

buildings

of this era are

already

known from

excavations

elsewhere in the Hellenic world, but Old Smyrna

11

DKA 16.

12Bean-Cook,

BSA

50(I955)I25,I66.

E.

Akurgal,

DKA

16o.

13

A

further

Mycenaean

survival in Anatolia is

preserved

on

a

Phrygian

monument

dating

from

the first

half of the

6th

century.

Jaan

Puhvel,

Minoica,

Festschrift

1.

Sundwall

(Berlin

1958)327-333

and G.

L.

Huxley, Greek-Roman

and

Byzan-

tine Studies

2

(Cambridge,

Mass.

I959)

85ff,

have

pointed

out

that

the

title,

Lawagetas

and

Fanax,

of

a

king Midas,

occurring

in the

inscription

of a

Phrygian

monument

(Akurgal,

DKA

fig.

67),

are

similar

to

the names

of

classes of

rulers

written on

the

Mycenaean

tablets. For the

Mycenaean

cultural

continuity

in

Athens see 0.

Broneer,

AJA

52(1948)II1-114,

and

for

My-

cenaean survivals or

revivals

after

the

fall of the

Mycenaean

Empire

see

Emily

Townsend

Vermeule,

Archaeology

13(1960)

74ff.

14

E.

Akurgal,

Smyrne

a

lI'poque

Archaique Grecque,

Belleten

9(i946)77ff,

pls.18,19.

15

DKA

I2.

See

also

G.L.

Huxley,

Mimnermos

and

Pylos,

Greek,

Roman and

Byzantine

Studies

2(1959)1o3-1o7.

16E.

Akurgal,

Anatolia

I(I956)I5ff;

see

also

DKA

12,20o.

17

For

the

early

date

of

the

foundations

of

Panionion

cf:

M.O.B.

Caspari,

The

Ionian

Confederacy,

JHS

(1915)177;

Carl

Roebuck,

The

Early

Ionian

League,

CP

I(1955)26-40;

Carl

Roebuck,

Ionian

Trade

and

Colonization

30;

John

M.

Cook,

Greek

Settlement

in

the Eastern

Aegean

and Asia

Minor,

CAH

2,

chapter

38(I96I)3I;

DKA

12,20.




4/20

1962]

EARLY PERIOD

AND

GOLDEN AGE OF

IONIA 371

presents

us

with the

first

complete,

accurately

dated

ground

plans.

This

phase

of

the

Aeolo-Ionian

civilization

is the

first

great period

of the east Greek cities. The most

important

religious

buildings

of

Samos,'8

the first

Hekatompedos and its followers, belong to this

period.'9

Handsomely

constructed houses have been

uncovered

also in

Antissa.20

Especially

in

the

latter

parts

of

this

phase,

be-

longing

to the end

of

the

8th

century

and

to the

first

half

of

the

7th,

the east Greek

cities made con-

siderable

progress

in different

fields

of

cultural ac-

tivity.

We

observe the

first

appearance

of

an

import

from the Orient. In

Samos

were

found

ivory

and

bronze

objects

of

Syro-Hittite

origin going

back

to

the late

8th

century.21

It

is

possible

that some

of the

earliest Greek bronze factories were at work in

Samos.

Here

may

have

been

produced

cauldrons

with

griffin22

and

lion

protomes

and those

with at-

tachments

in the

form

of

a woman's

and man's

head,23

all made

after Urartian

and

Syro-Hittite

models,24

rtifacts

which

were in

vogue

in the whole

Mediterranean

world

about

700 B.c.

The

excavations

of

Miletus

conducted

by

Carl

Weickert

have

yielded

also some

bronze

objects

of

Syro-Hittite

manufacture,2

and one handsome

caul-

dron

attachment

in

the

form of

a

griffin

protome

of

the earliest

type

made

by

Greek

artists.26

The most

important

achievement in this

period

was

the

development

of

the

Greek

epic.

As we

have

already

said,

the new settlers

needed,

in the

strug-

gle

with

the native

peoples

in

Anatolia,

the heroic

songs

of their

ancestors,

and

kept,

therefore,

in the

form

of an oral

tradition,

the

epic

which

they

had

brought

from

mainland

Greece. After

the

period

of

establishment,

Homer,

a

poet

of the

Aeolo-Ioni-

an

border,

possibly

a

Smyrniote,

created

the

Iliad.

Certainly,

Homer

knew the

subject

matter

of

the

Hesiodic

theogony

in its essential

features

before

the Boeotian

poet

had

composed

his

poems.

The

Hurrian elements and other oriental

influences in

Hesiod's works

disclose

that the

earliest Greek

literary

creations arose

just

after the middle

of

the

8th

century.27

This

is

the crucial

period

in which

the Greeks came for the first time in close contact

with

the Orient.

We

may

observe,

if

we

look at the

map

of western

Asia

Minor,

that the

Greek settlers established

their

cities

mainly

on

small

peninsular

sites

or

on

islands

lying

very

near to

the coast. The

Greek

Smyrna

was founded

on a

very

small

island28

located

on the

northern

part

of

the

Smyrnian

gulf

and

inhabited

since

the

beginning

of

the

3rd

millennium.29

Pi-

tane,

Gryneion,

Phocaea,

Clazomenae,

Side

and

also

colonies of later

foundations,

Sinope

and

Cyzicus,

likewise represent cities on peninsular sites, of

which some

were

originally

islands but connected

afterwards

by

an

artificial

isthmus with the coast.

These

cities

were

of

very

small dimensions.

Smyr-

na

and

Phocaea

had

no

more

than some

twenty

or

thirty

hectares

of

land at

their

disposal.

It

is

clear

that

only

a

couple

of

thousand

inhabitants

could

be

housed30

on

these

very

small sites.s'

The

semi-insular

geographical

position

of the

Greek cities

in

western

Asia Minor

reveals

that

they

faced

enemies

both

from the sea and

from

the

land

side.

Hence,

they

fortified themselves

with

strong

walls. Old

Smyrna already

possessed

a

city

wall

in the

9th

century.32

In the

early

days,

the colonists

lived,

as we see

in the

Iliad,

from

brigandage

and

piracy.33They

had

at

their

disposal

bondsmen

among

the native

peoples

who

cultivated

the

neighbouring

land

for

them.3 '

he

Aeolians

and

Ionians possessed,

as

did

the

Phrygian

and

the

Lydian

aristocracy,

a

well

organized

cavalry

which

was

their

weapon

of

su-

periority

against

the

subjugated

native

people. 3

In

spite

of

the smallness

both

of

population

and

18Buschor,

AM

55(I930)Ioff;

Buschor

and

Schleif

AM

58(1933)I46ff;

Buschor,

Ein

friihhelladischer

Ringhallentem-

pel,

Festschrift

Andreas

Rumpf

32-37.

19

George

M.A.

Hanfmann,

Ionia,

Leader or Follower?

9ff,

n.42.

Akurgal,

DKA

15-16.

20W.

Lamb,

BSA

32(1931-1932)42,

pls.18,I9.

21

E.

Akurgal, Spdthethitische

Bildkunst

78,

pl.37.

22

Ulf

Jantzen,

Griechische

Greifenkessel

3off,

pl.I

fig.4,

pl.2

fig.i

and

pls.11-15ff.

23Rodney

S.

Young, AJA

64(1960)386.

24

The

Griffin

and Lion

protomes

of

the Barberini Tomb of

Praeneste

are

of oriental

origin (DKA

56-69).

25

Carl

Weickert,

IstMitt

7(1957)126ff,

pl.40,I.

26

ibid.

129-130

and

Akurgal,

DKA

188-190,

fig.145.

27E.

Akurgal,

DKA

16; Akurgal-Hirmer,

Die

Kunst der

Hethiter

(Miinchen

i961)52-54.

28

John

M.

Cook,

Old

Smyrna,

BSA

53-54(1958-1959)15,

fig.3.

29

Prehellenic

Smyrna:

Akurgal, Bayrakli,

Erster

Vorldufiger

Bericht

iiber

die

Ausgrabungen

in

Altsmyrna

(Ankara

1950)54-

58.

30

Concerning

the

problem

of

population

in

Ionia

see

John

M.

Cook,

BSA

53-54(i958-I959)i9ff;

Carl

Roebuck,

Ionian

Trade

and Colonization

21-23.

31

John

M.

Cook,

CAH

vol.2,25.

32

R.V.

Nicholls,

BSA

53-54(I958-I959)35ff.

Hermann

Bengston,

Griechische Geschichte

54.

34

Wilamowitz-Moellendorf,

Ober die ionische

Wanderung 35.

85

bid.

41.




5/20

372

EKREM AKURGAL

[AJA

66

of

inhabited

area,

the Greeks

in western Asia Minor

developed, probably

under the

inspiration

of

the

Hittite

small states

of

Anatolia

and

Syria,

the first

organized

cities

of the Hellenic world

in the

proper

sense of

a Greek

polis. Kingship

seems

to have

been the universalpolitical institution in the Greek

cities of

these

early

periods.36

A

simple

urban life

based

on

agriculture

with

constant warlike

activity,

under

aristocratic nstitu-

tions,

was

an

appropriate

climate

for the

develop-

ment

of

the

epic

and of

lyric

poetry;

but

achieve-

ments

at

a

high

level

in the

fine

arts

are

always

connected

with a

large

international trade

and for-

eign

markets

for

the sale

of

manufactured

products.

The Greek

cities

in

western

Asia

Minor,

which had

no notable sea trade before the middle of the

7th

century

and which were landlocked because of

the

autochthonous

peoples

of inner

Anatolia,37

were

not

able to

develop

a

high

standard of

living

based

on manufactured

and industrial

activity.

The finds

in Al

Mina,18

in the

northern

Syrian

harbour,

show

clearly

that mainland

Greece and

some islands had

already begun

with

the

conquest

of

the

Mediterranean

in

the second

half

of

the 8th

century,

whereas

in

the same

location,

that

is Al

Mina,

the

east

Greek

products appear

a

century

later.

The

artistic

activity

of Samos and Miletus

which

was, as we saw, initiated at the end of the 8th cen-

tury

seems

to have

been

of

short duration.

Since

they

did not

possess foreign

markets,

even

these

wealthy

cities

of the east

Greek

World

were

not

able

to

compete

with centres

in

the

motherland.

Although

these

two

Ionian

cities and

mainland

Greece

commenced under

Oriental

inspiration

from

the same

starting

point

and at

the same

time,

the

canonic

types

of

lions,

griffins

and

other

fantastic

animals,

and

especially

the

perfection

of

the human

figure

in

painting

and

sculpture,

were

elaborated

in the following period, the second quarter of the

7th

century, by

the

workshops

of

Corinth

and

At-

tica,

but

not

by

the

artists of Samos and

Miletus.39

The east

Greek world

depended,

therefore,

throughout

the whole

7th

century,

in the field

of

fine

arts,

on mainland

Greece,

as was

the

case with

the

previous periods.

Thus the east Greek

cities

received even Oriental influences

through

their

mother country. 4

It

is

important

to state once more that the

Phrygi-

ans

and

the

Lydians

did

not

transmit,

in this

phase,

any

noteworthy

Oriental

elements

in

the

domain of

fine

arts to the

east Greek world. The

successful

excavations

by

the

University

of

Pennsylvania

un-

der the direction of

Rodney

S.

Young

at

Gordion,

in

the

capital

of

King

Midas,

have

indeed

brought

to

light magnificent

works

of

art of

fascinating

beauty

and

grandiose

buildings.41

All

Phrygian

re-

mains of this

period,

between

725

and

675

approxi-

mately,

are excellent

witnesses to

the

high

standard

of

Phrygian

civilization,42

especially

the

monumen-

tal architecture in

Gordion. For

instance,

the

city

gate

with

its

buttressed

towers,

standing

to

a

height

of

more than

30

feet,

and

the

megaron

house

with

its

magnificent

pebble

mosaic

floor,43

are

unrivaled

among

the

Aeolian

and

Ionian

cities of

the same

period.

But this does not mean

that

the

Phrygian

civilization

was

superior

to that of

the

Greek cities

in

Anatolia,

and

that

they

were in a

position

to

transmit the culture of

the

Orient to

the

Greek

world. Midas

was a

powerful

king

with

unlimited

political ambitions. Therefore in building his

capi-

tal he

profited

from

all

the

achievements

of

the

Orient

and Occident of that

time to

strengthen

his

prestige

and

reputation.

However,

the

Phrygian

kingdom,

which

was in

the

very

beginning

of

its

sudden and

glorious

rise,

entered

the

scene a

little

late,

in

the last

quarter

of

the 8th

century,

and

was

therefore

not in a

position

to

act as

intermediary

between East and

West. The

Greek

cities

which

came

directly

into

contact

with the

near

eastern

world

just

after

the middle

of

the 8th

century,

and

even founded colonies like Al Mina on the north

Syrian

coast,

certainly

did

not need

Phrygian

media-

tion

to obtain

works

of

art made in the

Orient.4

36

The

problem

of

kingship

in

Ionia

has

been studied

re-

cently by

C.

Roebuck,

Ionian Trade and

Colonization

30-31,

and

John

M.

Cook,

CAH

2,31 (chapter

38).

37E.

Akurgal, Phrygische

Kunst

Io8-iio.

38Martin

Robertson,

JHS

60(1940)20-21.

John Boardman,

Greek Potters at

Al

Mina?

AnatSt

9(1959)I63-169.

39

DKA 68ff and

Spdthethitische

Bildkunst

76ff,

8Iff,

145.

Akurgal-Hirmer,

Die

kunst

der

Hethiter

105.

40

C.

Schefold,

Idl

(1942)142;

George

M.A.

Hanfmann,

AJA

(1945)579-580.

See

also E.

Akurgal,

Spdthethitische

Bildkunst

145

n.289.

41

Accounts of

the discoveries

are

being

published

in

this

journal

annually;

see

especially AIA

60(1956)250-266; 61

(1957)320-331;

62(1958)139-154; 66(1962)153-168.

42

DKA

70-121.

43

Rodney

S.

Young

ILN

(Nov.17, 1956) 859,

figs.Io,II.

44

For

the

relationship

between

the Greeks of

Western Asia

Minor

and

the

Phrygians

as

well as the

other

autochthonous

peoples

see

T.J.

Dunbabin,

The

Greeks

and

their

Neighbours

(London

1957)

and

Rodney

S.

Young,

AJA

64(I96o)385ff;

see

also

DKA

70-121.




6/20

1962]

EARLY PERIOD

AND

GOLDEN

AGE OF

IONIA

373

Midas

intended to

create

an

empire

with

a

great

future.

He would

perhaps

have hindered the

Ionians

from

their mission to

lay

the

foundations of

western

civilization if the

Cimmerian

invasion

had

not

put

an end

to his

ephemeral kingdom.

But as

long

as

the western part of the Anatolian plateau,governed

first

by

a

great

number of smaller and

bigger prin-

cipalities

and later

by

the

Lydian

kingdom, lay

between

Phrygia

and

Ionia,

the

Phrygians

were

not

able

to affect in

any way

the

development

of the

Aeolian

and

Ionian

cities.

The Golden

Age

of

lonia

(650-494)

Ionia

was at its

highest period

of

prosperity

be-

tween

650

and

494

B.c.

This

is

the Golden

Age

of

Ionia, which began just after the foundation of the

colonies

in

the Mediterranean and the Pontus

and

came

to an end with

the

Persian

capture

of

Miletus.

The rise

of

Ionia

and its Golden

Age

are due to

the

favorable

geopolitical

conditions of the

long pe-

riod

which

emerged

in Anatolia after the

destruc-

tion of

Troy

and

the

collapse

of the

Hittite

empire,

and which

lasted

until

the

formation of

the

power-

ful

Achaemenid

kingdom.

Even the

dangerous

Cimmerian

invasions and the

pressure

which

came

from

the native

peoples,

as

well

as

the

Lydian

threat,

turned

out to

be

an

advantage

to the

Greek

cities in Anatolia.

Certainly

the Cimmerians devastated

some

Greek

cities,45

but

much more

important,

as we

have

al-

ready

stated,

was the fact

that

they

caused

the

dis-

solution

of the

feudal

kingdom

of

Midas,

the con-

tinued existence

of

which would

indeed

have

been

more

dangerous

to

the

Greeks.

The

Lydian

attacks

also caused

great

trouble,

sometimes

with

catastrophic

results.

Herodotus 4

tells

us

that

Gyges, Ardys

and

Alyattes

fought

against

Miletos,

Smyrna,

Kolophon

and

Priene.

The excavationsof Bayraklidisclosedclearlyenough

how

pitilessly

Alyattes

destroyed

the

strong

fortifi-

cation of

Smyrna,

and,

as

is recorded

by

Strabo,47

that

he

indeed

forced the inhabitants

to

leave the

city

and

to

establish

themselves

in

villages.

On the

whole

the

Greeks

of

Anatolia

were

strong

enough

to deal

with

this

situation.

Nonetheless

the

Lydians

kept

them

from

benefiting

from

the hinterland.

And

the

native

peoples,

who worked

the earth for

the

Greeks,

probably

profiting

from

the

political

cir-

cumstances caused by the Lydians, seem to have

liberated themselves from

the

subjugation

of the

Ionian

cities 8

ometime in

the

first

half of

the

7th

century.

The

Ionians,

who

were thus

deprived

of

their

hinterland

and their

bondsmen,

sought

to

find some

other

way

of

earning

a

living.

So

they

began,

as

Wilamowitz

von

Moellendorf has

pointed

out,49

to

develop

an

industry

and to

establish colo-

nies

in the

Mediterranean

and

the

Pontus.

FIRST

PHASE

(650-600).

FOUNDATION

OF THE

COLONIES

IN

EGYPT

AND THE

PONTUS

A

sherd found in the excavations at

Smyrna,

bearing

the name of one

Istrokles

and

dating

from

the middle of

the seventh

century,

discloses

clearly

that the

Ionians

had

already

penetrated

the

regions

of

Istrus,

that

is,

the west

Pontus,50

n

the

first half

of

the

7th century.

The

remains which

have

come

to

light

in

the Pontus

up

to the

present

do

not

go

back earlier than the date

630 given

by

the tradi-

tion.5'

The

investigations

and

excavations which

the writer made

in

Cyzicus

and

Daskyleion

did

not

yield pottery

that could be earlier

than the

begin-

ning

of the

7th

century.52

If this is not a mere

accident,

then we

must

believe that

the

Ionian

expansion

which had

already begun

in

the

9th

cen-

tury

continued toward the north

of the

western

coast

not earlier

than the

beginning

of

the

7th

century.

This

would

mean that

the

Ionians,

who

began

under

the

pressure

of

the

Lydian

threat to

seek

colonies,

first

occupied

the

Propontis

and

then,

after the construction of

the

necessary

fleet,53

tarted

to

establish colonies in

the Pontus

and in

Egypt

just

after

the

middle of

the

7th

century.

As a result of the foundation of colonies, we ob-

serve

in

the

Levant,

for

the first

time,

the

appear-

ance

of

east

Greek

ceramics

like

the bird

bowls

and

the

vases

of wild

goat style,

which

became

almost

dominant

in

the

following

period. 4

45

Lehmann-Haupt, Pauly-Wissowa,

RE

77,1 (Kimmerier)398-

431.

46Her.

1.14-15.

47

Strabo

14.1.37(646).

48Wilamowitz-Moellendorf,

Ober die

ionische

Wanderung

40.

49

bid.

50

DKA

229

and

fig.23

on

page

308.

The connection between

the

inscription

and the colonization of the Black

Sea

was

first

shown

by

John

M.

Cook,

ILN

(Feb.

28,

1953) 329.

51

Robert M.

Cook,

Ionia

and

Greece

in

the 8th and

7th

Centuries

B.c.,

JHS 66(1946)67-98;

Akurgal-Budde,

Vor-

Idufiger

Bericht

iiber

die

Ausgrabungen

in

Sinope.

52E.

Akurgal,

Anatolia

1(1956)24.

53Rhys Carpenter,

The Greek

Penetration of

the Black

Sea,

AJA

52(I948)Iff.

54DKA

176.




7/20

374

EKREM

AKURGAL

[AJA

66

The

attractive vases

of the

wild

goat

style,

with

the

charm

of their

decoration and

coloring,

are one

of the most

successful Greek

creations55

n

the

field

of

fine arts.

Architecture also attainedin

this

period

a

high

standard

of

quality.

The

temple

of

Old

Smyrna, which was being enlarged at the time but

was

destroyed by

Alyattes

at

the end of the

7th

century,

has a

podium

wall in

rectagonal

and

polygonal technique

of

exquisite beauty

and

per-

fection.5

It is the

best and

the earliest

example

of

a

Greek

wall we

possess.

A

capital,

a

master work

of stone

carving

(pl.ioi,

fig.22)

which

we

shall

con-

sider

in

the

following

pages,

also

belonged

to

this

temple. '

Smyrna

was

embellished

during

this

pe-

riod with a new and handsome

polygonal city

wall. 8

The walls

of

Phocaea,

which

are

highly

praisedby Herodotus 9but have totally disappeared

today,

must have

had,

a

generation

later,

a

Lesbian

construction

with fine

joints

and

carefully

smoothed

surfaces like that of

Smyrna.

The

houses of

Smyrna

which were

uncovered in several

trenches

during

the

excavations

of

Bayrakli

and

belong

to this

level

(Bayrakli

IV)

are oriented

without

exception

from

north

to

south.60

This

means that

in

the second

half

of the

7th

century

Old

Smyrna

was

already

built

according

to a

regular city plan,

later called

the

Hippodamian

plan.61

The walls of the

houses are

of

stone

and show

in

some

examples

the fine tech-

nique

of Lesbian work.62

In one

of these

houses

of

the late

seventh

century

a

small

private

bathroom

has

been

cleared;

the

bath

itself is of

terracotta.

Fragments

of several

other

terracotta baths

have

been

brought

to

light

in

the course of

excavations.63

The

majority

of

them

belong

to

houses from

the

last

quarter

of

the

7th

century,

and

convey

a

good

idea

of

the

high

standard

of

living6'

of

the

Ionian

cities

in

Anatolia

at

the

time.

Writing spread

in

this

period

and came

into

common use

among

the Greeks of

Anatolia.

The

earliest

Ionian

inscription

known

up

to now is a

graffito

mentionedabove

bearing

the name

of

Is-

trokles.It

dates,

according

o the

style

of a

frag-

ment

of

the dinos on which it

is

engraved,

o

the

middle

of

the

7th

century.65

his is the

period

in

which

the Aeolian and

Ionian

lyric

arose as

one

of the finestpoeticcreations f westerncivilization.

In

thedebrisof the

temple

of

Smyrna

were

found

a

great

numberof

terracottatatuettes nd

pieces

of

a life-size terracotta

statue,66

ll

in

Cypriotestyle.

Some of the vases show

inscriptions

n the

Carian

language;

and a

great

deal of

pottery

with

linear

decoration

must have

belonged

o the

Lydians

iv-

ing

in

Smyrna.Lydian

pottery

and

Lydian

weap-

ons

were found in

a

tumulus of the

necropolis

of

the

city,

in which

apparently Smyrniote

citizen

of

Lydian

origin

was buried.

Thus

the

finds

show

clearlyenoughhow cosmopolitewas.Old Smyrna

in

this

period

of

international rade

which

the

Ioniansdeveloped

after the middle of the

7th

cen-

tury.

We have evidence

of this from

other

sources

as

well.

The fatherof

Thales,

Hexamyes,

and the

dedicantof the

statue of Hera

from

Samos in the

Louvre,

Cheramyes,

had Carian

names.67

Chiton,

the characteristicunic

of the

Ionians,

s also

a

Cari-

an

word.68

yrannos

s

a

Lydian

word;

and

it

was

from the

Lydians

hatthe

Ionians

earned o

strike

coins.In

Smyrna

and Pitane

were

found

representa-

tions,

one in each

city,

of a

lyre

with

seven

strings. 6

We

know

that

Terpander

of

Lesbos

had

invented

the

heptachordyre

under

he

inspiration

f

Lydian

models.7

n the

following

pages

we

shall

see

that

in

Ephesus

some of

the

priests

and

priestesses

re

definitely

a non-Greek

ethnic

type,

and

we

can

imagine

how

considerably

he

Anatolian

mother

goddess

must

have

influenced

the

Greek

Cybele

and the

goddess

Artemis

of

Ephesus.

Religion,

mu-

sic

and

dance

are the

fields

in

which

the

Ionians

were

greatly

stimulated

by

the

indigenous

peoples.

The

luxurious

way

of

living

that the

Ionians

iked

was also influenced

by

their

wealthy

neighbours.71

55

W.

Schiering, Werkstdtten

orientalisierender

Keramik

auf

Rhodos

(Berlin

1957).

DKA

178-181.

56

DKA

182ff,

figs.131-i33.

57

John

M.

Cook,

JHS 72(1952)104, pl.6.

58

DKA

186,

fig.I36.

59

Her.

1.163.

60E.

Akurgal,

ILN

(Feb.28,

1953)328-329.

61

DKA

184.

62

E.

Akurgal,

Bayrakli,

Erster

vorldufiger

Bericht

iiber

die

Ausgrabungen

in

Alt-Smyrna

(Festschrift

der

Philosophischen

Fakultdt

der

Universitdt

Ankara

vol.

8,

1950)

pls. 2,3.

DKA

184,

fig-134.

63John

M.

Cook,

JHS

70(1950)IO-II.

64DKA

I84ff.

65

DKA

308, fig.3.

There the

date

is

given

in

the

caption

mistakenly

as the

2nd

quarter.

However,

in

the text

(p.229)

correctly

as the

middle

of

the

7th

century.

For

another

early

Greek

inscription

from

Smyrna, dating

back

to

the

second

half

of the

7th

century,

see DKA

308,

fig.24;

the

same

inscription

now: L.H.

Jeffery,

The

Local

Scripts

of

Archaic

Greece

(1961)

341, pl.66,

fig.69.

66John

M.

Cook,

JHS

71(195I)247-249.

67

Cf.

George

M.A.

Hanfmann,

Ionia,

Leader or

Follower?

3.

68Rodney

S.

Young,

AJA

64(I960)385.

69

DKA

13ff,

fig.3.

70

Max

Wegner,

Das

Musikleben

der

Griechen

48.

DKA

14.

71

Carl

Roebuck,

Ionian

Trade and

Colonization

3ff.




8/20

1962]

EARLY PERIOD

AND

GOLDEN

AGE OF

IONIA

375

We

may

even

say

that the

Ionian

charm is

partly

due to the

exotic

contribution

of

the

autochthonous

peoples

of

Anatolia.72

SECONDHASE

600-545).

THECLIMAX

OF IONIANCIV-

ILIZATION

The

most brilliant

years

of

Ionia73

were of course

those between

600

and

545,

in

which

the east Greek

world

was

leading

in

all

aspects

of cultural life

with the one

exception

of

painting.

In

this

crucial

epoch

of

history

the cultural

leadership

of

mankind

passed

from

Orient to Occident. The

philosophers

and scientists

of

Miletus,

Thales,

Anaximander

and

Anaximenes,

laid the

foundations

of

abstract

geom-

etry

and

discovered the first

positive

way

of think-

ing

and

research.In

Samos,

Miletos,

Ephesos

and

many other east Greek cities there arose monumen-

tal marble

temples

of the

Ionic

order which are not

only

grandiose

constructions

but

also

represent

some

of the

most beautiful

creations

in

the

history

of

the

world.

At

the

same time

the

softly

smiling

maidens

of the

Ionian

sculptors, together

with

the

enigmatic

charm

of

Aeolo-Ionian

poetry,

conquered

the heart

of all

Hellas.

The earliest

works

of

art of the

Golden

Age

of

Ionia

have

come to

light

in

Samos,

Miletus,

Ephe-

sus,

Smyrna

and some other cities of the east Greek

world.

From this first

phase,

which can

be

dated,

in

the

present

state of

the

finds,

to the

end of

the

7th

century,

we

possess

only ivory,

wood

and bronze

statuettes.

Monumental

sculpture,

as we know

from

some

fragmentary

remains,7'

also

existed,

but not

in

that

high

quality

which Attic statues

of

the same

period possessed.

The most

important

center was Samos. The

Ger-

man excavations

yielded

excellent

statuettes

n

ivory,

bronze and

wood.75

The

recently

published

ivory

statuette76

f a

youth

shows

a

remarkably

high qual-

ity

of

execution

(pl.97,

figs.4-6).

It

is

the

best Greek

work

of art

of its

time and

category.

The

deeply

carved

eyebrows betray

the

influence

of oriental

models,

but the

sharp profile

of the face shows that

we

have

to

do with

a

Greek

work.

A

Samian

wooden

statuette77epresenting

Hera

and Zeus n

the motif

of

the sacred

marriage

s

another

outstanding

work from

the

early

Greek

period

pl.97,

igs.8,9).

The divine

couple

appears

here in

a

Hittite

ceremonial

chema,

n which the

goddess s alwaysshown to the left of herconsort

(pl.97,

fig.Io).7

The intertwinedarms

of the dei-

ties

reproduce

Hittite

motif79

which

occurs

as

well

in

Egyptian

art,

but

the

Hittite monument

(pl.97,

fig.io),

belonging

to

the

beginning

of the

7th

cen-

tury,

is the

example

closest

n

time

to

our

Samian

statuette.

Another

statuette from the

same

period

found

in

Delphi

(pl.97,

ig.7),

is

also,

as P.

Amandry

has

pointed

out,so

a

product

of an east

Greek

ivory

workshop.

Karl Schefold has

compared

it

with

earlyterracottafiguresof Samos. 8The renderingof

the

features

reminds one of the

foregoing

Samian

statuettes.82

The lion

here,

with its

head

turned

to

the

side,

is

an

example

of

the Milesian

lion

type

which

goes

back to

Egyptian

models.83

The

hair of

the

god

falls down his

back in

a

mass;

the strands

of

the

hair

are shown

with

carefully

incised

lines.

The same hairdress occurs on

a Samian

bronze

statuette

from the

beginning

of

the

6th

century. '

The Zeus

of

the

foregoing

Samian

ivory

statuette

also has

the

same hairdress

pl.97,

fig.9).

A

bronze

statuette which

came to

light

in the

excavations

at

Smyrna5

is

the

earliest

stratified and

surely

dated

east

Greek

bronze work we

have

(pl.98,

figs.II-I3).

It was

found in the

debris of

the

temple

and

belongs,

therefore,

to the

last

decade

of the

7th

century.

t

is

important

o

mention

that

the

essential characteristics of

Ionian

sculpture

of

the

6th

century

already

occur n

this

statuette.

Spe-

cifically

Ionian

are

the soft

and

fleshy

modeling

of

the

body,

the

sloping

shoulders,

he

roughly

indi-

cated and

obliquely

set mouth. Its

hairdress s ex-

actly

the same as that which we observed on

the

above mentioned

east Greek statuettes

from Samos

and

Delphi.

We

find

the

same

Ionian

characteristics,

but in

a

more

elaborate

rendering,

on

a bronze statuette

72

George

M.A.

Hanfmann,

Ionia,

Leader or

Follower?

22:

DKA

295ff.

73

Carl

Roebuck

has

carefully

and

systematically

studied the

problems

of

the

social

and

economic

development

of the

east

Greek world: Ionian

Trade

and

Civilization

(New

York

1959).

74Buschor,

Altsamische

Standbilder

2(1934)23ff.

75

ibid.

4(I96o)6Iff.

76

bid.

62ff,

figs.238-248.

77

D.

Ohly,

Holz,

AM

68(I953)77ff,

Beilage

13-15.

78

E.

Akurgal,

Spdthethitischeildkunst

I

I-I8.

79

Akurgal-Hirmer,

ie Kunst der Hethiter

pl.I39.

so

P.

Amandry,

Syria

24(I944-45)I9ff.

81

Karl

Schefold,Orient,

Hellas

und Rom

107.

82

DKA

218.

83

ibid.

276ff.

84Buschor,

Altsamische

tandbilder

,

pls.5,7,8.

DKA

figs.

178-18o0.

85

DKA

I86ff,

figs.137-I39.




9/20

376

EKREM AKURGAL

[AJA

66

in

the National Museum

of

Stockholm

(pl.98,

figs.i4-i6).

This

fine

piece86

is

a

generation

later

than

the statuette

from

Smyrna,

and must have

been

produced

in

one of the

east Greek bronze

workshops belonging

to the Milesian school.

Another east Greek ivory carving workshop lo-

cated

in

Ephesus produced

remarkably

fine statu-

ettes. The

foundation

deposit

of the

temple

of Arte-

mis

contained

some

well

preserved

ivories, 8

which

are

now

in

the

Museum in

Istanbul.88

The woman

with distaff and

spindle

(pl.99, fig.

17)

is

a

unique

representation

from the

period

of

a

woman

shown

in the

act

of

spinning:8

in

the

left

hand,

held across

the

waist,

she

grasps

a

distaff

on

which

is a ball

of wool. The

right

hand,

with

fingers

extended,

rests

flat

upon

the

thigh.

Between

the

right

hand

and the

thigh passes

the

thread,

with

the

spindle hanging

from

it

nearly

to the

feet.

It is

interesting

that the

ivory

carver was

able,

even

in

the

conventional

and stiff archaic

schema,

to

il-

lustrate

the

act

of

spinning.

The

woman

wears a

high

cylindrical

headgear

which

seems to

represent

the

Lydian

mitra mentioned

in

Greek

poetry.

We

know that

Sappho9o

very

much

appreciated

the

Lydian

mitra,

regretting

only

that she

could

not

get

it for her

daughter

because the

law-giver

of

Lesbos,

Pittacus,

had

forbidden the

importation

of

luxurious

artifacts.

An older

example

of

this

kind

of

headgear

occurs, as Poulsen and

Barnett

have

pointed out,91

on the

late

Hittite-Aramaean rock-

relief

of

Ivriz

near

Konya.

Here it

is

worn

by

King

Warpalawas,

who lived in the last

quarter

of

the

8th

century.

The

work from

Ephesus

dates

from

about 6o00

B.c.92

The statuette shows a

non-

Greek

profile;

it

may

therefore

represent

one

of

the

Lydian

maidens

who

were

charged,

as

we

know

from

Aristophanes,93

o

stay

in

the

temple

in order

to venerate

the

goddess

Artemis.

The

statuette of a eunuch

priest 9

s also a

fine

work in east Greek style (pl.99, fig.I8). He wears a

hat of

nearly

cylindrical

form

and

a

long

chain of

beads

around

the

neck,

a

sign

of

priesthood.

The

squat

and

feminine structureof the

body

suggests

its

identification as a

eunuch,

who served

as

priest

for

the

worship

of the

goddess

Artemis

of

Ephe-

sus. The

vivid

expression

of the face with its

archaic

smile

discloses

the

Greek

origin

of

the

statuette.

The finest

ivory

work

of

Ephesus

is a

representa-

tion of a priestess95 f Artemis. She wears a luxuri-

ous dress with rich

embroidery.

She

holds

in

her

right

hand

an

oinochoe and

in

her

left

hand a

Phryg-

ian

bowl.96

Both

were

probably

in

gold.

The

priestess

herself

may

be of

Lydian

or

Phrygian

origin

too.

Her

face,

which is

apparently

represented

with all its

individual

characteristics,

does not

be-

long

to

the Greek

ethnic

type.

But

the

mode of

her

garment

and

her

hair,

falling

down her

back

in a

long

and

large

mass,

and

the

stylized

contours

and soft

modeling

of the

forms,

are

typically

east

Greek. 9

The bunched

folds of the

skirt between

the

legs, ending

with a

zigzag edge

just

above

the

feet,

is also a

peculiarity

of

Ionian

art.

The

sim-

plicity

of

this

zigzag

edge

dates the

statuette

about

570

B.c.

The

large-scale

stone

sculpture

of

Ionia

reached

its ultimate

achievement

in the

second

quarter

of

the sixth

century.

It

is

an

absolutely

original

ac-

complishment,

perfect

in

sense,

spirit

and

style.

In

the

following

paragraphs

we

shall consider

only

an

outstanding group

of

Ionian

sculpture

which

has

not

yet

receivedthe

attention

it merits

from

archae-

ologists.

The marble head of a

girl

from

Miletus,

now

in

Berlin,

and the

maidens

from

the

sculptured

columns

of

the

temple

at

Didyma,

likewise

in

Ber-

lin,

belong

to

this

group.

The

woman

in

Berlin

(pl.ioo, fig.19)

exhibits

an

original

and

charming beauty

with her

sensitive

and

enigmatic

face. 98

he

sharp

outlines

of

the

almond-shaped

and

narrow

eyes

and

the fine

edges

of

the

veil are

delicately

carved.

They

produce,

to-

gether

with

the

obliquely-set

mouth,

a

successful

contrast to

the

softly

modeled

forms

of her

face

and,

head. The slightly smiling and ironic expression

of the

girl

is

typically

east

Greek.

The

maidens

from

the

temple

in

Didyma

(pl.Ioo,.

fig.20)

represent

a

similar

style

of

softly

modeled

86

Oscar

Antonsson, Antik

Konst

33,

figs.I-2.

DKA

202-203,

figs.1

62-I64.

87Hogarth,

Excavations

at

Ephesus

(I908).

P.

Jacobsthal,

The

Date of

the

Ephesian

Foundation-Deposit,

JHS

71(1951)

86.

S8DKA

192-2II,

figs.147-177.

89ibid.

195ff, figs.155-157.

90

See

Mazzarino,

Athenaeum

2I(1943)57-58,

and

Carl

Roebuck,

Ionian Trade

and

Colonization

3.

91

Fr.

Poulsen,

Der

Orient

und die

friihgriechische

Kunst

I02;

R.D.

Barnett,

JHS

68(1948)7.

92DKA

59,81,

fig.

38.

Akurgal-Hirmer,

Die

Kunst

der

Hethiter,

fig.140,

pl.24.

93DKA

207.

9'ibid.

198,

figs.158-I59.

95ibid.

204-210,

figs.I69-173.

96ibid.

I08,

pl.3a.

97E.

Langlotz,

Bildhauerschulen

122.

DKA

270.

98DKA

256,262,

figs.221-222.

99

Th.

Wiegand,

Didyma I

p1.214,

F.724.

Greifenhagen,.

Antike

Kunstwerke

(Berlin

I96I)

I,

pl.I.

DKA

256,

figs.223-

224.




10/20

1962]

EARLY PERIOD AND GOLDEN AGE

OF IONIA

377

forms

and

sharply

carved

calligraphic

design.

They

have the

same

enigmatic

smile

of Mediterranean

nonchalance.

They

all

belong

to

the same

circle

of

Milesian ateliers but are works

of different

sculp-

tors.

A round base with dancing figures,1oolately

found

at

Cyzicus

(pl.Ioo,

fig.21),

is

closely

con-

nected

with the same

artistic center in Miletus. The

woman in

the

middle has

the same

type

of face and

wears

a

veil

similar

to that

of the

girl

in Berlin.

The master has used the

motif of

the

dancing

woman to show

his

artistic

ability,

and has

given

a

graceful

liveliness to her

body.

The

three-quarter

turn of the head

and

the

asymmetric

representation

of

the

veil,

together

with the

slightly turning

mo-

tion of the

body

and

arms,

extended

sidewards,

pro-

duce a charming effect full of life. The woman is

slim and

conveys

an idea of how slender

a

figure

each

of

the

foregoing

marble

heads in

Berlin must

have

had. The

incised

lines

indicating

the folds of

her tunic are

typically

Samian and

show

us

that

the

round base

and the maidens

in

Berlin

belong

to

the

middle

of

the

6th

century.

A

head

found

in

Ephesus o'

and

belonging

to

one of the

sculptured

columns

of

the

temple

of

Artemis is

a

further

example

of

sculpture

in

which

the hair

and the

eyes

are carved in

precise

design,

while the

forms of the

face are

softly

modeled.

The

picturesque

effect of a head found in

Ephe-

sus102

displays

another

characteristic

of

the

Ionian

sculptors.

The

head

is

an extreme

example

of

the

soft

style

with delicate transitions

from

plane

to

plane.

The contrast

of

light

and

shadow

produces

an

illusionistic

impression,

an artistic

performance

unrivaled

among

the

sculptors

of mainland

Greece.

Ionian

sculpture,

of which

we

have considered on-

ly

a few

examples,

exercised,

together

with

contem-

porary

east

Greek

poetry,

an

important

influence

on Attic

sculpture

of

the

second

half of the

6th

century. The chiton, the himation, the representa-

tion of the

folds

of

drapery

and the

joyful

faces of

the

maidens

of

the

Acropolis

are

specifically

char-

acteristic

of Ionian

art.'03

The

Ionic order in

architecture,

too,

developed

into

its

canonic form

during

the first

half of

the

6th

century.

Our

material,

formerly

known from

several

Aeolian and

Ionian

cities,

has been enriched

by

some

new finds

of

great

importance.

The ex-

cavations

at

Phocaea have

yielded

a

good

number

of architecturalfragments probably going back to

the archaic

temple

of

Athena.'04

A

capital

consist-

ing

of

a

girdle

of

pendant

leaves

(pl.Ioi,

fig.23)

belongs

to

the

first construction

of the

temple,

ap-

proximately

the second

quarter

of

the 6th

century.

The

most

important

find

of

an

archaic

capital 05

was

made

ten

years

ago

in

the excavations

at

Smyr-

na

(pl.ioi,

fig.22).

It

is the earliest

exactly

dated

capital

in

Greek

architectureand

belongs

to

the last

decade

of

the

7th century.

It

still bears some

traces

of

coloring

in red and

yellow.

Another east

Greek

capital, '6probablydating also from the end of the

7th

century,

was

found in Neandria

(pl.Io2,

fig.28).

The

capitals

from Neandria and

Smyrna

are east

Greek creations

from oriental

prototypes.

Contem-

porary

Assyrian,

Phoenician and Urartian

furniture

in

bronze and

ivory

from

the

second

half

of

the

seventh

century might

have

served

as

models.7 '

The

Urartian

furniture

in

bronze,'08

especially,

has

columns

representing girdles

with

hanging

leaves

(pl.0o2,

fig.26)

which remind us

very

much

of

the

east

Greek

example.

The

origin

of

the

Ionic

capital

has

often been

sought

in the

Orient,

and has been connected

by

many archaeologists

with the

hieroglyphic

mono-

grams

of

the Hittite

kings

under

the

winged

sun

disc.

The two

signs

in

a

symmetrical

position

sup-

porting

the

sun-disc'09

remind one indeed of

Ionic

capitals.

But this is

a

mere

accident,

since

the

sign

in

question

is

a

compound

word and

consists of

two

symbols.

The

conic

sign

means

king

and the

volute

shaped sign great ;

both

together

mean

Great

King.

In

the cartouche of the

king they

appear

in

antithetic

position

because

of

heraldic

necessity. The Hittites, moreover, knew neither

column

nor

capital,

but

only

the

pillar. '

The Ionic

capital

is

an

original

creation

of the

east Greek architects and was

developed

from

the

Aeolic

capital.

The

Aeolic

capital (pl.1o2, fig.28)

100

DKA

256,257,262,

figs.200,22o.

101

ibid.

247,

figs.212,213.

102

ibid.

247, figs.218,219.

103

ibid. ix.

104Anatolia

I

(I956)7ff.

DKA

284ff.

105

DKA

284, fig.251.

106

Koldewey,

Neandria

33ff.

L.

Kjellberg,

Corolla Archaeo-

logica 238ff.

Karl

Schefold

WJh

31(1938)42-52.

A.

Gerkan,

Zum

Tempel

von

Neandria,

Festschrift

Bernard Schweitzer

70-76.

Anatolia

5(i96o)3ff.

DKA

291.

10o

DKA

293.

108

Lehmann-Haupt,

Armenien einst

und

jetzt

484ff;

Leh-

mann-Haupt,

Zur Herkunft

der ionischen

Sdiule,

Klio

13

(1913)468-484;

Akurgal,

Anatolia

5(1960)7;

DKA

293.

109

Akurgal-Hirmer,

Die Kunst

der

Hethiter

fig.78,

pl.19.

11

R.

Naumann,

Architektur

Kleinasiens

126ff;

Akurgal-

Hirmer,

Die Kunst der Hethiter

76.




11/20

378 EKREM

AKURGAL

[AJA

66

consists

of two vertical

volutes bound

together;

the

empty space

between the

volutes

is filled

with

a

palmette.

Optically

considered,

the

weight

of

the

superstructure

is

supported only by

this

palmette.

Furthermore,

the

wedge-shaped palmette

produces

an impressionof dividing the capital into two parts.

The

Greeks,

who attached

great importance

to

the

optical

effect,

could not

long

use such an

untectonic

element

to

carry

the

superstructures

of their

marble

temples.

We

possess

Greek

capitals

showing

sev-

eral

types

of

attempts

to

avoid

this

optical

illusion.111

But

it

was

an

Ionian architect who

linked the

two

vertical

volutes

horizontally

and

solved the

prob-

lem in

an

ingenious way:

the

palmette

disappeared;

its

upper part

in

the

form

of a fillet became

the

abacus;

the

girdle

of

the

hanging

leaves

moved

up

between the

volutes below the

channel

and

the

Ionic

capital

was

created

(pl.1o2,

fig.29).

The

capital

from

Neandria

mentioned in

this

article

(pl.1o2,

fig.28)

is

a

restored

one. 2

However,

since we

possess

a

representation

of an

Aeolic

capital

on

a bronze

plaque.

from Samos

showing

the

three

essential elements of

the

capital

of

Nean-

dria,

volutes,

palmette

and the

girdle

with the

hang-

ing

leaves

(pl.io2,

fig.27),

we

may

assume that

this

type

of

capital

really

existed and

served as a

model

for

the

creation

of the Ionic

capital.

We

may

re-

gard

it as

a

step

in the

evolution

of the

Ionic

capi-

tal, composed as it is of the two different types

which

preceded

it,

that with

the

vertical

volutes

and that

with the

girdle

of

hanging

leaves.

The

canonic

form

of the

Ionic

capital

must

have

been

perfected

on the

Anatolian

coast at

the

begin-

ning

of

the

second

quarter

of the

6th

century.

The

Naxian column

in

Delphi

with an

Ionic

capital114

supporting

a

sphinx,

from

about

570

or

56o

B.c.,

is

the earliest

example

known

up

to

the

present

that

we can date

almost

certainly

according

to

the

style

of the

sphinx. 5

The

magnificent

marble

tem-

ple of Ephesus, erected before the middle of the

6th

century,

was

one of

the

finest

architectural

crea-

tions of

western

civilization.

The

elegance,

charm

and

originality

of

Greek

architecture

are in

great

part

due to

the

creative

power

and fine artistic

feeling

of the

Ionian

spirit.

When,

in the Periclean

Age

in

Athens,

the

Doric

order,

which

had become

canonic,

needed

enrich-

ment,

Attic

architectsembellished

the Doric

tem-

ples

with

the elements

and the slender

proportions

of the Ionic order.

Painting

was the

only

branch

of

the fine arts

in

which

Ionia

never held

a

leading

position.'?

The

Ionian

potters

produced,

however,

vases

of

fascinat-

ing

beauty.

As the most

important

east

Greek

prod-

ucts

of this

period

in

ceramics,

we

might

mention

the handsome

Chian vases

which were

found in

the

excavations

at

Pitane,

the ancient Aeolian

city

lo-

cated some

20

km. southeast

of

Pergamon.

The

drawing

of

a

stemmed

skyphos

crater,

consisting

of

crouching sphinxes

and

lions,

is

careless,

but

the

composition

of the whole

picture displays con-

siderable

charm,

and the attractive

shape

of the

vase

has

grea

akurgal, ekrem_the early period and the golden age of ionia_aja, 66, 4_1962_369-379

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