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TTALABAMA’S

FORESTSWINTER 2003

• INTEGRATING WILDLIFE AND TIMBER

• INVASIVE EXOTICS IN ALABAMA

• PLANNING A HARVEST

• TAX TIPS FOR LANDOWNERS

• SILVOPASTURAL SYSTEMS

A Publication of the Alabama Forestry Commission

REASUREDREASURED

When you drive around the state and look at thevastness and abundance of “our” forest, doyou ever wonder who owns it? Does forestindustry own it? If not, then maybe the gov-

ernment does? Actually, 78 percent of Alabama’s forestland isowned by private non-industrial landowners – people likeyou and your neighbor. This same land helps to makeAlabama’s forest the second largest commercial forest in thenation, and supports our state’s largest manufacturing indus-try, the forest products industry.

Although privately owned, this natural resource is impor-tant to all of the people of Alabama. It provides wood prod-ucts, jobs, recreational opportunities, clean air and water, andabundant wildlife. Because private landowners play such animportant role in maintaining and enhancing our state’sforestland, it is extremely important that they are supported incarrying out proper land management while at the same timemeeting their objectives.

The Forest Land Enhancement Program (FLEP) is a newprogram that will assist private non-industrial landowners byproviding financial, technical, and educational assistance.This program was established to help state foresters furthersupport and encourage the long-term sustainability of non-industrial private forestlands.

The federal objectives of this program are to invest inpractices to establish, restore, protect, manage, maintain andenhance the health and productivity of the non-industrialforestlands in the United States for timber, plant habitat, soil,water, air quality, wetlands and riparian buffers.

The Alabama State Stewardship Advisory Committee hasset three priority areas for the funds to be spent: technicalassistance, landowner education, and cost-share assistance.

In Alabama, the program will be administered by theAlabama Forestry Commission.

This program is an important step in helping our state’snon-industrial private landowners manage their land so that itwill not only meet the needs of this generation of Alabamiansbut for generations in the future.

2 / Alabama’s TREASURED Forests Winter 2003

Alabama is blessed with natural resources. Fromour pristine forests, to fertile farmland, abundantwildlife, and cool clear rivers and streams, veryfew states have the natural beauty of Alabama.

But our natural resources are not our only asset. One of themost important assets is a group of people that provide a ser-vice of protecting our families and our homes - the VolunteerFire Departments.

There are 992 rural volunteer fire departments in Alabama,providing fire protection to approximately 80 percent of thestate’s land base. These departments are made up of thou-sands of men and women who have unselfishly devotedthemselves to their community by helping provide one of themost vital needs – fire protection. These people spend hun-dreds of hours serving and training in the department, as wellas their financial resources. As one of the original membersof the Ashland Volunteer Fire Department in Clay County, Ihave a first hand knowledge of the dedication and commit-ment it takes to be a volunteer firefighter.

In the 2002 fiscal year, our state’s volunteer firefightersassisted the Alabama Forestry Commission in saving 1,255homes and 417 other structures. Aside from fire protectionand suppression they prevent fires by educating the public onfire safety. For decades the Alabama Forestry Commissionhas been one of the major supporters of the rural fire systemnot only by helping form new departments but also by pro-viding equipment, technical assistance, and financialresources.

In many neighborhoods, the volunteer fire departmentserves as the heartbeat of the community. I would like tocommend each individual and each department for the out-standing job done by Alabama’s rural volunteer departmentsand encourage each citizen to join together in supportingthese local heroes.

BOB RILEY

Governor, State of Alabama

A MESSAGE FROM . . .

TIMOTHY C. BOYCE

State Forester

Winter 2003 Alabama’s TREASURED Forests / 3

GovernorBob Riley

Alabama Forestry CommissionDavid Long, ChairmanGary Fortenberry, Vice ChairmanJohnny DennisTed DeVosCharlie HamiltonDennis HarborJerry Lacey

State ForesterTimothy C. Boyce

Assistant State ForesterRichard H. Cumbie

Administrative Division DirectorJerry Dwyer

Fire Division DirectorDavid Frederick

Management Division DirectorBruce Springer

Northwest RegionRegional Forester Wayne StrawbridgeAsst Reg Forester, Administration Bart WilliamsAsst Reg Forester, Programs Gerald Steeley

Northeast RegionRegional Forester Phearthur MooreAsst Reg Forester, Administration Charles HallAsst Reg Forester, Programs

Southeast RegionRegional Forester Franklin McAlileyAsst Reg Forester, Administration Dave DuckettAsst Reg Forester, Programs

Southwest RegionRegional Forester Gary ColeAsst Reg Forester, Administration Otis FrenchAsst Reg Forester, Programs Stanley Anderson

Editorial BoardBruce Springer Alabama Forestry CommissionDavid Frederick Alabama Forestry CommissionElishia Johnson Alabama Forestry CommissionDana McReynolds Alabama Forestry CommissionDon Stinson Alabama TREASURE Forest Assoc.Coleen Vansant Alabama Forestry Commission

EditorElishia Johnson

Managing EditorColeen Vansant

Vol. XXII, No. 1 Winter 2003

CONTENTS4 “Hurt Not the Earth . . . Nor the Trees” by Elishia Johnson

7 New TREASURE Forest Certifications

8 Integrated Resource Management: Wildlife and TimberProduction by Claude Jenkins

11 Old Man Winter In the South: Preventing and Treating Cold-Related Injuries by Coleen Vansant

12 “Pest Plants:” Invasive Exotics in Alabama by Fred Nation

16 Planning a Harvest by Ashley Parkman Smith

18 Tax Tips for Forest Landowners for the 2002 Tax Yearby Larry M. Bishop

20 Silvopastural Systems: A New Idea in Multiple-UseManagement by Dana McReynolds

23 Measuring Direction: Azimuth & Bearing by Douglas A. Smith

24 Managing for Cottontail Rabbits by Sammy L. King and H. Lee Stribling

29 Alabama Forestry Camp 2003 by James Jennings

30 Historical Photo

DEPARTMENTS2 Message from the Governor and the State Forester

28 Threatened and Endangered Species: Giant Orchidby Alfred R. Schotz

32 Trees of Alabama: Mountain Laurel by Coleen Vansant

COVER: Even in the bleakness of winter, one can find beauty in the stillness ofnature. Photo by Coleen Vansant

Alabama’s TREASURED Forests (ISSN 0894-9654) is published quarterly by the Alabama ForestryCommission, 513 Madison Avenue, Montgomery, AL 36130. Telephone (334) 240-9355. Bulk rate postagepaid at Montgomery, Alabama. POSTMASTER: Send address changes to: Alabama’s TREASUREDForests, P.O. Box 302550, Montgomery, AL 36130-2550. Web site: www.forestry.state.al.us

Alabama Forestry Commission policy prohibits discrimination based on race, color, national origin, sex,age, religion or handicapping condition.

It’s a little-known phrase from averse in the Bible, found inRevelations 7:3: “… Hurt not theearth, neither the sea, nor the

trees…” It’s also the philosophy ofDanny and Mildred Baker, owners ofJDB Farms in Tallapoosa County andwinners of the 2002 Helene Mosleyaward for the Northeast Region.

According to Milly (as she’s knownby family and friends), this philosophygoes hand in hand with the TREASUREForest Association stewardship creedwhich states, “We do not inherit our landfrom our ancestors, we borrow it fromour children.” Certified as a TREASUREForest in 1999, Danny says he firmlybelieves in the creed. He feels that itapplies to him personally because heDID attain the majority of his landthrough inheritance.

Danny proudly traces his ancestryback to his great-great-great grandfatherArchibald Baker, who fought in both theAmerican Revolution and the War of1812. Later, in the early 1880s, brothersNeil Henry Baker and Daniel Baker(Danny’s great grandfather) settled inHackneyville, Alabama. There theyopened Bakers’ Store, a general mer-chandise establishment where local farm-ers traded for supplies such as kegs ofcoffee, sugar, and meal, shot, powder,even lumber for coffins. Danny statesthat the store’s ledgers go back to 1883and apparently, it wasn’t unusual forfarmers to buy enough supplies to last anentire year, trading when their cropscame in.

Although the store building no longerexists, the Bakers own the propertywhere it stood in “downtown” Hackney-ville. Along with a couple of wonderful

weathered barns, this parcel also includesthe “Doctor’s Shop” from the early1900s where Dr. Carey Harlan practiced.One of Danny’s goals is to restore thisarea to be a Pioneer Village of sorts.

Just down the road, Danny and Millybuilt their home on land his motherdeeded to them in 1973, upon his returnfrom the Navy. His parents acquiredthese 116 acres in the late 1940s and hisfather planted pines on its barren fields.Although he died soon thereafter, Danny


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By Elishia Johnson, Editor

believes his father must have had theforesight to know that producing timberwould be good business. Danny statesthat it was obvious at a young age thathe too had inherited a strong apprecia-tion of and interest in trees. He recalls asa youngster he and his mother planting2000 pine seedlings they received fromthe 4-H program. The plantation’s “divi-dends” paid off more than once as he andMildred used proceeds from one thinning

to begin building their house, and thenseveral years later they were able to payoff their mortgage from a second“mature” timber sale. However, a few ofthose 50-year old pines are still standing.Today, approximately 50 percent of thisproperty is in hardwoods.

A few miles away is the SimpsonFarm inherited from his mother’s familywhere Danny concentrates his energy onhis favorite tree - the longleaf pine.Although this property is currently a nicemix of hardwood and pine, his goal is toeventually have it totally replanted inlongleaf. Intrigued with both its history

and hopeful return to glory, he stated,“Longleaf seems to blossom out afterburning. They were here in the south inabundance centuries before we were.Lightning caused fires and the Indianseven used fire to clean the woods forhunting purposes . . . longleafs thrived atthat time. People just don’t burn likethey used to.”

According to Danny, not only is long-leaf less susceptible to insects, but it alsomatures as a better quality wood.Additionally, it draws the highest dollarreturns when harvested for power polesand pilings. Besides, there are thosepotential “bonus” benefits he’s lookingforward to . . . longleaf pine straw is theprettiest and most durable, and there’snot a big supply of it. He hopes to oneday rake and sell the straw himself orlease the land to someone who wouldmarket it.

Another parcel Danny inherited is theOsborne property he calls the “CabinFarm.” In 1982 when harvesting this 120acres by clear-cut method, he left 12seed trees per acre to allow for naturalregeneration. Now, roughly 75 percent ofthe parcel is covered in loblolly pine. Inthese idyllic woods beside Little HillabeeCreek, Danny built himself a rusticcabin. No telephone, no power, and noneighbors . . . it’s the perfect “escape”for Danny to relax and read.


(Continued on page 6)

Below: Milly and DannyBaker with son Jamison, a high school senior, accompanied by family pets,Duke and Levi.

Far left: Little Hillabee Creekmeanders peacefully alongsidethe Baker property.Left: Ponds were built primarilyfor wildlife but are now stockedwith bream and bass. This largepond is spring fed from the hill-side where Danny found remainsof an old whisky still!

Right: A tall pine looms over younger naturally

regenerated pines that wereprescribe-burned a few

months earlier. This loblollyis one of the 12 trees per

acre left for seed when theland was clear-cut in 1982.

Danny built the “privy” down by thegazebo and pond in preparation fora visit by several children fromBelarus in 1999 .


As much as he enjoys the privacy, he also enjoys sharing this“hidden treasure” with different church, civic, and schoolgroups. Once or twice each year the Boy Scouts camp out hereto look for arrowheads and work on merit badges. After theyleave, Danny says he enjoys following their trails through thewoods and to the creek bank, imagining that the beaten pathsthey leave behind are similar to the ones left by the CreekIndians who once lived here, hunting and fishing this exact spot.

The Bakers always enjoy having people visit their property.Tours give Danny the opportunity to show off his accomplish-ments and share his theories on conserving resources. He eager-ly discusses the merits of reforestation, windrows, culverts,turnout ditches, fire lanes, and prescribed burns with otherlandowners – hoping they will get ideas for their own propertyas well as learn from his mistakes so that they won’t make thesame ones. He says just think how great the state would look ifall the landowners competed and tried to “out-do” each otherwith their stewardship efforts!

Danny pointed out that these tours that allow landowners tolearn from others’ successes and failures are one of the benefitsof belonging to the TREASURED Forests Association and theLongleaf Alliance. This is in addition to the valuable informa-tion obtained from the educational programs these groups pro-vide. Danny says he has done 99.9 percent of the actual work onhis property, but he noted the assistance he has received overthe years from the Alabama Forestry Commission, as well asother state and county agencies. (He recalled that it was afterreceiving his first issue of Alabama’s TREASURE Forest maga-zine several years ago that he was “set on fire” to become aTREASURE Forest landowner!)

By now it’s obvious that timber is their primary objective.However, wildlife is viewed by Danny and Milly as beingequally important. To this end he has planted about 500 sawtooth oaks and he maintains 10-12 acres in food plots, usuallywith a deer mix of wheat, oats, rye, and clover. Deer andturkeys are abundant, and the Bakers are pleased to share theirproperty with the Hillabee Hunting Club. They’ve participatedin a deer management program for over 18 years. One ofDanny’s hobbies is building birdhouses (and benches) from oldbarn wood. In addition to wood duck boxes, he has also put uphouses for woodpeckers, owls, and other birds. The blue birdboxes he constructs have openings protected with copper.According to Danny, this not only keeps the squirrels out, butalso looks pretty after weathering.

Milly believes it is vital to give all the creatures a place tolive. She hates to see anything happen to trees or animals . . .she wants to help - and preserve - all “wild treasures” – espe-cially the ones within her reach. “So many animals are forcedout of their homes by new houses, shopping centers, and thelike in the name of ‘progress.’ They need extra care.”

Education being another of their TREASURE Forest objec-tives, each year the Bakers welcome 250-300 fifth graders totheir property as part of the “Classroom in the Forest” program.A couple years ago, they invited the FFA Forestry Judging team.

One of the most memorable highlights of sharing their bless-ings with others occurred in 1999 when the Bakers hosted sevenspecial visitors from Belarus and their host families from theFirst United Methodist Church of Alexander City. These chil-dren were victims of the 1986 Chernobyl nuclear disaster.

Neighbors and family helped entertain them with a hamburgercookout and picnic at the gazebo and a hayride. The childrenspent the day running in the woods, riding four wheelers, andpaddling on the pond with several local children. Although theydidn’t speak the same language, Milly said it was wonderful towatch them playing together. Both she and Danny said theirhearts were truly touched – this experience made them realizehow fortunate they and their own children were.

Danny and Milly have high expectations that their sonsJonathon and Jamison will develop a similar love and deepappreciation of the land. The boys have always enjoyed wildlifeand hunting, and the parents noted with pride that both sonshave attained Eagle Scout status, an accomplishment that earnedJonathon one rank higher when he joined the Air Force lastyear.

The Bakers are very appreciative of their inheritance, butmore importantly, they hope to leave the earth and the trees abetter place for their heirs, as well as pass along their commit-ment to stewardship.

Top: Danny and AFC County Manager Guy Slayden “talktrees” around the fire ring at the Cabin Farm.Bottom left: Raised on a farm on Sand Mountain, Milly isan animal lover who says she is “more country” thanDanny.Bottom right: Planted near a food plot, netting protects the500 young saw tooth oaks from birds and squirrels.

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Location ofLandowner Property Region

Charles G. Bowden Geneva SE

William R. Carter Washington SW

Willie & Rebecca Cottle Covington SE

“Crooked Oak”

Coach Pat Dye Macon SE

A. D. & Miriam Ryals Folmar Pike SE

Joe Sowell III & Dick Fountain Property

Ted Fountain Escambia SW

John Allen & Rosemary Gantt Covington SE

W. Daniel & Paulina S. Gilliland Tallapoosa NE

Michael Jones Covington SE

C. Pat Jones Lauderdale NW

Lillian Lake, LLC Jefferson NW

Martha H. Lang Pickens NW

Frank & Brenda Lassiter Covington, Escambia SE

Location ofLandowner Property RegionJRL Limited Partnership

Lynn & Jesnah R. Looney Choctaw SW

William A. Morrison Randolph NE

Mountain Shadows Blount NE

Maylon Murphy Pike SE

Joe Nicholas Monroe SW

Oasis Marion NW

Ropar LTD

Dan Roberts Coosa NE

Michael & Sharon Short Covington SE

Donald Springer Tuscaloosa NW

Tanyard Properties, Inc. Bullock, Macon SE

Bruno & Joanne Tropeano Jefferson NW

Lionel Weil Trust Elmore SE

Margaret Weil Trust Elmore SE

Harry L. Wyckoff Tallapoosa, Clay NE

New TREASURE ForestCertifications

Congratulations to the 26 landowners who were awarded TREASURE Forest certificationat the January meeting of the TREASURE Forest sub-committee for the year 2003. Withthese landowners, 25,363 acres were added to the TREASURE Forest program in Alabama.At this same meeting, 74 landowners received re-certification.

This brings Alabama to 1,830 certified TREASURE Forests with a total of 1,783,507acres of forestland being managed under the guidelines of the TREASURE Forest program.


Integrated ResourIntegrated ResourceceManagement:Management:

WWildlife and ildlife and TTimberimberPrProductionoduction

A dense sweetgum understory reduces plant species diversity and leaves few places for wildlife to exist and thrive.

The viability of wildlife popula-tions in Alabama is largelydetermined by land managementdecisions of private landowners.

According to the 2000 Forest Inventoryand Analysis Survey (FIA), conducted bythe U.S. Department of Agriculture, ForestService, 71 percent of Alabama is coveredin forests. Of this forestland, 78 percent isowned by private non-industrial landown-ers. Forest industry owns 16 percent andthe remaining 6 percent is public forests.These privately owned forests producefiber to meet local, state, and global mar-kets, but they also provide habitats forhundreds of wildlife species. So, again, ifwe are going to impact wildlife popula-tions on a statewide scale, it will beaccomplished on private lands.

Roadside Management for Wildlife

After site preparation and two to threeyears after reforestation, habitat is gener-

ally characterized by an abundance offorbs, legumes, and grasses that providefood and cover for wildlife adapted toearly successional forest communities.Rabbits, deer, turkeys, bobwhites, andmany non-game birds will utilize suchareas. Additionally, raptors, bobcats, andother predators will find small mammalsand other food abundant. As pineseedlings grow, however, their expand-ing crowns shade out plants beneficial towildlife adapted to these areas. Also, therapidly growing seedlings out-competeherbaceous plants for water, nutrients,and space. These “pine thickets” consistof dense pine trees, blackberry vines,and shrubs that provide excellent protec-tive cover for deer and songbirds thatprefer thick habitat, such as rufous-sidedtowhees and indigo buntings. Eventually,the pine canopy will completely closeand stand-interior habitat will be lost.These conditions are often described as“biological deserts.”

Landowners can maintain wildlifehabitat throughout the rotation of a pinestand by implementing a roadside man-agement program. Trees and brushshould be removed on both sides ofroads (if possible) approximately 30 to60 feet. Initial clearing of roadsides canbe done during a scheduled timber har-vest. Once roadsides have been cleared,mow or disk roadside habitat every twoto three years to maintain a diversity ofweeds, grasses, and vines beneficial towildlife. According to radio-telemetrystudies in Mississippi, turkey use of pineplantations was greatly influenced by thepresence of roads. Turkeys tended to uti-lize plantations if roads were present.The roadsides provided essential broodhabitat and food for all age classes ofturkeys. Turkeys utilize roads and road-sides as travel lanes to go from one habi-tat to another. Turkeys can avoid unsuit-able habitat by walking on roads thatlink better habitat.

By Claude JenkinsWildlife Biologist in partnership with the Alabama Forestry Commission,

the Alabama TREASURE Forest Association, and the Alabama Wildlife Federation

By Claude JenkinsWildlife Biologist in partnership with the Alabama Forestry Commission,

the Alabama TREASURE Forest Association, and the Alabama Wildlife Federation


Roads can be bad for wildlife ifaccess is not controlled. Studies in NorthCarolina indicate that human disturbanceon roads must be limited to benefitturkeys. In areas with excessive traffic,turkey use of roads was minimal. InVirginia, road access was determined tobe a key factor in the number of turkeyskilled and an increase in crippling losses.As wildlife becomes more visible, peo-ple management becomes essential.People can be managed by installinggates on roads to prevent road hunting,poaching, and illegal dumping. Under aroadside management program, a gatewill be the most important wildlife man-agement tool.

Understory Management in Production Forests

Commonly, following a thinningoperation, sweetgum (and other hard-woods) quickly colonize the understory.Sweetgum is a highly prolific speciesthat out-competes understory plants forwater, nutrients, space, and sunlight.Consequently, a dense stand of sweet-gum develops, reducing plant speciesdiversity and leaving few places forwildlife to exist and thrive. However,with deliberate management, an under-story dominated with sweetgum andother hardwood competition can be shift-ed to an understory comprised of herba-ceous plants beneficial to wildlife.Prescribed fire can be used to kill sweet-gums and release plants that provide for-

age for deer, food and cover for rabbits,and flowering plants that attract a multi-tude of insects, butterflies, and song-birds. Also, a fire-maintained understorycould provide essential nesting andbrood-rearing habitats for bobwhite quailand wild turkeys. It will be importantthat landowners and forest managersimplement a prescribed burning programas soon as possible to control hardwoodcompetition. A passive approach to man-aging forest understories may not beadequate to manage habitats for a partic-

ular wildlife species and accomplishlandowner goals. Frequency and timingof burns are important considerationswhen preparing prescribed burn plans.

With advanced hardwood succession,fire alone may not adequately reducehardwood competition. Herbicide treat-ment may be needed to kill hardwoodsand set back plant succession. Followingherbicide treatment, a prescribed burningprogram can be implemented to controlhardwoods and maintain a desirableunderstory. Research scientists in theDepartment of Wildlife and Fisheries atMississippi State University are in thefourth year of a ten-year study to mea-sure the effects of pine forest manage-ment practices on songbird communities.The researchers are monitoring birdresponse to three competition-controlpractices in loblolly pine stands: pre-scribed burning, herbicide treatment, anda combination of prescribed burning andherbicide. All treatments altered theplant community and initial results indi-cated a reduction in total bird abundanceand species richness (i.e. number ofspecies). However, while some specieswere reduced during the first year of thestudy, on herbicide-treated plots somespecies increased including morningdove, eastern wood-pewee, hairy wood-

Prescribed fire can be used to kill sweetgum and other hardwood competitionand increase the number of plant species beneficial to wildlife. (Continued on page 10)

SMZs provide critical habitats for many wildlife species and contribute to thebiological diversity in pine production systems.


pecker, indigo bunting, and great crestedflycatcher. The researchers found that acombination of herbicide and prescribedburning had conservation benefits byimproving habitat for some species. Theappropriate treatment for an area willdepend on the species of birds landown-ers want to manage.

StreamsideManagement Zones

Streamside management zones(SMZs) are buffer strips of vegetationadjacent to permanent or intermittentstreams or other water bodies (sloughs,lakes, etc.) generally composed of hard-woods or mixed pine-hardwoods. SMZsare critical areas because of their ecolog-ical significance and the environmentalbenefits they provide. They help main-tain the biological integrity of aquaticenvironments by stabilizing stream banksand reducing sedimentation, whichimproves light penetration and produc-tivity of aquatic systems. Woody debristhat has fallen into the streams stabilizes

the stream channel and provides a sub-strate for aquatic invertebrates and coverfor fishes.

SMZs provide critical habitats formany wildlife species. They provide sea-sonal habitats for upland wildlife such aswild turkeys and white-tailed deer.Migratory wildlife such as waterfowl andsongbirds depend on these areas for foodand cover. SMZs that contain a complexvegetation structure (multiple canopylayers, shrubs, vines, etc.) will providemore available resources for birds withdifferent reproductive and foragingstrategies. Trees with cavities providedens for squirrels and raccoons as wellas nests for owls and wood ducks. SMZsserve as travel corridors, linking isolatedpopulations of a particular wildlifespecies. SMZs with closed canopies, fall-en trees, seasonal pools, etc., will pro-vide adequate habitat and protection formany reptiles and amphibians.

A landowner’s management goals,site conditions (soil type, slope, groundcover), and other factors will determinethe width of SMZs. Although SMZs do

not meet all requirements for everywildlife species, wide SMZs thatenhance habitat diversity generally willsupport a more diverse wildlife commu-nity. Landowners interested in protectingthe ecological value of SMZs and con-tributing to the biological diversity inpine production systems should protectthese highly critical areas.

ConclusionOften forest management activities

are primarily driven by economic consid-erations. However, successful integratedresource management requires a moredeliberate and pre-meditated approach.Deliberately managing forestland canincrease revenue from the timberresource, increase recreational opportuni-ties for consumptive and non-consump-tive users, improve environmental quali-ty, and sustain quality wildlife habitat.Because landowners plan for these bene-fits, they are able to take advantage ofthe opportunities they provide and ensurea healthy forest environment for futuregenerations.

Landowners can maintain wildlife habitat throughout the rotation of a pine stand by establishing roadside habitat. Theseareas can be established during a scheduled timber harvest.

Integrated Resource Management: Wildlife and Timber Production(Continued from page 9)


Whether you are a landown-er, work outside, or justenjoy the great outdoorsin wintertime, you could

be the victim of hypothermia or anothercold-related injury. Hypothermia,although usually associated with cold cli-mates, can set in even here in the warmclimate of Alabama. If you spend enoughtime outdoors you can be susceptible tocold injuries such as hypothermia, frost-bite, or immersion foot.

HYPOTHERMIAHypothermia happens when your core

body temperature falls below normal(usually around 95 degrees F). This caneasily happen when you are exposed tocold winds or wetness (especially inwater) – even in our Southern climate.Your body automatically begins to shiverto re-warm itself. As your energy is usedup to keep warm, you may reach a pointwhere your body will be unable to re-warm itself. If left untreated, your bodywill gradually shut down and you candie. Humans are warm-blooded animalswho maintain a relatively constant inter-nal temperature regardless of the envi-ronmental temperature. We do this byproducing heat internally by metaboliz-ing food and by adjusting the amount ofheat we lose to the environment.

Human cells, tissues, and organsoperate efficiently only within narrowtemperature limits. If our temperaturerises two degrees F above the normal of98.6, we become ill. If it rises seven

degrees F, we become critically ill. Ifyour temperature decreases two degreesF, we feel cold. A seven-degree Fdecrease puts our life in jeopardy. Theprimary way a body can loose heat isthrough the skin.

The very young, old, and sick have agreater chance of being a victim ofhypothermia. The National Institute ofAging estimates that of the 28,000 peoplehypothermia kills every year, the largestpercentage are older people. Some medi-cations, problems with circulation, andcertain illnesses reduce the older person’sability to resist hypothermia.

SYMPTOMSSome of the symptoms of hypother-

mia to look for include:

❄ Shivering — an early sign ofhypothermia, shivering starts mildly,but can become more severe andfinally convulsive before ceasing.

❄ Slurred speech.

❄ Loss of coordination — this mightbegin as difficulty in doing simpletasks such as tying shoes or buttoninga shirt. It can also include stumblingor falling.

❄ Confusion or decrease in decision-making ability.

❄ Apathy (the victim not caring about hisor her own needs, etc.) and lethargy.

❄ Irrational behavior.

TREATMENTIf you suspect someone may be a vic-

tim of hypothermia the best thing to dois seek medical help immediately. Thisis especially true if the victim is uncon-scious. If the victim is conscious you cando the following things after medicalhelp has been requested.

❄ Gently move the victim to shelter.Their hearts are fragile and sensitiveto jarring.

❄ Remove wet clothes and replace themwith warm dry ones, including headand foot coverings.

❄ If the victim is alert enough to hold acup, give warm (not hot) liquids todrink. Sugary drinks, such as warmTang or Jell-O, are especially helpful.Never give food or drink to an uncon-scious victim – they may choke.

❄ If the victim is conscious and able,help them to walk. Moderate exercisewill help to generate heat.

❄ If the victim is unable to exercise or isunconscience, place the victim in asleeping bag or warm blankets to helpspeed re-warming. Insulate the sleep-ing bag or blankets with a sheet ofplastic above and below. Getting inthe sleeping bag or blanket with thevictim will help.


By Coleen VansantInformation Manager, Alabama Forestry Commission

PREVENTING AND TREATINGCOLD-RELATED INJURIES

“Pest Plants:”Invasive Exotics

in AlabamaBy Fred Nation

Educator/Naturalist, Baldwin County


Exotic plants are generallydefined as plant species thatoriginated outside of NorthAmerica, and have been intro-

duced in historic times through humanactivities. Plants are by no means objec-tionable simply because they are exotic.Most of our commercial crops such as cit-rus, potatoes, soybeans, cotton, and thecereal grains came to us from other partsof the world. A few imported plantspecies have been able to naturalize orbecome established outside of cultivation.When their numbers increase to the pointthat they interfere with human activitiesor cause damage to natural habitats, theybecome invasive exotic plant species. Bydeveloping a general understanding ofinvasive exotics — what they are andhow they behave — landowners and man-agers may be able to deal more effective-ly with established infestations or newpopulations as they appear.

Most noxious invasive exotic plantsare well-known to Alabama landowners.This short list also includes a couple ofnew threats, which should be of greatconcern to timber and agricultural inter-ests and to those involved in protectingour natural resources.

Invasive Exotic Species of Major Concern in Alabama

Chinese privet, Ligustrum sinense.Olive family. Introduced in the 1850’s asa hedge plant. Opposite leaves and mass-es of small black, oblong fruits are used

for identification.If not controlled,will form dense,pure stands. Re-lated and similarJapanese privet,L. japonicum,and Europeanprivet, L. vulgare,are also invasivein some areas.

Cogongrass,Imperata cylin-drica. Introducedin 1911 intoMobile County, Alabama as packingmaterial for plants from the Orient.Showy white spring blooms, dense rhi-zome mat, and off-center leaf mid-veinsare used to identify cogongrass.Infestations burn with extremely hotfires, particularly in winter, that can

Tropical soda apple, left and below, has the potential tobecome one of the most destructive plants in Alabama.Infestations are usually associated with cattle.

Air potato forms massive infestations, similar to kudzu (above left), but moreshade-tolerant. The round, potato-like bulbils will sprout (above right), to formnew plants.


damage pine trees andother native vegetation.Incredibly, red forms aresold as ornamental grasses.

Japanese climbingfern, Lygodiumjaponicum. A true fern.Introduced in 1932 as anornamental from Japan.Leaves (fronds) are to 50feet or more. Overwhelmssmall trees and shrubs;alters natural fire regimesby bringing hot fires highinto trees.

Kudzu, Pueraria montana (formerlycalled Pueraria lobata). Pea family.Introduced in 1876 as an ornamental.Massive infestations are unequalled byanything in our native flora.

Popcorn tree, Sapium sebiferum (alsoseen as Triadica sebifera). Spurge fami-ly. Introduced in the 18th century as anoilseed or as an ornamental. Still avail-able and planted as an ornamental.Highly aggressive in some managedpinelands; shades out and out-competesnative vegetation in natural areas, partic-ularly wetlands.

Two Recent Introductions of Significant Concern

Air potato, Dioscorea bulbifera. Trueyam family. Introduced in 1905 intosouth Florida as an ornamental vine.Identification is by alternate, heart-

Above: Flowering cogongrass in April in a BaldwinCounty pine forest. The off-center midvein (inset) isa good field mark for identification of cogongrass.


Above: Popcorn tree is still planted as an ornamental for fall foliage color.The ripe fruits do resemble popcorn. Below: Japanese climbing fern over-whelms and shades out small trees and shrubs.

Below: Very few plantscan compete success-fully with kudzu. Manypeople have never seenits pretty late-summerflowers (inset).


shaped leaves to 8 inches long, and bynumerous nearly spherical potato-like“bulbils” which form along the stems inlate summer-fall. Also potentially inva-sive: winged yam, D. alata, is similarwith opposite leaves, winged stems, andelongate bulbils, usually in pairs. Bothspecies are planted as ornamental vines.Large, aggressive infestations of D. bulb-ifera have become established in recentyears in coastal Alabama. The eventualnorthern cold limit is not known. Airpotato should not be planted as anornamental and existing plants shouldbe uprooted and destroyed. Plants andbulbils should be burned and not placedin compost piles.

Tropical soda apple, Solanumviarum. Nightshade family. First foundin south Florida in 1988. An herbaceousshrub, to 3 or 4 feet tall. Leaves have avelvety sheen to about 8 inches long, 6inches wide, with angular lobes. Leaves,stems, and flower bases are covered withsharp, white or yellowish prickles.Flowers are white, similar to tomatoflowers. Developing fruits are greenish,striped, to about 2 inches across. Maturefruits are yellow. Not yet widely estab-lished in Alabama. Sporadic infestationsare often associated with cattle, manure,or hay imported from other states. Aneradication program is underway inAlabama. If a suspected infestation oftropical soda apple is found, call yourlocal Agricultural Extension SystemOffice immediately. This species has thepotential to severely damage naturalhabitats, and it can reduce the carryingcapacity of pastureland by up to 90 per-cent.

Invasive exotic plants — as a group— share a number of characteristics incommon. For example, as the above listmakes clear, many were introducedintentionally as ornamentals. Kudzu, tocite one, created a lot of interest when itwas introduced during the CentennialExposition in Philadelphia in 1876 as anornamental “porch vine.” It soon escapedcultivation to become what it is today: adestructive, highly invasive exoticspecies that has changed the look of thesouth.

Some Shared Characteristics of Invasive Exotics

Generalists - Able to invade and pop-ulate a variety of habitats: wet, dry, salty,fresh, sunny, shady.

Superior reproductivity - Producecopious seeds or spores; many also read-ily reproduce vegetatively, via rhizomesor other plant parts.

Superior dispersal - Very effectiveseed/spore transport strategies.

Most undergo a “lag phase” afterintroduction before absolute numbersbegin to explode. Popcorn tree, forexample, was here for decades before itwas fully recognized as an invasivespecies. It apparently lurked in the back-ground in timberland and other naturalhabitats until around 1940 when popula-tions began to increase and spread dra-matically.

Human activities encourage thespread of weeds, including invasiveexotic species. Drained wetlands, agri-cultural fields, timber management areas,roadways, lawns, and flower beds allcreate openings for pest plants. Recentlyaltered areas should be closely moni-tored for invasive exotics.

Invasive exotic plant species oftenhave no significant predators. Wheninvasive exotics enter a new area, theytypically do not bring their predatorswith them: diseases, insects, etc. In natu-ral areas, invasive exotics — withoutpredators — do not exist within naturalecosystems. Their numbers explode asthey overwhelm native plant communi-ties, causing catastrophic reductions indiversity. This characteristic sets inva-sive exotic plant species apart, from evenour worst native weeds.

A number of weapons and defensestrategies have been developed to controlinvasive exotics. None is effective in allsituations. Two or more control methodsare often combined, such as mechanicalor hand-clearing, followed by chemicalherbicides.

Weapons in Our Arsenal toControl Invasive ExoticPlant Species

Hand clearing. Usually practicalonly for small infestations.

Mechanical clearing and cultiva-tion. Often used in combination withchemical treatments. Heavy equipmentshould be used carefully to minimizedamage to the land. Frequent tillage canbe effective against cogongrass, butguard against plant parts on equipmentwhich can infest new areas.

Fire. Ineffective or counter-produc-tive when used alone, fire can enhancethe effectiveness of chemical treatments.

Chemical herbicides. Often the onlyeffective option. Expensive; usually mul-tiple applications are required. Some her-bicides require a license, and some cancause collateral damage. Applicationscan and should be tailored to the individ-ual situation. Labels should be read andcarefully adhered to.

Natural/biological controls. Researchis underway – may eventually providethe best long-term solutions.

Careful agricultural practices.Agricultural and mowing equipment andthe movement of soil can contribute tothe spread of invasive exotic species.

Prevention. Monitor the land; learnto recognize invasive exotics when theyappear; and deal with them early beforethey become major infestations. This isprobably our best defense.

For major infestations, assistanceshould be considered from a qualifiedexpert in the control of pest plants. Inany case, the site should be carefullyassessed. A control prescription shouldbe developed which takes into accountsuch things as the species to be con-trolled, how the land is used, proximityto animal and human habitation, slope,and hydrology.

Identification and control of invasiveexotic plants is a large, complex topic.The Alabama Cooperative ExtensionSystem has several excellent publica-tions that delve much more deeply intothis important subject. One especiallyinformative and comprehensive refer-ence is “Exotic Pest Plants ofSoutheastern Forests” by Dr. JamesMiller of the USDA Forest Service,Southern Research Station, Auburn. Thispublication is also available on-line atwww.invasive.org/weeds/usfsr8/.

“Pest Plants” Invasive Exotics in Alabama(Continued from page 13)


AVOIDING HYPOTHERMIAPreventing hypothermia is a lot easier

than treating it. There are things you cando to avoid hypothermia. It is veryimportant to guard against dehydration,fatigue, cold winds, and wet clothes.

❄ Dress warmly and in layers. Be sure towear a hat with ear protection, gloves,and warm socks.

❄ Stay dry.

❄ Protect yourself from wind, rain, andsnow. You can do this by wearingclothes that block wind and moisture.

❄ Eat high-energy snacks and drinkplenty of water.

❄ Do not over-exert.

FROSTBITEFrostbite occurs when tissue is frozen.

It acts locally on areas such as fingers,toes, and ears. It is not life threatening,but tissue damage from frostbite canresult in loss of function or, in seriouscases, gangrene and amputation. Lowtemperatures, contact with moisture, andwind chill accelerate heat loss andincrease the likelihood of frostbite. Someof the causes of frostbite include: coldstress, low temperatures, wind chill,moisture, poor insulation, contact withsuper-cooled metal or petroleum prod-ucts, interference with circulation ofblood (wristwatches, tight fitting or lacedboots), tight clothing, sitting in acramped position for an extended periodof time, and dehydration.

DEGREES OF FROSTBITE

❄ First degree: ice crystals form on theskin.

❄ Second degree: skin begins to feelwarm, even though it is not yetdefrosted.

❄ Third degree: the affected skin turnsred, pale, or white.

❄ Fourth degree: pain lasts for morethan a few hours, and you may seedark blue or black areas under theskin.

Treatment for frostbite is best done ina hospital. If you suspect you have frost-bite, go to your local emergency roomfor treatment.

IMMERSION FOOTImmersion foot is a local, non-freez-

ing cold injury that occurs in cold, wetconditions, usually in temperatures of 30– 40 degrees F. At least 12 hours expo-sure to cold wet conditions is necessaryto produce the injury. People have con-tracted immersion foot in hip waders andvapor barrier boots. Dry socks and feetprovide total protection from this coldinjury.

This injury causes a numb or “pinsand needles” feeling in the extremity.The skin will feel cold and mottled.When re-warmed the foot becomes red,dry, and painful. An immersion footshould be re-warmed slowly at roomtemperature. Elevate the feet to reducethe swelling and avoid walking.

COLD-RELATED INJURIES

TO ANIMALSAs with humans, animals are also sus-

ceptible to hypothermia and other cold-related injuries.

Hypothermia is most likely to affectanimals that lose body temperaturequickly, especially puppies, cats, smallbreeds of dogs; shorthaired, older, orinjured animals; or any animal that hasnot been properly acclimated to coldtemperatures.

Treatment for hypothermia in animalsis the same as that in humans, by warm-

ing the body. For mild cases, this can bedone by external means such as hotwater bottles or heating pads (not applieddirectly to the skin). A hair dryer can bedirected toward the victim for passivewarming. For severe cases or if the ani-mal is unconscious, seek veterinaryassistance immediately.

Animals can also be victims of frost-bite: usually the pads, toes, tail, scrotum,and ear tips. A short-eared dog is moresusceptible to frostbite than a long eareddog. Frostbite tissue on animals appearsleathery and the hair may appear white.These areas should be handled gently.The extent of the damage may not beobvious for several days. If any tissuedoes not start to improve three to fourdays after re-warming, you should con-tact your veterinarian. This tissue mayhave to be amputated to prevent gan-grene.

As with humans, preventing cold-related injuries in animals is easier thantreatment. A healthy adult dog canbecome acclimated to cold weather sothat it may withstand below-zero outdoortemperatures, if kept in a well-insulatedhouse. In cold, windy, wet weather thebest thing to do for your outdoor animalsis bring them inside a protected, heated,dry area.

Hunting dogs that have adapted tocold temperatures over time can hunt forhours without being adversely affectedby the cold, especially if they keep mov-ing and are not allowed to rest on thefrozen ground for an extended period oftime.

PREVENTING AND TREATING COLD-RELATED INJURIES(Continued from page 11)

RESOURCES:http://www.crh.noaa.gov/riw/frostbit.htm

http://www.nols.edu/Publications/FirstAid/ColdInjury.html.

http://outdoors.org/activities/hiking/hiking-hypothermia.html.

http://www.discounts4pets.com

http://www.espomagazine.com/vet/jan97.htm

http://www.lynseck9.co.uk/Hypothermia.html

You don’t begin building ahouse by cutting a bunch of 2x 4’s. You start with a design –a plan that shows what the

exterior will look like, the location andsize of each room, where the plumbingand wiring will go, and how all the pieceswill come together to make a home.

The same is true with timber harvest-ing. You don’t begin by felling a bunchof trees; you begin with a plan. What arethe landowner’s objectives? What is the

age and health of the stand? What aboutthe topography, soils, streams, and roadson the site? What wildlife and aestheticconsiderations exist?

The main goal of harvest planning isto ensure that the landowner’s needs aremet. A carefully crafted harvesting plandefines the landowner’s objectives, andprovides a road map for forester and log-ger as they begin harvesting operations.So what exactly do foresters need toconsider when laying out a timber sale?

A key element of any harvest plan isthe protection of water quality and main-tenance of soil productivity. The two areclosely linked, since water quality can beadversely affected by soil erosion duringforestry operations. The forester’s bestline of defense against soil movement isthe use of Best Management Practices(BMPs). BMPs are state guidelines,sometimes regulatory and sometimesnon-regulatory, that provide importantguidance during harvesting operations.

Planning A HarvestBy Ashley Parkman Smith

Public Affairs Forester, MeadWestvaco


You don’t begin building ahouse by cutting a bunch of 2x 4’s. You start with a design –a plan that shows what the

exterior will look like, the location andsize of each room, where the plumbingand wiring will go, and how all the pieceswill come together to make a home.

The same is true with timber harvest-ing. You don’t begin by felling a bunchof trees; you begin with a plan. What arethe landowner’s objectives? What is the

age and health of the stand? What aboutthe topography, soils, streams, and roadson the site? What wildlife and aestheticconsiderations exist?

The main goal of harvest planning isto ensure that the landowner’s needs aremet. A carefully crafted harvesting plandefines the landowner’s objectives, andprovides a road map for forester and log-ger as they begin harvesting operations.So what exactly do foresters need toconsider when laying out a timber sale?

A key element of any harvest plan isthe protection of water quality and main-tenance of soil productivity. The two areclosely linked, since water quality can beadversely affected by soil erosion duringforestry operations. The forester’s bestline of defense against soil movement isthe use of Best Management Practices(BMPs). BMPs are state guidelines,sometimes regulatory and sometimesnon-regulatory, that provide importantguidance during harvesting operations.


Using BMPs when planning a harvesthelps to maintain water quality, promotesoil productivity, and prevent erosion.

To protect water quality, forestersbegin by identifying any streams on theproperty and delineating StreamsideManagement Zones (SMZs). SMZs aredefined on tract maps and marked in thewoods with paint or flagging. The estab-lishment of SMZs helps protect water-ways by providing a buffer between theharvest operation and the water. SMZsalso provide habitat for wildlife along-side the stream.

Sometimes it is necessary for heavylogging equipment to cross a stream dur-ing the harvest. If that is the case, theforester must pick a location that willprevent sediment from entering thewaterway. Good design, construction,and maintenance of forest roads protectboth water quality and the initial invest-ment in the road. During harvest plan-ning, decisions will be made on who willhandle road responsibilities. In somecases, the logger can maintain the road;in other cases, a road contractor may berequested.

After water quality is planned for,weather must be taken into considera-tion. Certain soil types should only beharvested during dry weather. If harvest-ing will occur during a wetter period,foresters will require certain techniquesto make sure the soil is not compacted ordisturbed. For example, the logger candistribute the limbs and branches of thetrees on the ground to cushion theimpact of equipment and reduce the riskof rutting. In clearcut or final harvest sit-uations, the soil type should be evaluatedto make sure the next forest has the bestpossible scenario for regeneration.

For many landowners, increasing theamount of habitat for wildlife is a majorgoal. Harvest practices that benefitwildlife can be factored into the plan.These items may include creating open-ings for food plots, altering clearcut sizeand shape to improve habitat, incorporat-ing wildlife corridors, and widening orlengthening SMZs. A landowner mightalso choose to retain “snags” or deadtrees which can serve as perches forbirds or den trees for mammals. In orderto maximize the wildlife enhancementpossibilities, these actions should be apart of the harvest plan and not merelydone as an afterthought.

Harvest planning is also the time tosurvey the land for the presence of anythreatened or endangered species. An“endangered” species is one that is indanger of extinction throughout all or asignificant portion of its range. A “threat-ened” species is one that is likely tobecome endangered in the foreseeablefuture. If an endangered or threatenedspecies does exist on the tract, precau-tions must be taken to ensure that itshabitat is not disturbed.

Finally, the overall look of the jobshould be taken into account. Alongwell-traveled roadways, alternatives toclearcutting may be considered. UsingSMZs and other natural features such asaesthetic buffers can also reduce thevisual impact. Other ways to make a har-vest site more attractive are to createsmall and irregularly shaped harvestareas, and to leave any trees that are spe-cial or that add beauty or charm to thesite.

Once all of the tract considerationshave been made, the forester must coor-dinate the harvest operation with theappropriate logger. The type of equip-ment that the logger owns determines thetype of operation for which he will bebest suited. For example, if a tract oftimber were being thinned, a logger withsmaller equipment would be the obvious

choice so that the residual trees wouldnot be damaged. For a clearcut opera-tion, a crew with more efficient equip-ment might be the choice. Timing issuesalso become a part of the planning pro-cess since each harvest operation takes adifferent amount of time to complete,and weather dictates the decision ofwhether or not to harvest on certaintracts. After all pieces of the harvestplanning process have been determinedand a logger has been selected, the log-ger is given a copy of the harvest mapand a list of any special considerations.A meeting with the logger, forester, andthe landowner prior to harvest eliminatesmisunderstanding.

Landowners are the best judges oftheir own land. They know its resourcesand what they wish to protect, and theyare committed to sound stewardshipprinciples like the protections of soil andwater, the enhancement of wildlife habi-tat, and the aesthetic quality of theirproperty. Incorporating these stewardshipprinciples into harvest planning is theresponsibility of the landowner and theforester working together. Their partner-ship in planning the future of the forestis a large part of ensuring that the forestwill remain sustainable for many yearsto come.

Before beginning any tree harvest, landowners should consult a professionalto ensure not only that their objectives are met, but also that sound steward-ship principles are followed.


Here is some information to keepin mind when you prepare yourFederal income tax return forthe 2002 tax year. This discus-

sion is necessarily brief, and you shouldconsult other sources for a more compre-hensive treatment of the issues. This infor-mation is current as of December 1, 2002.

Basis and Tax RecordsPart of the price you receive from a

timber sale is taxable income, but part isalso your investment (i.e., basis) in thetimber sold. Allocate your total costs ofacquiring purchased forestland—or thevalue of inherited forestland—amongland, timber, and other capital accounts assoon as possible. Adjust this basis up fornew purchases or investments and downfor sales or other disposals. When yousell your timber, you can take a depletiondeduction equal to [(Adjusted basis divid-ed by Total timber volume just before thesale) times (Timber volume sold)]. Goodrecords include a written managementplan and a map of your forestland. Keeprecords that support current deductionssix years beyond the date the return isdue. Keep records that support your basissix years beyond your period of owner-ship. Report basis and timber depletion onIRS Form T (Timber), Schedule B.

Passive Loss RulesThe passive loss rules are too complex

to cover in detail here, but what follows isa very brief summary. Under the passiveloss rules, you can be classified in one ofthree categories: (1) investor, (2) passiveparticipant in a trade or business, or (3)active participant (materially participat-ing) in a trade or business.

The law’s intent is that you are “mate-rially participating” if your involvementis regular, continuous, and substantial;however, a low level of activity is ade-quate if that level is all that is required tosustain the trade or business. This meansthat record keeping is very important! To

show material participation, landownerswill need to keep records of all businesstransactions related to managing theirtimber stands. Likewise, it would be agood idea to keep records of other busi-ness-related activities such as landownermeetings attended, odometer readings toand from meetings, cancelled checks forregistration fees, and copies of meetingagendas.

Generally, you will get the best taxadvantage if you are “materially partici-pating” in a timber business because allmanagement expenses, property taxes,and interest on indebtedness are fullydeductible against income from anysource. However, if you are “materiallyparticipating,” you must dispose of yourtimber under the provisions of Section631 to qualify for capital gains. (Thismeans that you must sell your timber on a“pay-as-cut” or “cut and convert” basis,rather than lump sum.) If you have con-siderable passive income (such as annualrental payments), it may be to youradvantage to be considered “passive.”Most of the discussion that followsapplies to forest landowners who are“materially participating.”

Reforestation Tax Credit and Amortization

The reforestation tax credit and seven-year amortization is one of the best taxadvantages for forest landowners. If youreforested during 2002, you can claim a10 percent investment tax credit for thefirst $10,000 you spent for reforestationduring the tax year. In addition, you canamortize (deduct) all of your 2002 refor-estation costs (up to $10,000), minus halfthe tax credit taken, over the next sevenyears (actually eight tax years). The elec-tion to amortize must be made on a time-ly tax return for the year in which thereforestation expenses were incurred.Elect to amortize reforestation expenseson Form 4562. (Passive owners may or

may not be eligible for the amortizationand credit).

Here’s how it works. Assume youspent $4,000 to reforest a cutover tract in2002. You claim a $400 tax credit (10percent of $4,000) for 2002. You can alsodeduct 95 percent of these reforestationcosts over the next eight tax years. Due toa half-year convention you can only claimone-half of the annual amortizable portionfor 2002. This means that on your 2002tax return you can deduct one-half of(0.95 x $4,000 ÷ 7) or $271. For the nextsix tax years you can deduct (0.95 x$4,000 ÷ 7) or $543, and the remaining$271 can be deducted the eighth tax year.

The annual reforestation amortizationis claimed on Form 1040 on the line foradjustments rather than being claimed onSchedule A under miscellaneous deduc-tions. (If you use Schedule A for this pur-pose, you can claim only aggregated mis-cellaneous deductions that exceed 2 per-cent of adjusted gross income). Use Form3468 to claim the investment tax credit.

Any reforestation costs exceeding the$10,000 annual limit should be capital-ized (entered into your timber account).You can recover (deduct) these costswhen you sell your timber.

A final word of caution: the tax creditand seven-year amortization deductionsare subject to recapture if you dispose ofyour trees — within five years of plantingfor the credit and within ten years ofplanting for the amortization.

Capital Gains and Self-employment Taxes

If you report your timber sale incomeas ordinary income, you could pay signif-icantly more in taxes than you would ifyou report it as a capital gain. Also, capi-tal gains are not subject to the self-employment tax, as is ordinary income.The net self-employment tax rate for2002 is 15.3 percent for self-employmentincome of $400 or more. The rate consists

Tax Tips for Forest Landowners for the 2002 Tax Year

By Larry M. BishopForest Management and Taxation Specialist, USDA Forest Service


of a 12.4 percent component for old age,survivors, and disability insurance(OASDI) and a 2.9 percent componentfor hospital insurance (Medicare). Themaximum income subject to the OASDIcomponent of the tax rate is $84,900,while the Medicare component is unlimit-ed. However, if wages subject to SocialSecurity or Railroad Retirement tax arereceived during the tax year, the maxi-mum is reduced by the amount of wageson which these taxes were paid. To quali-fy for long-term capital gains treatment,timber sold after December 31, 1997must have been held longer than 12months. The maximum long-term capitalgains rate for timber sold in 2002 is 20%.(For taxpayers in the lowest incomebracket, the maximum rate is 10%).

Cost-Share PaymentsIf you received cost-share assistance

under one or more of the Federal or Statecost-share programs during 2002, youmay have to report some or all of it asordinary income. You have two options.You have the option to include it asincome and then recover the part that youpay plus the cost-share payment throughthe amortization and reforestation taxcredit already described. You also havethe option to exclude the “excludableportion” from income if certain condi-tions are met. These conditions are (1)the cost-share program has to beapproved for exclusion by the IRS and(2) the maximum amount excludable peracre is the greater of: (a) the presentvalue of $2.50 per acre or (b) the presentvalue of 10 percent of the averageincome per acre for the past three taxyears. This second requirement getsrather complicated because you have todetermine an appropriate interest rate tocompute the present values. Programsapproved for exclusion by the IRSinclude the Forestry Incentives Program(FIP), the Forest Stewardship IncentiveProgram (SIP), the Wetlands ReserveProgram (WRP), the EnvironmentalQuality Incentives Program (EQIP), andthe Wildlife Habitat Incentive Program(WHIP), plus several state programs(check with your local county office ofthe Alabama Forestry Commission forapproved programs). Generally, if youharvested the tract within the last threeyears, probably all of the cost-sharesreceived can be excluded from income. In

some cases, taxpayers may be better offto exclude cost-share payments. Othertaxpayers may be better off not toexclude cost-share payments. Instead,they may be better off to claim the cost-share payments as part of the reforesta-tion tax credit/seven-year amortization.The important point here is: You mustreport cost-share payments. If you decideto exclude, attach a statement to yourreturn that states specifically what cost-share payments you received, that youchoose to exclude some or all of them,and how you determined the excludableamount.

Conservation Reserve Program

If you planted trees during 2002 underthe Conservation Reserve Program(CRP), you must report your annual pay-ment as ordinary income. If you receivedCRP cost-share assistance funds forplanting your trees, you must also reportthese as ordinary income. CRP cost-sharepayments used to establish trees can beclaimed as part of the reforestationexpenses reported for the reforestationtax credit/seven-year amortization.Farmers may treat expenditures for soiland water conservation on farmland asexpenses in the year incurred, rather thancapitalizing them (CRP expendituresqualify). However, the amount deductiblein any year shall not exceed 25 percent ofthe gross income from farming.

Casualty LossesA casualty loss must result from some

event that is (1) identifiable, (2) damagingto property, and (3) sudden and unexpect-ed or unusual in nature. Examples includewildfire and storms. A 1999 RevenueRuling identified the depletion block —the unit you use to keep track of theadjusted basis of the affected timber — asthe appropriate measure of the “singleidentifiable property damaged ordestroyed” in calculating a casualty lossdeduction.

The IRS has issued Revenue Rulingson southern pine beetle losses in timberstands, drought losses of plantedseedlings, and casualty loss deductions. Itruled that beetle and drought losses gen-erally do not qualify for a casualty lossdeduction because they are not sudden.They may, however, qualify for a busi-ness- or investment-loss deduction.

Management and Maintenance Expenses

Generally, your annual expenses forthe management and maintenance of anexisting stand of timber can be expensedor capitalized. In most cases, you are bet-ter off to expense those costs during thetax year they are incurred, rather thancapitalizing them. If it is not to youradvantage to itemize deductions for 2002,you should capitalize these expenses. Ifyou choose to itemize deductions, youcan deduct these expenses, but the pas-sive loss rules apply.

ConclusionCongress provided these favorable tax

advantages to stimulate increased produc-tivity from the nation’s privately ownedforestlands. When you take advantage ofthese favorable provisions you avoid pay-ing unnecessary income taxes, and youearn more income from your woodlandoperations.

REFERENCEHaney, H. L., Jr.; Hoover, W. L.; Siegel,

W. C.; and Greene, John L. 2001.Forest Landowners Guide to theFederal Income Tax. Agric. Handb.718. Washington, DC: U.S.,Department of Agriculture. 157 pp.

(This handbook is available for sale from theU. S. Government Bookstore at 404-347-1900.The price is $20.00 per copy. Major creditcards are accepted.)

TAX INFORMATION ON

THE INTERNETUSDA Forest Service publications are

available at: www.fs.fed.us/spf/coop andwww.southernregion.fs.fed.us/spf/coop/taxation

IRS publications and forms are avail-able at: www.irs.gov

National Timber Tax Site is located at:www.timbertax.org

Editor’s Note: This article from theCooperative Forestry Technology Update,December 2002 (a publication of theUSDA Forest Service) was reprinted withpermission from the author.


Perhaps the emphasis of multiple-use management is redundant.We keep hearing the importanceof diversifying land manage-

ment activities for the benefit of both thelandowners and the environment. TheAlabama Forestry Commission and the

Alabama TREASURE ForestAssociation encourage forest landownersto diversify their land management prac-tices. There is even an award, the HeleneMosley Memorial TREASURE ForestAward that is recognized statewide foroutstanding landowners that continually

manage their land through these prac-tices. Other agencies and universities arealso stressing the same concept but to abroader range of landowners.

For the landowners that own pasture-land or cropland, the multiple-use man-agement regime for this type is “agro-forestry.” Agroforestry encompasses abroad range of land development prac-tices. It is the general idea of diversify-ing land management activities on thesame acreage simultaneously to increaseeconomic return while meeting environ-mental goals. This practice can incorpo-rate timber management with croplandor pastureland. To be more specific,however, there is a particular agro-forestry system that entails the manage-ment of timber production with pasture-land only and that is “silvopasture.”Silvopasture integrates trees with live-stock grazing and forage production. It iscurrently the most rapidly growing andmost common form of agroforestry inthe South.

The silvopastural system can bedeveloped from a pasture with the incor-poration of trees or from a forest withthe incorporation of forage. Why is theresuch an emphasis for landowners toincorporate a silvopastural system? Asmentioned earlier, there are many bene-fits both economically and environmen-tally for landowners to diversify theirmanagement activities.

Elliott Salter’s goats happily greet him at their trough as he prepares to treatthem with supplemental feed.

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By Dana McReynoldsOutreach Forester, Alabama Forestry Commission, Northeast Region

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By Dana McReynoldsOutreach Forester, Alabama Forestry Commission, Northeast Region


Economically, the landowner increas-es the potential of receiving a return notonly periodically but annually as well.Especially for landowners that own smallacreages, livestock management canenhance annual cash flow that may belimited in timber production. Anotherimportant reason to diversify manage-ment activity is to provide financial sta-bility in an unstable economy. Livestockand timber prices constantly fluctuate,but not necessarily in the same directionat the same time. There may be an eco-nomic period where timber prices arelow while livestock prices are high orvise versa. Management diversity willcompensate for these fluctuations.

Environmentally, a silvopastural sys-tem may reduce excessive erosion andunderstory vegetation. If understory veg-etation is reduced, there will be littleneed for prescribed burns and herbicidetreatments. In an improved pasturewhere fertilizer is applied, not only willthe forage benefit from this practice, sowill the trees. Both the trees and the for-age will experience accelerated growth.Eventually, this repetitive managementactivity will provide high-quality forageyields and timber products.

Under certain management regimes, asilvopastural system and a wildlife habi-tat can co-exist in a healthy environment.Even though livestock and wildlife man-agement seem to overlap and compete

with one another, in certain systemswildlife management is enhanced. Withlarge edges and many openings that arecharacteristic of most silvopastural sys-tems, the land may actually be more con-ducive to wildlife than the traditionalforest or pasture.

In a silvopastural system, livestockcan include horses, goats, cattle, orsheep; but in the south, cattle - alongwith southern pines - is the most com-mon. However, with the new emergenceof immigrants and the increased demandfor goat products, many southernlandowners are converting their silvopas-

tural system from cattle and pine to goatand timber. Three landowners from dif-ferent areas in Alabama at differentstages of management give their personalaccount about their goat and timbersilvopastural system.

The PeoplesGrady and Rosalind Peoples of

Fayette County had forestland predomi-nantly, but recently decided to convert itinto a silvopastural system. In July of

Great Pyrenees dogs guard the goats for Rosalind Peoples at her FayetteCounty farm.

Left: Doris Smith with her prize-winning Billy, a purebred Boer, at “Lower Forty Farms.” Right: The play area Mrs. Smithset up for her goats with the natural upland hardwood forest in the background.


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2001, they integrated goats with timber.They cleared approximately 12 acres ofunderbrush and established both perma-nent and electrical fencing; however,there is still a variety of understory vege-tation and kudzu on their land.

Mr. and Mrs. Peoples purchased sev-eral purebred and mixed-bred Boer goatsand placed them on their property.Immediately, the goats began to clean upthe brush by browsing on the forageand the kudzu. Rosalind Peoplesstated, “The goats absolutely lovethe kudzu and it’s high in protein.Since the goats are eating the under-brush and the kudzu, herbicides arenot needed to control such unwantedspecies.” Also, expenses aredecreased since money is not spentfor herbaceous spraying or pre-scribed burns.

Although still in the early stagesof managing their silvopastural sys-tem, the Peoples are already receiv-ing income from their practices.They receive income from sellingGreat Pyrenees guard dogs (used asshepherd dogs for flocks) as well asfrom selling their Boer goats. Eventhough they have been managingtheir land for over a year, Mrs.Peoples said that they are still mak-ing improvements on their property.They plan to develop an old springproviding better water access for thegoats and to enclose 20 more acresof land. With persistence, soon thePeoples will have a well-accom-plished silvopastural system.

The SaltersElliott Salter from Crenshaw County

is currently establishing a silvopasturalsystem from his forestland. He definitelybelieves in management diversity sincehe is a prospective TREASURE Forestlandowner. Mr. Salter’s property consistsof several pine plantations, some plantedunder the Conservation Reserve Program(CRP) and some planted under theForestry Incentive Program (FIP), com-monly known as the “Cost Share” pro-gram. He has applied to be a participantin another program, the “Silvopasture

Study” sponsored by Alabama A&MUniversity.

Already having five acres enclosedwith electrical and permanent fencing, heplans to enclose three more acres. Mr.Salter has started establishing his sil-vopastural system by purchasing a fewgoats and he plans to continue hisprogress by purchasing more purebredgoats. The goats can graze in the pasture

or in his natural stand, but not in theCRP or FIP pine plantations. He does notwant the goats to consume any vegeta-tion that was treated with herbicides. Thegoats can “clean up” the underbrush inthe forest to the point where burning andherbicides will not be needed.

The SmithsLandowner Doris Smith of Marengo

County has established her silvopasturalsystem quite differently. The Smiths ownpastureland with native trees. They con-verted their livestock management

approximately seven years ago whenthey sold their cattle and purchased fivegoats. Mrs. Smith was the first landown-er in her area to manage a goat and tim-ber silvopastural system. She has beenan innovator and an advocate for thistype of management practice.

Mrs. Smith admitted that she knowsmore about raising goats than she doesabout timber management, and most of

this knowledge comes from per-sonal experience. Even thoughthere is little timber managementbeing done, there does exist abeautiful stand of natural uplandhardwoods. The goats graze inthe pasture near the house and onthe forage in the forest. The goatsreally prefer to graze “up” asopposed to grazing in the pasturebecause they are really browsers.She stated that the goats reallylove the honeysuckle and theacorns that exist in the forest.With the upland hardwoods beingsuch a great habitat for wildlife,do the goats compete with thewildlife for food? “Not at all,”said Mrs. Smith, “there is enoughforage for both the goats and thewildlife.” Besides, the goats havetwo other food sources, one fromthe pasture and another from thefeed. Competing for space is nota problem either. Few confronta-tions occur between the domesti-cated goats and the existingwildlife since the guard dogs arethere to ward off any potentialpredators.

Doris Smith absolutely lovesher work and it is reflected in her accom-plishments. Not only is she persistentlyworking, she is also informing and edu-cating other landowners about the goatand timber silvopastural system. As aninnovator in this field, she wants to con-tinue teaching others about raising goatsand has done so through her presenta-tions at several goat workshops. With herexperience, knowledge, and direction,other landowners will establish andeventually accomplish a silvopasturalsystem as successful as hers.

(Continued from page 21)

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In a previous article, we discussed“North” in relation to using a com-pass. The next step in the process ofproper use of a compass is the

understanding of direction and how tomeasure it. The process includes somesimple math but may seem difficultwhen learning from a narrative. Followstep by step, like assembling a child’sswing set (the difference being, the endproduct will not have left over parts!).

DIRECTION is the measurement ofan angle on a horizontal plane from abase direction. It may be expressed inthe form of an azimuth or a bearing.Each is described in detail. In either casethere are four Cardinal Directions:

North, East, South, and West. They mayalways be expressed as Due North, DueEast, Due South, and Due West. Theycorrespond to 0o, 90o, 180o, and 270o.The best tool for practicing the mathe-matics of angular direction is an inex-pensive compass. Favor one with a full360-degree circle. They are inexpensiveand available in the school supply sec-tion of your local store.

AzimuthDirection expressed as an azimuth is

measured starting at North, in a clock-wise direction through a full 360o circle.It assumes that you, or thepoint you are measuringfrom on the map, are at thecenter of the circle. SeeFigure 1.

In Figure 2, “A” is anazimuth of 45o. Thatmeans that you are at thecenter of the circle, youhold your compass level(on a horizontal plane),point your North arrow atNorth and read clockwise,from the base direction(North), 45o. If you trav-eled along that line, youwould be traveling on anazimuth of 45o. A measure-ment to line “B” produces

an angle or azimuth of 90o. “C” is 225o

and “D” is 315o. Take your compass orprotractor and practice.

BearingIt is fairly common to hear someone

say, “Let me get my bearings.” Theysimply mean that they need a moment togather their thoughts and organize thedirection of their next action.

The formal measurement of bearingsis also associated with the measurement

Measuring Direction:Azimuth & Bearing

By Douglas A. SmithFire Operations Officer, Alabama Forestry Commission


N360°

0°

45°

90°

135°

180°

225°

270°

315°

clockwise

Figure 1

N360°

0°

45°

A

B

C

D

90° E

135°

180°S

225°

W 270°

315°

Figure 2


For many hunters, the sight of acottontail rabbit brings backmemories of their first hunt.Whether hunted alone from

brush pile to brush pile or with a pack ofbeagles, cottontails evoke memories of“the good old days.”

Historically, cottontail populationsincreased significantly with clearing offorests by settlers and early farmingpractices. Woody fence rows and “patch-work” planting of a variety of crops pro-

vided substantial food and cover for cot-tontails. However, as farming intensified,woody fence rows were eliminated andlarge tracts of land were planted withsingle crops. Small farms dropped out ofproduction, allowing fallow fields todevelop into mature forests. As a result,cottontail food and cover were greatlyreduced and their population declined.

As late as the 1960s, there werealmost 120,000 cottontail rabbit huntersin Alabama, but by 1989 the number

declined sharply to around 33,000.Recognizing the dramatic downturn incottontail hunters, the AlabamaConservation Department’s Game andFish Division (now the AlabamaDivision of Wildlife and FreshwaterFisheries) and Auburn University’sCooperative Fish & Wildlife Unit pro-vided funds for a cottontail research pro-gram at the Alabama AgriculturalExperiment Station’s PiedmontSubstation in Tallapoosa County. One of

By Sammy L. King and H. Lee StriblingZoology & Wildlife Science Department, Auburn University

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the primary purposes of the study was toevaluate cottontail rabbit managementpractices that could be implemented bysmall landowners at relatively low cost.Manmade brush piles and prescribedburning were the methods chosen forinvestigation because of their relativelysmall expense and their effectiveness inmany game management programs.Although construction of brush piles hasbeen well documented as an effectivecottontail management practice, prescribedburning had not yet been evaluated.

Fire is one of the most effective toolsfor wildlife managers. Fire has alwaysbeen a strong force in the natural forma-tion and maintenance of plant and ani-mal communities. Wildlife managershave known the beneficial effects of reg-ular, well-plannedburning programsfor years, butbecause of publicmisconceptionsabout fire, limitsare often placed onits use for publiclands. Neverthe-less, fire can beused to managenumerous gamespecies and tomaintain certainplant communities.

Cottontail rab-bits are believed tobenefit from winterburning programsbecause of fire’seffect on the vege-tation that rabbits use for food and cover.Abundance of legumes such as partridgepeas or beggar lice and other food plantsincreases after regular winter burns.Previous research indicated that increas-es in desirable plant species mayincrease cottontail reproduction. Thusfire can be beneficial to cottontail foodsupply and therefore could be a factor inincreasing the number of rabbits. How-ever, it was not known whether lack ofsufficient cover following a burn wouldlead to increased predation by hawks,owls, foxes, stray pets, and other preda-tors, or if cottontails would be directlyinjured by fire.

After prescribed burns in late winter(late February to March) a large percent-age of cover is temporarily removed, so

brush piles of trees, limbs, and balingwire constructed immediately after a firecan provide additional cover that mayincrease cottontail survival. After twoyears of intensive study, researchersobserved only one rabbit injured by fire,and this instance was considered minorsince the injury was not fatal. Most cot-tontails remained relatively calm duringthe burns, and several were observedmoving slowly along the edge of thefire. Other cottontails were observedmoving calmly along firebreaks withineasy spotting distance of the personsimplementing the prescribed burn.

Use of brush piles by rabbits after theburns was substantial. Brush piles,stump holes, burrows, and unburnedpatches of vegetation were used heavily

for several weeks following the burn.Brush piles were also important for cot-tontails throughout the winter and pro-vided cover for songbirds, other smallmammals, snakes, and even wildturkeys. In addition to increasing cotton-tail abundance, management programsusing prescribed fire are also effective inreducing fuel build-up thus helping pre-vent unwanted and dangerous wildfires.Prescribed fires can also be used for tim-ber management.

Although fire is a very beneficial toolof wildlife management, it can be dan-gerous when used by untrained persons.Several factors should be consideredbefore implementing a prescribed burnprogram. February and March are thebest times to burn for the benefit of

wildlife. Burns should be conducted on aone- to five-year cycle depending on thelandowner’s wildlife management objec-tives. Adequate firebreaks must be con-structed, and the topography and generalcondition of the land need to be evaluat-ed to determine estimated behavior offire and possible effects of smoke onnearby highways or residential areas.

Construction of brush piles is quitesimple. The most effective method is tocut halfway through several tree saplingsand push them over in a pile so that theyremain connected to the tree. Althoughhardwoods provide a strong base onwhich small pines and baling wire canbe added, take care not to remove plantsthat produce mast (fruits and nutswildlife used for food). Flowering dog-

wood and variousspecies of oak treesthat produce mastshould not be cut forbrush. Sweetgum isless valuable forwildlife and workswell as brush. Actualspecies used willdepend on thelandowner’s manage-ment objectives.

Brush pile size isnot critical, but agood size is from 10to 20 feet wide and 3to 5 feet high. Brushpiles should be com-posed of looselypiled limbs and tops.Put large limbs on

the bottom and cover them with smallerones. Try to provide one brush pile forevery one or two acres. Expose a strip ofbare earth around each pile by raking ordisking before prescribed burns. Afterconstruction, brush piles can be fertilizedto enhance growth of desirable plants forfood and additional cover. Apply two tofour pounds of 13-13-13 to each brushpile in April. Brush piles can be main-tained by adding brush each year.

Immediate response of cottontail rab-bits to prescribed fire treatment may beobvious. Significant changes in cotton-tail populations may take several years.Research continues to determine man-agement practices that produce greatestcottontail abundance.

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of angles. However, bearing is not asso-ciated with the expression of 360degrees in a circle. It is associated withthe four quadrants of a circle (NE, SE,SW, NW) and uses a base direction ofeither North or South. Measurementsmay not exceed 90 degrees since thereare only 90 degrees per quadrant. SeeFigure 3.

Look at Figure 4. Bearing is mea-sured from North to East or North toWest. It is also measured from South toEast and from South to West. Any one ofthe four measurements may range from 1to 89 degrees, excluding cardinal direc-tions.

Line “A” is expressed as North 45o

West. This means that by positioningyour compass pointing North, you hold iton a horizontal (level) plane, and mea-sure the angle from the base direction ofNorth. Line “B” is expressed as North60o East. This may be abbreviated asN60o E. Lines “C” and “D” are mea-sured from the baseline pointing Southand are expressed as S15oE and S75oW.Practice with your protractor.

Which Terminology Should I Use?

When should you express direction inazimuth and when should you use bear-ing? Either expression is technically cor-rect. However, each is commonly associ-ated with certain activities. If you areexpressing a direction of travel, it ismore likely to be understood if you useazimuth since everyone who had high

school geometry knows the 360 degreesof a circle. When fire towers report thedirection of smoke, it is associated withthe azimuth angle of measurement. Sowhat about bearing? Look at the deed toyour property. You will most likely seethe description associated with the angu-lar measurements of bearing. It will alsohave a reference point known to survey-ors and associated with the Public Landor rectangular survey system (i.e., fromknown point “A” go N35oE for adescribed distance; from there go S75oE

for a described dis-tance; continueN15oW and ulti-mately to the prop-erty line directionsand distancesaround your prop-erty.) See Figure 5.There is anothersystem of propertylocation called“metes andbounds” but it willnot be discussed inthis article.

If azimuths andbearings are mea-surements ofangles, any givenangle may beexpressed witheither terminology.Consider this com-parison in Figure6. An azimuth of45o equals a bear-

ing of N45oE. An azimuth of 220o

equals a bearing of S40oW, and anazimuth of 315o equals a bearing ofN45oW. Try some examples of yourown.

Reverse DirectionThere is one more concept needed to

effectively use direction of travel. It isback bearing or back azimuth. If youwanted to trace your path back to whereyou came from, you would use the oppo-

90° E

SW SE

NW NE

W 90°

A

B

C

D

N45°WCCW

S15°E

CCW

S75°WCW

N60°E

CW

N0°

0°S

Figure 4

90° 90°

90°NW NE

SW SE

90°

90° 90°

0°

0°

Figure 3

A

N35°E

S75°E

N15°W

Property

Figure 5

Measuring Direction: Azimuth & Bearing(Continued from page 23)


site of your direction of travel or a dif-ference of 180 degrees. The computationof your back azimuth or back bearingwill be important in a future articledescribing how to locate positions on amap.

The opposite direction of any straight-line travel is 180o. Therefore, modifyyour direction of travel by 180o and itwill produce your “back” direction. Forazimuth (Az.) angles of 180o or less, add180 to your direction. For Az. angles of180o or more, subtract 180 from yourdirection of travel. See Figure 7.Example: If you are traveling in a direc-tion of Az. 40o, add 180 and the opposite(or back Az.) direction is 220o. The backAz. of 285o is 285 minus 180 equals105o. Try some examples of your own.

Computing the opposite direction of abearing requires no math, only a juxtapo-sition of letters: N45oE equals S45oWand S30oE equals N30oW. Look at theexamples in Figure 8 and then try someof your own.

Another article in this series willexplain how to use direction -- whichyou now know as an angle of measure-ment -- to locate positions such assmoke from a fire or your own loca-tion. All it takes is a compass, a map,and the knowledge you acquired fromthis article.

N360°

90° E

45°

135°225°

315°

180°S

Az 45° = N45°E

W 270°

220°

N

E

220°

S

Az 220° = S40°W

W

40°

N

E

315°

S

Az 315° = N45°W

W

315°

45°

Figure 6

Back

Az 40°

Forw

ard

Back

Az 220°

40 + 180 = 220or

220 - 180 = 40

Az 285°Forward

Az 105°

285 - 180 = 105or

105 + 180 = 285

Figure 7

Visit the AFC Web Site:www.forestry.state.al.us

N

E

S45°WS30°E

N45°E N30°W

S

W

45°

45°

N

E

S

W

30°

30°

Figure 8

Of all flowering plants,orchids are surely tobe counted among themost beautiful, for

since their introduction into cul-tivation they have become asymbol of all that is exotic andextravagant. Like lilies, to whichthey are related, orchids haveacquired an air of fantasy and anassociation with a sophisticatedworld of glamour and wealth.Beginning with Chinese mer-chants, collectors have riskedtheir lives to retrieve them fromfar-off corners of the world,braving the unspeakable horrorsof tropical swamps so that theseexquisite flowers may adorn thelavish lifestyles of Europeanaristocracy.

The Orchidaceae is the largestof all families of floweringplants, with around 800 generarepresented by 30,000 species.To the unimpressed, this meansthat nearly one in every 15 flow-ering plants is an orchid. Thegeneral perception of orchidsevokes images of the mysticaland distant lands of the equator,and rightly so, for orchids aremost commonly encountered intropical regions. However, people areastonished to learn that several speciesare distributed across the cooler regionsof the Northern Hemisphere, includingmore than 200 species in North America.

As for Alabama with its rich soil,ample rainfall, and temperate climate, itis prime orchid country producing astriking diversity of colors and shapes. Infact, a number of orchids – 56 species in

all – embellish the Heart ofDixie. Truly, one of the state’srarest and most cherished wild-flowers is the giant orchid(Pteroglossaspis ecristata), aglobally imperiled speciesrestricted to the open pinelandsof the southeastern CoastalPlain and western Cuba. Withthe approach of late summerthe plant reveals its true glory,a closely applied series of yel-lowish-green and dark purpleflowers arranged on a stemthree to four feet in height.

The giant orchid was firstbrought to the attention of thescientific world from a series ofcollections made by FerdinandRugel along the banks of theSt. Johns River near Jackson-ville, Florida in 1842. Duringthe time of its discovery, Ptero-glossaspis ecristata likelyattained some prominence inthe vast longleaf pine ecosys-tem that once characterized theSoutheast. However, as themajestic woodlands of thelongleaf monarchy began todwindle, so did the giantorchid, to such low levelsprompting the U.S. Fish and

Wildlife Service to classify the speciesas special concern and one in need ofurgent attention. Historical accounts fur-


Z|tÇà bÜv{|wBy Alfred R. Schotz

Botanist/Ecologist, Alabama Natural Heritage Programs

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nished by early plantsmen such as Rugeloffered preliminary but essential infor-mation regarding the ecology of this anda panoply of other species endemic tothe southeastern coastal pinelands.Then, as now, fire caused by lightningstrikes associated with spring and sum-mer thunderstorms was the most perva-sive driving force maintaining this sys-tem. These naturally occurring fireswere essential for retarding the growthof trees and shrubs that would otherwiseinvade and eliminate the unique concen-tration of plant life that has come tomake these areas special. In fact, manyof the plants found here are dependentupon periodic fire to stimulate growthand reproduction.

Efforts are currently underwaybetween the Alabama Natural HeritageProgram and various federal agencies toacquire a greater understanding of popu-lation dynamics and the rangewide sta-tus of this species. So far, preliminarystudies have shown that the giant orchidresponds most favorably following earlyseason burns, specifically during periodsassociated with abundant rainfall. Thisresearch also involves measuring thelong-term effects of livestock grazingand other human-derived disturbancesas they relate to species viability. It issuspected that the presence of grazinghas been instrumental in providingneeded disturbance for the giant orchidby keeping some sites open from com-peting vegetation and to promote germi-nation. Only in time will we be able topiece together enough information tobegin understanding the delicate rela-tionship between this species and thenatural system of which it is a part. Ifwe are to preserve this species, a devot-ed commitment toward research andconservation will be our only hope ofensuring that this emblem of the state’snatural heritage is there for future gener-ations to know.

Further information can be obtainedby contacting the Alabama NaturalHeritage Program, Huntingdon College,Massey Hall, 1500 East FairviewAvenue, Montgomery, AL 36106.


Z|tÇà bÜv{|w(Continued from page 28)

The 2003 session of AlabamaForestry Camp, in its seventhyear, will take place fromSunday, June 1, through Thurs-

day, June 5. The camp will be held at theFederation of Southern Cooperatives facil-ity near Epes, Alabama in Sumter County.

Alabama Forestry Camp is a five-dayexperience for high school students inter-ested in forestry, conservation, and/ornatural resources. It is designed to intro-duce basic forestry concepts throughclassroom instructions and outdoor activ-ities. At this year’s camp, students willparticipate in classes covering tree identi-fication, forest management, forest prod-ucts, wildlife, water quality, urbanforestry, and forest history. In addition,there will be off-campus visits to GulfStates Corporation’s Westervelt Lodgeand sawmill. However, Forestry Camp isnot “all work and no play.” There arealso recreational and evening activities. Avisit to Moundville Archeological Park isplanned as well as a fun day of fishing atthe Charles A. Farquhar State CattleRanch. During Career Night, studentswill have the opportunity to talk to col-lege recruiters about careers in forestryand natural resources.

The purpose of the camp is to providea positive learning experience. The finalday of the camp includes a graduationceremony and a luncheon for the studentsand family members with the instructorsand counselors. All students will receivea certificate of completion of the camp.

Alabama Forestry Camp is open toany boy or girl aged 15-18 who has com-pleted the ninth grade but not yet gradu-ated from high school. There is no costto the student to attend camp; however,each student is responsible for providinghis or her own transportation to and fromcamp. All other transportation, meals,and snacks will be provided. Studentswill be housed in dormitories with 24-hour adult supervision.

Space is limited. An application mustbe completed and signed by both studentand parent or guardian. All applicationsmust be postmarked by April 11, 2003.

If you know of someone interested inattending the Alabama Forestry Camp,have him or her call any county office ofthe Alabama Forestry Commission for anapplication or for more information.

Alabama Forestry Camp 2003

By James JenningsOutreach Forester, Alabama Forestry Commission, NW Region

Attendees of the 2002 Class at Alabama Forestry Camp.

Historical Photo


The photo above, taken during the early 1900s,was submitted by Mrs. Lois Hughey Ulleryof Sprott, Alabama. She found it in the filesof her grandfather who worked for Jackson

Lumber Company for many years while they harvestedtimber in the Perry County area. Much of this land isnow part of the Talladega National Forest.

Although her grandfather is not pictured in this par-ticular photo, Mrs. Ullery also posesses a photo of sev-eral men (including her grandfather) - wearing dresssuits and derby hats - standing around a train that had

wrecked. This narrow gauge train was used in thehawling of logs to Riderville, Alabama. (Unforunately,the photo is too faded to reproduce in the magazine.)

Mrs. Ullery’s grandfather used horse and cart tomake the trip to Riderville, approximately 30 milesfrom his home. He would often bring some of the otherlumber company employees home with him for theweekend. She recalled how as a child she heard manytales about those olden days.


CHANGE OF ADDRESS FORMAre you receiving Alabama’s TREASURED Forests at the correct address?If not, please complete this form and return to:

Alabama's TREASURED Forests MagazineP.O. Box 302550 Montgomery, AL 36130-2550

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Landowner’s Application forWildlife Management Assistance

If you own 10 or more acres of forestland, you are eligible to receive professional advice from a wildlife biologist on how to meet your wildlife management goals. Write or call the wildlife biologist (listed below) located nearest your property. Please provide the following information and you will

be contacted as soon as possible to schedule a consultation.

Name: ______________________________________________________________________________

Address: ____________________________________________________________________________

City: ________________________________________________________________________________

State: ___________________________________________ Zip Code: __________________________

Telephone: (day) __________________________________ (evening): __________________________

Email: ______________________________________________________________________________

County where property is located: ____________________________ Total acres: __________________

Central AlabamaClaude Jenkins3050 Lanark RoadP.O. Box 1339Millbrook, AL 36054Tele: 334.285.4550

334.285.4959Email: [email protected]

South AlabamaJohn DicksonSolon Dixon Forestry Education Ctr.Route. 7 Box 131Andalusia, AL 36420Tele: 334.427.1029Email: [email protected]

North AlabamaRyan PrinceUSDA Forest Service2309 Highway 46Heflin, AL 36264Tele: 256.463.2272Email:[email protected]

For current information

on the Southern Pine

Beetle situation in

Alabama, visit theAlabama Forestry

Commission web page at:

www.forestry.state.al.us

This program is sponsored jointly by the Alabama Forestry Commission, the Alabama TREASURE ForestAssociation, the Alabama Wildlife Federation, The Longleaf Alliance, and the U.S. Forest Service

Alabama’s TREASURED Forests513 Madison AvenueP.O. Box 302550Montgomery, Alabama 36130-2550

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PRESORTED STANDARD

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MONTGOMERY ALPERMIT NO 109

Alabama’s abundant forests arefilled will many beautifulflowering plants, shrubs andtrees, but few have the grace

and beauty of our native mountainlaurel (Kalmia latifolia L.). Alsocalled Calico Bush or Spoonwood,the mountain laurel not only paintsa striking and delicate spring pic-ture with its large pink or whiteflower clusters, but as an ever-green it also adds color and con-trast to the barren backdrop ofwinter.

Mountain laurel is a many-stemmed evergreen that normallygrows as a thicket-forming shrubbut occasionally reaches heights of30 feet. It has a short crookedtrunk as a shrub, around 6 inchesin diameter, but grows up to 15inches as a tree. Its stout spreadinghelps to form a compact roundedcrown.

The leaves are elliptic, pointed,thick, and leathery. They have alustrous dark brown color above with apaler green below and they droop. Barkis thin, dark reddish brown and dividesinto long, narrow scales.

The flowers are waxy pinkish orwhite, cupped up, five-lobed, and oneinch broad in terminal clusters. Themountain laurel is especially adapted forinsect pollination by the stamens beingfastened to the petals so that as an insect

lands upon it, the anther springs up,releasing the webby-threaded pollenwhich clings to the insect. The buds arepure pink, cone-shaped, and corrugated.

The capsule is dull red, five-lobed,and about 1/4 inch in diameter.

Mountain laurel grows best in dryor moist acid soils in understory ofmixed forests on upland mountainslopes and in valleys. It also growsin shrub thickets called “heathbalds” or “laurel slicks.” Its range isfrom Southeast Maine to NorthFlorida, west to Louisiana and northto Indiana. In the south it will growin elevations to 4,000 feet.

Historically, the wood was usedfor tool handles and turnery. Theburls (hard knot-like growths on thetrunk) were used for briar tobaccopipes. Today it is used as an orna-mental.

The leaves of the mountain laurelcontain amounts of andromedotoxin,a substance particularly poisonous tosheep. Cattle, horses, and goats are

also susceptible. Deer and other wildanimals have been known to browse onthe foliage without being seriouslyaffected. Honey from the flowers isbelieved to be poisonous.

(Kalmia latifolia L.)

By Coleen VansantInformation Manager, Alabama Forestry Commission

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alabama’s treasured - forestry commission · alabama’s treasured forests ... forest association...

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