alba iulia this conference is supported by alba county … · 1800-1830: eva ondruŠovÁ (history...

ALBA IULIA April 25th-27th, 2013

This conference is supported by ALBA COUNTY COUNCIL

3

Conference Programme

Wednesday, April 24th 800-1800: Participants registration 1900: Dinner (University Restaurant)

Thursday, April 25th

Senate Hall (Apor Palace)

900-930: Official opening of the conference 930-1200: Plenary lectures

930-1010: BOGDAN MURGESCU (University of Bucharest)

Patterns of Spatial Mobility, Human Capital Accumulation and Economic Growth in East-Central Europe in the 20th century

1010-1030: ANA-MARIA GRIGORUŢ (Alba County Council) Patrimony and Local Identity. The Network of Ethnographic Exhibitions in Alba County

1030-1050: ELENA STOIA (Alba County Council) Current Economy in Alba County. Development Trends

1050-1110: Coffee break

1110-1150: KONRAD GÜNDISCH (Bundesinstitut für Kultur und Geschichte der Deutschen im östlichen Europa an der Universität Oldenburg)

Auswärtige Unternehmer in Siebenbürgen an der Wende zur Neuzeit

1200-1330: Apor Palace

Vernissage of the Workshop Exhibition Icons from Transylvania.

Romanian Art – European Heritage

4

1330-1500: Lunch (University Restaurant)

1500-1700: Presenting conference papers divided into sections



1930-2030: Dinner (University Restaurant)

Friday, April 26th




1200-1330: Visiting the “Batthyaneum” Library





1800-1830: Conclusions. Closing of conference


Saturday, April 27th

Documentary trip at Roşia Montană

5

1st Section Early Modern History

1st Session The Use of the Resources, Trade and Consumption,

between South-Eastern and Central Europe

Thursday, April 25th Senate Hall (Apor Palace) Chair: BOGDAN MURGESCU

1500-1530: MARIUS DIACONESCU (University of Bucharest)

The Seeds of Capitalism in Central Europe at Mid-Sixteenth Century: Peter Deák Szentgyörgyi of Baia Mare

1530-1600: MÁRIA PAKUCS (“Nicolae Iorga” Institute of History, Bucharest)

The Transit of Oriental Goods through the Customs of Sibiu, Sixteenth-Seventeenth Century: an Overview

1600-1630: WALDEMAR DELUGA (Cardinal “Stefan Wyszynski” University, Warsaw)

Greek Merchants and Art in the Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth (16th – 18th Centuries)

1630-1700: DAVID DO PAÇO (Université Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne)

18th-Century Central Europe in Transcontinental Trade. Molla Mustafa’s Company


1730-1800: OANA VALENTINA SORESCU (“Babeş-Bolyai” University of Cluj-Napoca)

Patterns in the Transmission of Wealth in Sibiu during the 18th Century

6

2nd Session Territory and Economy in Court’s of Vienna Reformism

Thursday, April 25th Senate Hall (Apor Palace) Chair: KONRAD GÜNDISCH

1800-1830: EVA ONDRUŠOVÁ (History Institute of Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava)

Staatswirtschaftslehre des Kameralismus - Theorie und Praxis am Beispiel von zweier Kameralherrschaften Revistye und Sachsenstein (Einführung in das Thema)

1830-1900: KÁLMÁN ÁRPÁD KOVÁCS (University of Pannonia, Veszprém)

Die Wiener Kirchenpolitik als staatliche Finanzierungs-frage in den 1760-70-er Jahren

1900-1930: DANIEL DUMITRAN (“1 Decembrie 1918” University of Alba Iulia)

Die Landesbeschreibungen als Reformierungs-instrument: Fürstentum Siebenbürgens im letzten Jahrzehnt Maria Theresia’s

3rd Session (1st Part)

Prospectives in the Social History of Art

Friday, April 26th Senate Hall (Apor Palace) Chair: WALDEMAR DELUGA

900-930: MARCO BOGADE (Bundesinstitut für Kultur und Geschichte der Deutschen im östlichen Europa an der Universität Oldenburg)

Tradition und Innovation in der Sepulkralplastik des 15. und 16. Jahrhunderts von Sibiu/Hermannstadt und Nürnberg

7

930-1000: ANNA TÜSKÉS (Institute of Literary Studies, Research Centre for the Humanities of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest)

Pilgrimage Art in 18th Century Transylvania: Icons, Woodcuts and Engravings

1000-1030: ANA DUMITRAN (National Museum of Union, Alba Iulia)

“To be Founder and to be Mentioned at the Liturgy.” Painting Donation for Romanian Churches of Transylvania, up to Mid 19th Century


1045-1115: CRISTINA BOGDAN (University of Bucharest) « Du berceau à la tombe ». Les âges de la vie dans l’iconographie roumaine des XVIIIe-XIXe siècles et l’influence des modèles étrangers

1115-1145: SILVIA MARIN-BARUTCIEFF (University of Bucharest) Master and Disciple: Family Tradition, Professional Solidarity and Artistic Innovation. Romanian Painters of Both Sides of the Carpathians and the Depictions of Saint Christopher (1730-1850)

4th Session Family and Communities in the Context of Social and

Confessional Changes

Friday, April 26th Senate Hall (Apor Palace) Chair: DANIEL DUMITRAN

1500-1530: BOTOND GUDOR (“1 Decembrie 1918” University of Alba Iulia)

Land Ownership in the Economic Life of Reformed Communities around the Town of Alba Iulia: the Case of the Reformed Decanate of Alba

8

1530-1600: MONIKA IMREGH (“Károli Gáspár” University of the Reformed Church in Hungary, Budapest)

Style as a Weapon. A Fake Imperial Edict in Péter Bod’s “Brevis Valachorum Transilvaniam incolentium Historia”

1600-1630: RADU NEDICI (University of Bucharest) Crowds, Petitions, Religious Riots: the Making of a Plebeian Public Sphere in Eighteenth-Century Transylvania and Partium

5th Session

Cultural Formation in the Ethnic and Confessional

Communities

Friday, April 26th Senate Hall (Apor Palace) Chair: BOTOND GUDOR

1630-1700: ATTILA VERÓK (“Eszterházy Károly” College, Eger)

Bücher als Thermometer der gesellschaftlichen und wirtschaftlichen Veränderungen (16.–18. Jh.)


1730-1800: GRETA-MONICA MIRON (“Babeş-Bolyai” University of Cluj-Napoca)

Books and Confessional Identity: The Library of the Uniate Bishop Ioan Giurgiu Pataki 1800-1830: Conclusions. Closing of conference

9

2nd Section Modern and Contemporary History

1st Session

Population, Demographic Politics, Use of the Resources Thursday, April 25th

Senate Bureau Hall (Apor Palace) Chair: CORNEL SIGMIREAN

1500-1530: ALEXANDRU ONOJESCU (“Babeş-Bolyai” University of Cluj-Napoca)

Between National Passion and Individual Interests. A Possible Interest-Group in Transylvania. 1868-1874

1530-1600: CORNEL SIGMIREAN (“Petru Maior” University of Târgu Mureş)

Between Abundance and Austerity. Aspects of Romanian Students Life at Central European Universities in the Long 19th Century

1600-1630: FELICIA WALDMAN (University of Bucharest) Jewish Mobility and Settlement in Bucharest

1630-1700: LEVENTE PAKOT (Demographic Research Institute, Budapest)

Families and Generations: Demographic Reproduction in Rural Szeklerland (Second Half of the 19th Century – First Half of the 20th Century)


1730-1800: GEORGETA FODOR (“Petru Maior” University of Târgu Mureş)

Women and the New Economical Context of the 20th Century

1800-1830: VALER MOGA (“1 Decembrie 1918” University of Alba Iulia)

Mobility and Dislocation in the Transylvanian Society at the End of World War I

10

1830-1900: RĂZVAN POPOVICI-DIACONU (“Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of Jassy)

The role of Media System in Mass Consumerist Culture

2nd Session Economy, Trade and Consumption

Friday, April 26th Senate Bureau Hall (Apor Palace)

Chair: VALER MOGA

900-930: ION CÂRJA (“Babeş-Bolyai” University of Cluj-Napoca) Aspects of Material Situation of Higher Greek-Catholic Clergy in Transylvania (Second Half of the 19th Century and Early 20th Century)

930-1000: MARIA DAN-TĂTAR (“Petru Maior” University of Târgu Mureş)

The End of the 19th Century. Economy and Society in a Transylvanian Town: The Saxon Reghin

1000-1030: VASILE MIRCEA ZABERCA, CRISTIAN RUDOLF (“Eftimie Murgu” University of Reşiţa)

Comparative Statistics Regarding the Financial Aid Received by the Ethnic Germans and Romanians from the Pension and Mutual Help Commission of the U.D.R. (the Former Bruderlade Miner’s House)


1045-1115: SORIN RADU (“Lucian Blaga” University of Sibiu), COSMIN BUDEANCĂ (The Institute for the Investigation of Communist Crimes and the Memory of the Romanian Exile, Bucharest)

The Role of Political Organization Ploughmen’s Front in the Collectivization of Agriculture in Romania (1949-1953)

11

2nd Session (2nd Part) Economy, Trade and Consumption

Friday, April 26th Senate Bureau Hall (Apor Palace)

Chair: SORIN ARHIRE 1500-1530: SORIN ARHIRE (“1 Decembrie 1918” University of Alba Iulia)

Romanian-British Economic Relations (1939-1940)

1530-1600: OTTMAR TRAŞCĂ (“George Bariţiu” History Institute of Cluj-Napoca)

Deutsche Geheimdiensten in Rumänien: die Abwehrstelle Rumänien, 1940-1944

1600-1630: ROXANA MARIN (University of Bucharest) Incomplete Modernization and State Socialism in East-Central Europe. A Framework of Analysis

1630-1700: VLAD PAŞCA (University of Bucharest) Territorial Expansion of Higher Education in Communist Romania (1948-1989)


1730-1800: Conclusions. Closing of conference

12

Paper Abstracts

1st Section Early Modern History

1st Session

The Use of the Resources, Trade and Consumption, between South-Eastern and Central Europe

Marius Diaconescu, The Seeds of Capitalism in Central Europe at Mid-Sixteenth Century: Peter Deák Szentgyörgyi of Baia Mare

Two gold tycoons have dominated the gold mining and processing industry in Transylvania at mid-sixteenth century: Peter Haller of Sibiu, known to historiography more for his role in the Habsburg administration, and Peter Deák Szentgyörgyi of Baia Mare, who is yet an obscure figure to the historians.

Peter Deák cumulates all necessary criteria to be rightfully considered a capitalist of his era: he was an entrepreneur who invested in mining, including in prospecting for new deposits, in processing the ore by flotation and smelting, but also in the food industry, by milling and obtaining dairy products in his farm. Although he got involved in politics and benefited from the appointments he received as a consequence of his managerial prowess in the mining operations, the camp he sided with, the anti-Habsburg one, could not offer him the business success he was after. The Habsburg rule over the mining region of Baia Mare and the successive wars of the time led to the confiscation of his fortune and his subsequent disappearance from the history.

The list of his assets are an indicator of his economic potential, but also of the lifestyle of his family. In this sense, for instance, are relevant the gold hemmed shirts of his wife, the fine bedding, together with the rest of the pieces of clothing and furniture.

13

His active involvement in promoting the Reformation, including through the financing of Heltái’s Catechism, parallels Max Weber’s thesis on the seeds of capitalism. It was not a coincidence that his brother was the rector of the Unitarian school of Alba Iulia in 1574.

For sure, Peter Deák Szentgyörgyi of Baia Mare was an exception in his days. He did not invest the money he made in land properties, but opened new businesses in various fields and was very receptive to the new religious ideas. We can consider him a true capitalist of the sixteenth century, albeit he did not share the parentage and the capital of his contemporaries in Western Europe.

Mária Pakucs, The Transit of Oriental Goods through the Customs of Sibiu, Sixteenth-Seventeenth Century: an Overview

The paper shall examine the evidence of 35 customs accounts from Sibiu, covering the time span between 1500 and 1692. My main focus shall be on the traffic of goods. Owing to the particular features of these primary sources, only the goods arriving into Transylvania from the Ottoman Empire can be followed in detail. The main categories of recorded products were: textiles, spices, foodstuffs, dyestuffs and alum, clothing and footwear.

Waldemar Deluga, Greek Merchants and Art in the Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth (16th – 18th Centuries)

In many cities in the Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Greek immigrants were a small but prosperous ethnic group of Orthodox citizens of a multiethnic state: Ostroh, Lviv, Zamość, Jarosław, Warsaw and Gdańsk, were the principal towns with this minority. Greek merchants (from Korniakt, Afendyk, Langisz, Mazapeta, Mazaraki, Papara and Hatzidakis Vourlotis familly) participated in the development of trade, mainly armories, tissues, carpets and wine, imported from Hungary, Walachia and Moldova. They were similar to the Armenians and Jewish merchant, who provided the business between Isphahan in Perssia and Constantinople in

14

the Turkish Empire. Greek theologians (Dionizy Rallu, Eustachy Nathanael from Crete, Emanuel Moschopulos, Jeremias II Tranos, Cyril Lucaris) participated in interfaith dialogue between Orthodox and Catholic churches. In my paper I would like to present a principal Greek merchants activities in 16th and 17th centuries, their churches foundation, portraits, funded icons and images.

David Do Paço, 18th-Century Central Europe in Trans-continental Trade. Molla Mustafa’s Company

In December 1766, the Austrian Hofkammer proceeds to the great Conscription of Ottoman subjects settled in Vienna. This document figures out the very important activity of Turkish traders – belonging to several confessions or religions – Central Europe-wide. Born in Alaja in 1741, Molla Mustafa in one of them. He trades in a company set up from Anatolia to Vienna with some associates established in Istanbul, Macedonia and at the austro-ottoman border. It is one of the evidence the Conscription leaves of a trans-imperial and trans-cultural trade in Europe and a very eloquent instance of the integration of Central Europe in trans-continental trade. In many ways, this paper calls for a profound reshaping of the way historians have understood and pictured 18th-century European trade, if only by reconsidering the role of Central Europe in transcontinental trade between Northern Europe and Mediterranean. It deals with the economic, social and religious integration of Ottoman merchants in 18th-century Vienna and Central Europe, transnational diasporic models, and the relations between foreign traders and local trade institutions. Secondly, it calls for regarding as equal and similar the “Turkish”, “Jewish Turkish”, “Armenian” and “Greek” merchants from Turkey and allowed to practice in the Habsburg Monarchy under the reign of Maria Theresa and Joseph II (1740-1790). Despite ethnoreligious patterns, but according to the current and new history of Mediterranean, my paper promotes both social and political figure of the “Oriental trader” made up in Vienna as a cross-cultural social continuum.

15

Oana Valentina Sorescu, Patterns in the Transmission of Wealth in Sibiu during the 18th Century

Studies on the theory and practice of consumption in the 18th and 19th centuries within the area of the Romanian territories have mostly focused until now on inventories of goods, or have tended to skim the surface of economic and social life, seemingly focusing on the exquisite and the exceptional. Furthermore, a much needed interdisciplinary approach that could potentially reveal a more coherent and complex narrative of this region from the perspective of economic history has been manifestly lacking. This paper will therefore attempt to bridge the ever increasing gap between the contemporary theories on consumption and material culture - which have mostly focused on Western Europe - and the empirical research in these matters in Transylvania during the 18th century. On the basis of a wide selection of German-language last wills and inventories of decedents’ estates (Nachlassverzeichnisse) dating from the 18th century from the city of Sibiu, a detailed qualitative and quantitative analysis will seek to uncover the development of fortunes, the role of kinship and friendship networks in testamentary behaviour, the possible correlations between social and economic hierarchy, as well as the role of religion in regulating or de-regulating economic behaviour. A comparative approach will be employed in order to illuminate the differences and similarities to testamentary behaviour in Austria during the same period, as well as to highlight the impact that the religious and cultural factors played in the process of wealth accumulation and the practice of bequests. The usefulness of this approach - which delves into the life of one community over an extended period of time – resides in the increased overall coherence of the historical narrative that we can reconstruct. It also opens up the possibility of tracing the impact of larger phenomena, such as that of absolutism, on the life of the individual.

16

2nd Session Territory and Economy in Court’s of Vienna Reformism

Eva Ondrušová, Staatswirtschaftslehre des Kameralismus - Theorie und Praxis am Beispiel von zweier Kameral-herrschaften Revistye und Sachsenstein (Einführung in das Thema)

Der Beitrag befasst sich mit der Wirtschaftstheorie der Zeit, die als Merkantilismus (im deutschsprachigen Gebiet Kameralismus) charakterisiert wird. Kameralismus war eine mitteleuropäische “Variante“ des Merkantilismus mit dem er vor allem, die Lehre der Handelsbilanz und der Idee eines starken Staates teilte. In einer relativ kurzen Zeit wurde aus dem Kameralismus eine wirtschaftliche und administrative Richtung, die durch staatliche Eingriffe in alle Bereiche des gesellschaftlichen und wirtschaftlichen Lebens hineinwirkte. Die meisten Merkantilisten/Kameralisten wirkten im 17. Jahrhundert, aber die Ideen der Kameralismus wurden in der Donaumonarchie großteils erst im 18. Jahrhundert in die Tat umgesetzt. Die kameralistische Theorie bietet eine hervorragende theoretische Grundlage für meine Dissertation, die sich mit den Kameralherrschaften in der Mittelslowakei befasst. An der Wende des 18. und 19. Jahrhundert bildeten die Kammerherrschaften in dem Gebiet der Slowakei ein umfangreiches und weitgehend zusammenhängendes Territorium. Im 18. Jahrhundert entwickelte sich in diesem Gebiet nicht nur landwirtschaftliche, sondern auch die industrielle Produktion. Die Modernisierungsmaßnahmen halfen dabei auch dem Lebensstandard der Bevölkerung zu erhöhen. Kálmán Árpád Kovács, Die Wiener Kirchenpolitik als staatliche Finanzierungsfrage in den 1760-70-er Jahren

Der geplante Vortrag basiert sich auf verschiedene Siebenbürgen betreffende, in Wien und in Budapest aufbewahrte Quellen aus den 1760-70-er Jahren. Das sind: die Staatratsprotokolle, Siebenbürgische Hofkanzlei Acta

17

Generalia, Acta gubernatoris Auersperg, Protokolle der Commissio in Publico-ecclesiasticis, die Koller-Akten, die ehemaligen Kabinettakten, darunter vor allem die sogenannten Blümegen-Akten und die Bestände der Hofkammerarchiv und das Kriegsarchiv. Der Vortrag hat die Zielsetzung, das zu schildern, wie der Wiener Hof die finanziellen Grundlagen seiner erwünschten Kirchenpolitik in Siebenbürgen in den 1760-70-er Jahren geschaffen hatte. Deshalb hat der Vortrag die folgenden Themenschwerpunkte: 1) Die Aufrechterhaltung und Gewinn bringende Bewirtschaftung der römisch-katholischen und unierten geistlichen Güter und Einkünfte. 2) Die Rückerwerbung der Zehnteleinnahmen, die während der Fürstenzeit an die Protestanten vergeben worden waren und die Erstattung dieser Einkünfte wegen des inneren Friedens des Landes. 3) Das Schaffen und gute Einrichten eines gemäßigten Religionfonds 1765-1775. 4) Die Finanzierung des katholischen, unierten und gränznerischen Schulwesens in Siebenbürgens. 5) Das Projekt zur Verbesserung der materiellen Lage der unierten Geistlichen und das Aufhelfen ihres Schulwesens ohne höhere Geldinvestitionen mit Ausmessung steuerfreien kirchlichen Gründen 1765-1777. 6) Die langsamere aber trotzdem merkliche Verbesserung der finanziellen Lage der orthodoxen Geistlichkeit, um die geistige Treue der orthodoxen Landesbevölkerung Siebenbürgens zu sichern und ihre geistlichen Lasten um der staatlichen Einkommen willen zu mindern. 7) Die Impopulisierung der sächsischen Städte und die Emporbringung ihres Gewerbes und Handels. Diese Politik fand nach den puren Katholisierungsvorhaben zunächst das allgemeingültige Prinzip der Linderung der nationalen Gehässigkeiten in Siebenbürgen.

Daniel Dumitran, Die Landesbeschreibungen als Reformierungsinstrument: Fürstentum Siebenbürgens im letzten Jahrzehnt Maria Theresia’s

Die Statistik, jene „neue Wissenschaft” der es möglich ist, die unerlässlichen Daten in einem System zusammenzufassen

18

und dieses in den Dienst der Regierung zu stellen, hat im Laufe des 18. Jahrhunderts eine der treffendsten Formulierungen ihrer Charakteristika in dem deutschen Ausdruck „Staatenkunde” gefunden, wie im Jahre 1804 August Ludwig Schlözer bemerkt. Etwa zwei Jahrzehnte später bezeichnete Karl August Malchus die Darstellung der Fragen betreffend die Quellen der Staatsmacht, die Umstände, die die Entwicklung des Staates begünstigen oder behindern können, das Verhalten dazu und die möglichen Folgen für die Entwicklung des Staates selber als auch der Untertanen, sowie betreffend die Verfassung und die Verwaltung als die Hauptaufgaben dieser Wissenschaft. Die Beiträge der Theoretiker des Kameralismus, der deutschen Variante des Merkantilismus, aus dem vorhergehenden Jahrhundert, sowie jene eines Johann Heinrich Gottlob von Justi oder Joseph von Sonnenfels, waren ausschlaggebend für das Zustandekommen dieser Auffassung. Die Haltung der Wiener Hofämter aus der Zeit des Theresianischen und Josephinischen Reformismus zeugt von einem solchen Einfluß. In welchem Maße dieses auch für die östlichen Territorien des Habsburgerreiches, im besonderen für das Fürstentum Siebenbürgen, gilt, ist die Frage, auf die vorliegende Darstellung versucht, zu antworten. Die Untersuchung erstreckt sich neben einer einleitenden Bezugnahme auf die statistischen Arbeiten betreffend Siebenbürgen, die in den ersten Jahrzehnten des 19. Jahrhunderts erschienen sind (herausgegeben von Lucas Joseph Marienburg und Benigni von Mildenberg), auf die wesentlichen Quellen der frühen 70ger Jahre des 18. Jahrhunderts, die die Beschreibung Siebenbürgens zum Gegenstand hatten im Zusammenhang mit der Vorbereitung des ersten Besuchs im Fürstentum des Kaisers Joseph II.: der „Bericht” und die „Beobachtungen” des Grafen Leopold von Clary-Aldringen, die topographische Karte des Fürstentums, die „Briefe” des Ignaz Edler von Bom und die militärischen Beschreibungen des Fürstentums. Im zweiten Teil der Darstellung wird die Beziehung zwischen diesen Beschreibungen und den vom Kaiser Joseph II. konzipierten

19

Reformprojekten behandelt, die zuerst in seinem Endbericht formuliert wurden, der zum Abschluß seiner Reise durch das Fürstentum verfasst wurde. Die Schlußfolgerungen der Darstellung ermöglichen eine zukünftige Weiterführung der Nachforschungen, die der Art der Umsetzung, beginnend mit dem Jahr 1781, der hauptsächlichen Reformen, die in direkte Verbindung mit den statistischen Erhebungen aus dem vorhergehenden Jahrzehnt gebracht werden können, nachgehen sollen. Es wird dabei versucht, die Voraussetzung der Forschung zu begründen, gemäß derer die Beschreibungen des Landes für das Fürstentum Siebenbürgen die Rolle eines wichtigen Reforminstrumentes hatten.

3rd Session Prospectives in the Social History of Art

Marco Bogade, Tradition und Innovation in der Sepulkralplastik des 15. und 16. Jahrhunderts von Sibiu/ Hermannstadt und Nürnberg

Die Grabplatten und Epitaphien in der Ferula der Hermannstadter Stadtpfarrkiche stehen in der (Kunst-) Historiografie des 20. Jahrhunderts in engem Zusammenhang mit der Sepulkralkunst im Nürnberger Patriziat des späten Mittelalters und der frühen Neuzeit. Der Vortrag behandelt in einem komparatistischen Ansatz Aspekte der Tradition und Innovation bei den materiellen Zeugnissen der Memoria und der Sepulkralkultur in den beiden Städten.

Anna Tüskés, Pilgrimage Art in 18th Century Transylvania: Icons, Woodcuts and Engravings

My paper aims at analysing the artistic representations of some famous pilgrimage places in Transylvania, the icons of Gyulafehérvár / Alba Iulia and Máriaradna / Radna and the statue of Csíksomlyó / Sumuleu, in engravings dating of the 18th and 19th century. Sources are manifold and varied with

20

regards to their genre, form and use, and range from leaflets through covers and illustrations to devotional pictures and prayer cards. One-third of the engravings presented here are unpublished. I study the engravers, the principal types, the different forms and the use of the representations.

Some of my conclusions are as follows. First, concerning the technique of the representations, the majority of the pictures are copper engravings. Second, half of the representations are signed by the artist, some masters engraved the same subject twice, and it occurs that an engraving is used more than once in different books.

Ana Dumitran, “To be Founder and to be mentioned at the Liturgy.” Painting Donation for Romanian Churches of Transylvania, up to mid 19th Century

Research proposed identification of categories of donors of paintings that embellished Romanian churches from Transylvania, motivations by which such gestures were justified and criteria according which the painters were chosen.

As for donors, there may be estimated that until towards the end of 17th century they were chosen from amongst local nobility and, in several cases, from amongst voivods of Walachia and Moldavia. Icon donation was accessible also for wealthier serfs. Due to high costs, it is likely that only the wall churches were painted, and icons embellished only churches, not also believers’ homes. In the 18th century, under pressure of periodic inspections of ecclesiastical authorities, but also as result of endowment of churches with own incomes, the number of churches increases and is aroused interest for their endowment with paintings, yet the majority of initiatives continue to belong to local, clerical and mainly laic elite, not necessarily holder of nobility title. Beginning with the first decades of 19th century there are more and more frequent cases when the whole community supports the effort of embellishing, mainly with mural painting, icon donation remaining further on at the expense of individual donors.

21

Motivations invoked by inscriptions that accompany paintings are most frequently rendered in stereotype formula, which encapsulate donors’ wish of being granted clemency the moment of last Day of Judgment. There is also a motivation related to tangible world and which materialised in enhancing personal prestige or of the family, by offering a privileged seat during attendance of the religious service.

As long as demands were rare and expensive, also artists were few and very well educated. From the XVIIIth century onwards, clients oriented towards professional painters only in special situations, as for the rest, local artists without special artistic skills were elected. Secularization of the sacred image made its presence felt more and more, as, on one hand, it increased number of painters attending academic studies, and on the other hand, traditional painting declined to handicraft. Cristina Bogdan, « Du berceau à la tombe ». Les âges de la vie dans l’iconographie roumaine des XVIIIe-XIXe siècles et l’influence des modèles étrangers

Cette étude se propose de présenter la manière dont les Roumains d’antan percevaient les étapes de la vie humaine, à travers deux thèmes iconographiques apparentés – la Roue de la Vie et les Degrés des âges – mais qui ont puisé aux sources d’inspiration différentes.

Les artistes ont choisi le dessin, la gravure ou la peinture murale pour tracer les images de la trajectoire humaine du berceau à la tombe et pour comprendre les classes d’âge qui font d’un individu un enfant, un adulte ou un vieillard.

La Roue de la Vie est conçue dans la peinture murale roumaine selon les prescriptions systématisées dans le chapitre Comment on représente le temps mensonger de cette vie du manuel de peinture de Denys de Fourna. La Roue des âges de la vie est le troisième d’une série de cercles qui retracent le devenir tout d’abord au niveau du macrocosme – le cercle des saisons et des signes du zodiaque – et, ensuite,

22

au niveau du microcosme – l’ascension et la déchéance de l’homme.

L’iconographie roumaine du thème est elliptique, les maîtres du pinceau n’ayant gardé de la série de cercles que celui des âges de la vie qu’ils réduisent, d’habitude, de neuf ou sept à trois. « Les seuils » de l’évolution et de l’involution de l’homme sont concentrés ainsi : l’enfant ou l’adolescent, l’homme mûr et le vieillard cèdent successivement leur place à l’autre, tout le long du parcours circulaire qui prend fin dans la gueule béante du dragon.

Les Degrés des âges sont répartis sur les volées ascendante et descendante d’un escalier, le palier central correspondant généralement à l’âge de cinquante ans. Cette scène, fréquemment retrouvée dans l’imagerie populaire occidentale à partir du XVIIe et jusqu’à la fin du XIXe siècle, est assez peu figurée dans l’espace roumain. Elle apparaît notamment dans une composition du XVIIIe siècle incluse dans le cahier de modèles de Radu Zugravu, sous l’influence d’un prototype occidental. On la retrouve aussi dans des gravures datant du XIXe siècle. Silvia Marin-Barutcieff, Master and Disciple: Family Tradition, Professional Solidarity and Artistic Innovation. Romanian Painters of Both Sides of the Carpathians and the Depictions of Saint Christopher (1730-1850)

For the Western Late Middle Ages, Saint Christopher is more than a popular sacred figure. With its extraordinary giant size, the character finds itself among the most important protectors against sudden death and all mortal danger, the medieval man fervently resorts to him for intermediation in front of the Celestial Throne. The first representations of the saint appear in Transylvania during the 14th century, in the Roman-Catholic churches of the region. For the Romanian cultural heritage, most of the images of this martyr are found later, in the 18th and 19th century. The interest for the theme of Saint Christopher follows the important changes in the iconographical program on both sides of the Carpathians. These metamorphoses are determined by an enhancement of

23

the painters’ freedom of expression in relation to Byzantine models and the multiplication of western elements used by the same artists in their creations. In the light of these premises, the current study wishes to identify the routes of dissemination for the various representations of Saint Christopher from Wallachia to Transylvania, as well as to discuss the work of the agents of this artistic transfer. The text aims also to evaluate the family relationships and professional solidarity, resulted from strong bindings between masters and disciples in both Principalities.

4th Session

Family and Communities in the Context of Social and Confessional Changes

Botond Gudor, Land Ownership in the Economic Life of Reformed Communities around the Town of Alba Iulia: the Case of the Reformed Decanate of Alba

From a geographycal point of view, the Reformed Rank of Alba covers one of the oldest Transylvanian region inhabited by Hungarians too, with an early medieval and well defined Roman Catholic eclesiastic administration. The deanery was founded in a hilly and sub mountain teritory near the Apuseni Mountains (The Craivii Stone from the Trascău Mountains), on the tritory of former Alba County, then called Lower Alba, now being found in Alba County. During the religious Reformation period, the archdeaconry of Alba was divided and transformed on ethnic and religious basis. The Reformed Decanate of Alba covers the progress teritory of Transylvanian Reformation from the XVI-th century. After 1556 the former Catholic Church properties around the city of Alba Iulia got in the hands of the newly formed Reformed Community. In 1950 the Reformed Decanate of Alba has lost viability and got incorporated into the Reformed Decanate of Hunedoara. After the events of the year1990 the Reformed Decanate of Alba did not got reorganized, becaming part of the reorganized Reformed Decanate of Aiud. The evidence of the Reformed Church’s assets from 1754 (Inquisitoria

24

Dioeceseos Alba-Carolinensis Reformatae Relatoria) from the teritory of the Reformed Decanate of Alba represents an important socio-economic source that grasps of economic and cultural ambitions of a deanery which today no longer exists. The land ownership demonstrates the social situation, demographic posibilities and cultural responsibilities of the reformed communities. This owner role eased the support of reverends educated abroad, schools and teachers or cantors, buildings and churches. The opportunity to promote of protestantism on the forefront of cultural and religious life of Transylvania, Transylvanian historical personalities of the eighteenth century are largely due to the economic support provided by the accessory case. The evolution of this owner quality affected by the socio-economic tensions have influenced the very existance of the Decanate. Monika Imregh, Style as a Weapon. A Fake Imperial Edict in Péter Bod’s “Brevis Valachorum Transilvaniam incolentium Historia”

In the summer of 2012 I translated from Latin into Hungarian Peter Bod’s Brevis Valachorum Transilvaniam incolentium Historia (1764), which was published in Sfântu Gheorghe-Miercurea Ciuc together with its earlier and shorter version (1745, written in Hungarian) and the original Latin text.

In the second part of his book Bod quotes in their entirety nearly every princely and imperial edict sent out by the Hungarian princes (between 1609-1669) and later by Leopold I, Charles VI and Maria Theresa (between 1698-1760) which concerned the Romanian people and their religion in Transilvania. The issue of all these edicts is the annexation of the Romanian Orthodox Church into the Catholic Church in Transilvania. Among them there is a fake edict, published and distributed in 1754 in Romanian language in Transilvania. Péter Bod transmits its Latin version made for the sovereign Maria Theresa (princess in Transilvania), who mentions it in her edict dated the 13th of July 1759. The content of the fake edict permits the Orthodox Romanian people who didn’t join the Catholic Church to practise their

25

religion. The mentioned genuine edict permits the same thing (among a lot of other orders), but with many restrictions. The conditions of the free practice of their religion are so strict that the imperial edict seems more forbidding than permitting. The earlier, fake edict obviously shows the wishes of the Romanian people in Transilvania: they can practise their orthodox religion without any restriction, and nobody can force them to join the Catholic Church. In my paper I will examine these two edicts, the differences between their content and style, and I will show how you could know that it is really fake, even though Maria Theresa’s edict didn’t mention it. Radu Nedici, Crowds, Petitions, Religious Riots: the Making of a Plebeian Public Sphere in Eighteenth-Century Transylvania and Partium

In a groundbreaking work published more than fifty years ago, Jürgen Habermas developed the argument that from the turn of the eighteenth century a crucial shift took place in the relationship between the new public authority of the modern state and the emergent civil society. Owing to a number of transformations in the economy and the society, the political decision became first publicized and later a legitimate element of public debate. Officially excluded from the exercise of power, the private individuals assembled to discuss the matters of common concern in the new institutions of sociability and by means of the written word.

The birth of the public sphere has traditionally been connected to the bourgeoisie and the urban settings characteristic of the Atlantic World. However, contributions in the last couple of decades have gradually widened the appeal of the category, stressing the plurality of the publics. Can this ideal type be translated to the rural and largely illiterate environments of East-Central Europe? How and to what extent did the voice of the subjects of an Early Modern absolute monarchy influence the holders of power? By investigating the retreat of the state-sponsored ecclesiastical union with Rome in the easternmost provinces of the

26

Habsburg Monarchy in the 1750s, I shall argue that Transylvania and Partium witnessed manifestations that were, undeniably, those of a public sphere, successful in its challenge against the confessional establishment of the time. It is the contention of this study that the collective gatherings, the written appeals, and even the violence that has surrounded the religious claims of the Romanian Orthodox formed part of the channels through which the said communities acquired a modern political voice.

5th Session Cultural Formation in the Ethnic and Confessional

Communities

Attila Verók, Bücher als Thermometer der gesellschaftlichen und wirtschaftlichen Veränderungen (16.–18. Jh.)

Da die Vererbung des allgemeinen Wissens in Europa seit der Antike vorwiegend in schriftlicher Form geschieht, lohnt es sich in den meisten Fällen, die verschiedenen wissenschaftlichen Diskussionsthemen auch von der Seite der Buch-, Bibliotheks- und Lesegeschichte zu untersuchen. Diese Behauptung gilt auch für die im Rahmen der Tagung fokussierten Forschungsthemen wie Wirtschaft, Gesellschaft, Landschaft, Bevölkerung und Konsum. Je näher die bezügliche Epoche zu unserer Zeit liegt, desto mehr und relevanter kann man sich zu den betroffenen Fragen mit Hilfe der Bücher äußern.

Als Forschungsobjekt dient im Vortrag die Buchkultur der deutschsprachigen Bevölkerung Siebenbürgens in der frühen Neuzeit. Auf Grund ihrer Bücherverzeichnisse und rekonstruierten Büchersammlungen versucht der Autor einige mögliche neue Aspekte zu den genannten Problemfeldern aufzuwerfen bzw. die auftauchenden Erscheinungen zu interpretieren. Die modernen geistigen Strömungen vermittelnden Bücher können nämlich als zuverlässiges Thermometer der gesellschaftlichen und wirtschaftlichen Veränderungen jeder Zeit betrachtet werden. Im Fall der Siebenbürger Sachsen sind die

27

buchgeschichtlichen Quellen bis 1750 in großem Maße erschlossen und warten auf eine gezielte Analyse bzw. Auswertung. Greta-Monica Miron, Books and Confessional Identity: The Library of the Uniate Bishop Ioan Giurgiu Pataki

What I intend to capture in this presentation is the structure of the library owned by the Uniate Bishop Ioan Giurgiu Pataki, which was started during the first three decades of the eighteenth century and was the very first Uniate ecclesiastical library that we know of. The sources I will use are two inventories: the first is an unpublished inventory which dates back to 1731 and recorded the assets of the Uniate diocese of Făgăraş after Bishop Pataki’s death, while the second was compiled in 1747, detailing the books that remained in the episcopal residence after the departure of Bishop Ioan InochentieMicu.

According to these sources, the library under study here had about 200 volumes. It was therefore a modest library by comparison with the libraries of high clerics from Catholic Western Europe but was impressive for the Romanian Uniate priests at the beginning of the eighteenth century, whose precarious material status and whose ignorance - in the absence of a diocesan seminary -had kept them away from books. However, the owner of the library was a distinguished personality in Romanian society: Bishop Ioan Giurgiu Pataki had received his training at the Jesuit College from Cluj, at Pazmaneum College in Vienna and at Collegium Germanicum-Hungaricum in Rome, had a doctorate in Theology, and was a missionary Catholic priest in Transylvania between 1711 and 1713 and a Uniate bishop between 1715 and 1727.

Consequently, what I want to unravel is the bookish universe of such a personality by examining the books he purchased/read, as well as to outline the characteristics of his library.

This library is in an overwhelming proportion (approximately 80%) a theological library of the Counter-

28

Reformation, which includes several major clusters around which the libraries of the European Catholic clergy had crystallised since the mid-seventeenth century: comments, discourses of the fathers about the Holy Scripture, works of moral theology and homiletic literature which were necessary for religious practice. It also reflects the formative ideals of the Jesuits, and the teaching aims and methods they used in their colleges. It largely represents a library of textbooks, mostly Jesuit, which may be explained by the widely spread type of such genre in that period and because of the practical needs in the diocese -for instruction, for establishing a book fund for the envisaged schools.

While it was similar to any other Catholic library of the time, the Uniate episcopal library also had its peculiarities. It was distinguished by the considerable number of law treatises (about 20% of the ecclesiastical books). Compendia of canon law, synodal constitutions and conciliar documents were important for the bishop of a church that was at its beginnings and that was to define its institutional identity by reference to the Catholic Church with which it had united. On the other hand, because the union had been achieved on condition that certain rights and immunities should be conferred to the Uniate priests, Civil Law works relating to the legislation of the Kingdom of Hungary were indispensible for the bishop who undertook actions that ensured those rights would be respected and enforced.

The library also reflects the Eastern identity of the Uniate Church through the books referring to the Eastern ritual and liturgy or those approaching the disputes between the Catholics and the Orthodox, which the bishop will have found useful for managing the opposition to the Union manifested by the Orthodox from southern Transylvania and from Wallachia.

The library was therefore a professional one, illustrating, on the one hand, the formative itineraries of Bishop Pataki (it included the books of his professors or of those who, sooner or later, taught at the education institutions he had attended) and on the other hand, the need

29

for information he experienced as a Catholic missionary priest and as a bishop. The library familiarised its reader with the ideas of post-Tridentine Catholicism, of probabilism and even introduced him to Jansenist criticism. This was not, in my opinion, a humanist or an illuminist library as depicted in historiography, but, like other clerical libraries of the time, it was conservative and less open to other domains such as history, fiction, science and the arts. For all that, history books did represent the second pole of reading (approximately 7%).

2nd Section

Modern and Contemporary History

1st Session Population, Demographic Politics, Use of the Resources

Alexandru Onojescu, Between National Passion and Individual Interests. A Possible Interest-Group in Transylvania. 1868-1874

As regard to a history of interest-groups in 19th century Transylvania, the Romanian historiography showed little concern; even if there are some studies which broach a pluralist perspective regarding the Romanian political elite these are scarce and lack any continuity This is mostly because this kind of topic requires an approach situated at the border between history, sociology, group psychology or political science. However, the purpose of this paper is to partly fill in this gap by highlighting and analyzing a particular interest-group which was formed and activated in Sibiu between 1868 and 1874. Unquestionably we can assert that we are dealing with a group that covers many socio-professional areas and with the stated ambition to enforce upon the Romanian society from Transylvania a certain political (passivism), economical (associative ideas, utilitarianism, the establishment of a free national economy), and cultural (an invigoration of the Romanian cultural

30

process) direction. As it is, after outlining the most important methodological and theoretical aspects, we will pursue the setup of this group, its formatting stages, the main actors, and the interaction between the latter. Also we hope to make an assessment in consideration to the decision-making process and the degree of notoriety that this group had in the Transylvanian public sphere. A very important aspect to be dealt with is the relationship between politics and money, by pursuing the existence of some pragmatic and pecuniary aspects, inherent to any elite group, and which often transcends patriotic altruism. Nevertheless, we will point out the interaction between the target group and other similar groups (the activists or the Banat group) with the purpose of comparing them. Cornel Sigmirean, Between Abundance and Austerity. Aspects of Romanian Students Life at Central European Universities in the Long 19th Century

In the second half of the 19th century, through the 7000 young men studying between 1850-1918 at Universities in Central and Western Europe, Romanians in Transylvania made the decisive step towards the embracement of meritocratic society values. Their life as students, most of them coming of modest families, reflects the economic status of the Transylvanian society. Through the festive moments of their life, balls, soirees, they foresee the integration of the Romanian society in the standards of the end of 19th century beginning of the 20th Central European society. Felicia Waldman, Jewish Mobility and Settlement in Bucharest

The first mention of a Jewish presence in Bucharest dates back to 1550, a mere hundred years after the very first mention of the town itself. Along the time Jews came and went as merchants who boosted the local economy by integrating it into the international trade flow between the Ottoman Empire and Europe (Russia, Poland, Germany, etc.)

31

or settled as craftsmen who introduced new industries to the local market, such as glass, jewellery or iron works. Some of them credited the Wallachian state (Hillel Manoah, Solomon Halfon) others credited the 1848 Revolution (Davicion Bally, but also the same Manoah and Halfon). Yet, despite the stereotypical image of the rich Jewish bankers, by the turn of the 19th century most of the Jews of Bucharest were rather poor. Moreover, one can find in the fluctuation in their numbers a reflection of the country’s political developments, especially in the 19th and 20th centuries. This paper therefore attempts to track Jewish mobility and settlement in Bucharest from 1550 until today and highlight their overwhelming impact on the creation and use of the city’s economic resources, as well as on its overall development. Levente Pakot, Families and Generations: Demographic Reproduction in Rural Szeklerland (Second Half of the 19th

Century – First Half of the 20th Century)

The paper tries to examine the process by which the populations of two Transylvanian mountain villages, Szentegyházasfalva and Kápolnásfalva (Vlăhiţa and Căpâlniţa) reproduce themselves from one generation to the next in the second half of the 19th century and first half of the 20th century. Using the method of French and Canadian demographers we analyze the „effective” progeny of couples to determine how many of them produce heirs who continue to live in these villages. The analysis could prove that there were considerable differences between couples regarding the number of „effective” children. The role of infant- and child mortality was decisive in constructing these differences. The analysis shows that the role of out-migration was minor in contrast with the findings of French and Canadian studies, but the role played by out-migration became more and more important over time.

32

Georgeta Fodor, Women and the New Economical Context of the 20th Century

The presentation aims at revealing one of the key steps of the process through which women become “social players” as a consequence of the Industrial Revolution. A major turn in history, the Industrial Revolution, can also be seen as a “women’s revolution” due to the effects and the impact it had on the women’s role in the society. The fact that women had stepped through labour outside the limited circle of family was a real progress that anticipated the feminist movements. Our intention is to identify the extent to which the new economical context that emerged at the beginning of the XXth century influenced women from the Romanian society.

Valer Moga, Mobility and Dislocation in the Transylvanian Society at the End of World War I

The war was one of the causes of social phenomena recorded in the title. But researchers should focus attention on the effects of geopolitical changes. Peripheral region of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Transylvania became an important province of the Romanian state. This change of status had radical consequences on staff in administration, justice, health services, institutions of order, finance, education, etc. Process had significant effects on the environment of living for some socio-professional categories. Until the war, Romanian lawyers, doctors, bankers or teachers preferred small towns, but with strong Romanian communities. After 1918, there was a broad movement among them to the big cities of Transylvania, or even to the capital of Romania. The phenomenon of mobility was manifested more intensely among freelances (lawyers, doctors, teachers) and was almost nonexistent among farmers and craftsmen. In postwar Transylvania, social mobility was a global process. Romanians with the required training took positions vacant through resignation or withdrawal of Hungarian officials. Our research is applied to a representative group of about 1,600 people, politically active

33

in 1918. Besides archival documents, our sources consist of newspapers and magazines (Tribuna, Românul, Familia, Transilvania, etc.), with an appropriate bibliographical support. Răzvan Popovici-Diaconu, The Role of Media System in Mass Consumerist Culture

In era of globalization, the phenomenon of the mass consumerist culture dissemination in the social life sphere has generated a number of specific social behaviors and valuation models. At the same time, modern information technology has created the prerequisites for the development of mass consumerist culture due to its diffusion on a global scale.

We propose to understand the penetration of social life through mass media systems, like: written press, radio, television, internet and new media, the rol of emotional stimuli media for orientation style of the consumers and the development of consumerist culture, which was based on the multi-chanell system for better motivation of audiences.

This article is a reflection and analysis of key trends media influence in the dynamics of the contemporary socio-cultural models, concentrated on easy and hedonistic consumerism. In other words, we are interested in the way in which the general public and specialized segments receive and respond to the contemporary social development trends. The promotion of consumerist culture, its acceptance by a growing number of people is a reality of these days.

2nd Session (1st Part) Economy, Trade and Consumption

Ion Cârja, Aspects of Material Situation of Higher Greek-Catholic Clergy in Transylvania (Second Half of the 19th Century and Early 20th Century)

Old or recent Romanian historiography has neglected material size of church life. In the second half of the

34

nineteenth century, on one hand we see the accumulation of goods at the level of higher clergy - bishops, canons - and on the other, sources are beginning to be more generous regarding information concerning the material basis of ecclesiastical activities. Canonical delegations, the media, testaments of bishops and canons, capitulations, correspondence, are among data sources able to provide data towards this statement. The most spectacular material accumulations are the deposits in banks with Romanian, Hungarian or German capital, which in a period of accelerated modernization of economic life can be found in the form of genuine networks in Transylvania and the Danubian Empire. The destination of wealth accumulated by the higher Romanian Greek-Catholic clergy was heavily oriented towards philanthropic and charitable activities in their confessional area: material support for poorer clergy, supporting churches and religious schools in economically poor communities. Our research aims to provide some information regarding this theme and also to indicate some directions to be followed in future approaches. Maria Dan-Tătar, The End of the 19th Century. Economy and Society in a Transylvanian Town: The Saxon Reghin

Founded in the Medieval Ages by a Saxon population, the system of guilds has dominated for a long time the life of the town of Reghin. The expansion of industry at the end of the 19th century in the whole Austro-Hungarian Monarchy slowly connected the small town to the new rhythms of economic life. The economic liberalism promoted in Vienna in the era of neo-absolutism, the dissolution of guilds, the regulation of ownership created a favourable environment for the development of the market economy and production. In addition to the traditional artisans of the town, the merchants are more and more present, the growing activity of whom results in the creation of the first associations and even industrial enterprises. The present paper analyses this economic process and its effects upon the life of the town.

35

Vasile Mircea Zaberca, Cristian Rudolf, Comparative Statistics Regarding the Financial Aid Received by the Ethnic Germans and Romanians from the Pension and Mutual Help Commission of the UDR (the Former Bruderlade Miner’s House)

During the years 1918-1923, the miners and metalworkers from the fellowship, known as Bruderlade, or fraternal box or chest registered 145 new members, of which 78 ethnic German and 32 of Romanian ethnicity. We observe a large number of ethnic German workers, even if their names were often spelled in the manner specified by the process of Magyarization. We also note the relatively small number of ethnic Romanian workers compared with the ethnic Germans. This is due to the social and economic situation of our country in the years following the Great Union. After 1918 the state began to address this fact, with more and more Romanian engaging in the UDR and working in metallurgy and mining. The effects were observed in 1929 and 1930 when some of them had retired and received significant amounts of money; even if the effects of the global crisis of overproduction were felt by the entire Romanian society.

Unfortunately the source material for the years 1924, 1925 and 1926 regarding the Bruderlade House, which turned into pension and mutual fund managed by the firm UDR, through a committee of special officials is fragmentary at best, which is why I used archival sources for the subsequent years, that proved to be much more detailed and rich in information.

To illustrate the comparative analysis of the economic and financial resources held by members of the German minority and by members of the Romanian majority I have used the following economic years of ascent, namely 1927and 1928 as well as the years of recession in the financial industry, namely 1929 and 1930.

36

Sorin Radu, Cosmin Budeancă, The Role of Political Organization Ploughmen’s Front in the Collectivization of Agriculture in Romania (1949-1953)

Ever since its establishment (1933), the Ploughmen’s Front was a political organization of the most obedient to the Communist Party in Romania, this fact being prominent in the post-war period. Led by Dr Petru Groza, the Ploughmen’s Front was an artificially developed post-war organization, with the specific purpose of countering the influence of the National Peasant Party in rural areas, as well as to mediate the Communist influence among the peasants. Since 1945 until its “self-dissolution” in March 1953, its actions were thoroughly supervised by the Communist Party of Romania. The aim of this formation was to: “to organize the immense energies of the country's huge agricultural sector.” The official documents of the Ploughmen’s Front defined this mass-organisation as a “fighting party of the working ploughmen, born from the land-related struggles of the poor ploughmen, from the fight against the exploiting landlords and bankers and their governments”.

The political weight of the Front increased significantly after Dr Petru Groza’s formed the government (the 6th of March 1945) when, with the full logistical support from the State, it became a magnet for peasants. Credible documentary sources estimate that the Ploughmen’s Front had approximately 1.5 million members in 1948-1949. In 1949–1953 the Ploughmen’s Front had organizations in all the villages and communes of Romania and its main task was to spread the ideas of the Communist party among peasants, to translate them the party thesis imposed by the communists, especially those regarding the socialist transformation, the importance of the party in the peasant life and modernization of the village, etc.

Our communication proposes an overview of the role that the Ploughmen’s Front played in the socialist transformation of agriculture (collectivization) which started in Romania in March 1949. Thesis which we support is that

37

the ploughmen organization played a fundamental role in the construction of propaganda for collectivization.

2nd Session (2nd Part) Economy, Trade and Consumption

Sorin Arhire, Romanian-British Economic Relations (1939-1940)

Since the spring of 1939, the British began to be increasingly concerned about the Germany’s politic and economic offensive in Central and Eastern Europe. In response to this situation, the British government has intensified its actions, deciding to block the expansion of the Third Reich in the eastern part of Europe by providing some political guaranties, by signing economic agreements and by increasing the purchases of goods from countries in this part of the continent, including Romania.

By increasing its economic presence in the eastern part of Europe, Great Britain actually applied its traditional balance policy, this time in economy. Following the negotiations in Bucharest, on May 11, 1939 a British-Romanian protocol was signed. Thus, were created the bases for enhancing the bilateral commerce, favoring especially the Romanian exports in Great Britain.

However, Germany has remained the major economic partner of Romania even if the British imported large quantities of oil and wheat from the south eastern state during 1939 and 1940. The start of the “Battle of Britain” in May 1940, shortly followed by the fall of France has helped Germany’s economic domination in Romania to be total and this had significant political consequences. Ottmar Traşcă, Deutsche Geheimdiensten in Rumänien: die Abwehrstelle Rumänien, 1940-1944

Im Rahmen der historischen Forschungen in Deutschland, Rumänien sowie anderen Ländern erfreute sich die Erforschung der Aktivitäten der Nachrichtendienste schon

38

immer eines regen Interesses nicht nur seitens der Historiker. Trotz dieser Tatsache ist die Anzahl von Studien zur Tätigkeit der deutschen Nachrichtendienste auf dem rumänischen Staatsgebiet-, sowie zur deutsch-rumänischen nachrichten-dienstlichen Zusammenarbeit im Zeitraum 1939-1945 zahlenmäßig sehr klein und darüber hinaus sehr lückenhaft in Bezug auf den Informationswert und die Interpretationen. Obwohl Rumänien und Deutschland in der Zwischenkriegszeit unterschiedlichen Lagern angehört hatten, zeichnete sich nach der 1937 von Rumänien eingeläuteten Annäherungspolitik gegenüber dem Dritten Reich eine vergleichbare Entwicklung im Bereich der Nachrichtendienste ab. Die Dokumente in den Beständen der rumänischen Archive belegen, dass im Jahre 1937 ein offizieller nachrichtendienstlicher Austausch zwischen dem rumänischen Geheimdienst (Serviciul Secret), der damals von Mihail Moruzov geleitet wurde, und dem Nachrichtendienst der Wehrmacht, dem Amt Ausland/Abwehr des OKW, das seit 1935 unter dem Kommando des Vizeadmirals Wilhelm Canaris stand, aufgenommen wurde. Die nachrichten-dienstliche Zusammenarbeit intensivierte sich nach Ausbruch des Zweiten Weltkriegs. So beschloss das OKW im September 1939, einem Vorschlag Canaris’ folgend, in Rumänien die sog. Kriegsorganisation Rumänien zu gründen. Zu den Hauptaufgaben der Kriegsorganisation zählten zumindest in der ersten Phase des Krieges der Schutz der für die deutsche Kriegsmaschinerie lebenswichtigen Erdölfelder rund um Ploieşti vor Sabotageakten seitens der französischen und britischen Geheimdienste bzw. die Beschaffung von Informationen über das militärische Potential der UdSSR und deren Übermittlung an die politische und militärische Führung des Reiches.

Die rumänisch-deutsche Zusammenarbeit auf dem Gebiet der Nachrichtendienste erhielt eine gesteigerte Bedeutung nach den innen- und außenpolitischen Veränderungen in Rumänien im Herbst 1940. Die Machtübernahme durch den General Ion Antonescu und der Eintritt Rumäniens in den deutschen Einflussbereich

39

bildeten fortan die Grundlagen für eine Intensivierung der nachrichtendienstlichen Zusammenarbeit zwischen der Abwehr und dem Serviciul Secret Român (Rumänischer Geheimdienst). So wurde gleichzeitig mit der Einrichtung der Deutschen Militärmission in Rumänien im Oktober 1940 auf Weisung des OKW in Bukarest die sog. Abwehrstelle Rumänien geschaffen, in der die bereits in Rumänien tätigen Dienststellen des Amtes Ausland/Abwehr zusammengefasst wurden. Die Abwehrstelle Rumänien blieb bis zu ihrer Auflösung im August 1944 nicht nur die wichtigste deutsche nachrichtendienstliche Einrichtung in Rumänien, sondern auch die einzige von dem rumänischen Staat anerkannte und akzeptierte Einrichtung dieses Typs. Roxana Marin, Incomplete Modernization and State Socialism in East-Central Europe. A Framework of Analysis

The present paper is an attempt to examine, in a comparative fashion, trajectories of modernization in the six countries of East-Central Europe which, after the conclusion of the Second World War, entered under Soviet influence. A particular emphasis is considered when accounting for the different outlooks of state socialism installed in 1947-1948 in Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Romania and Bulgaria, by analyzing the principal features displayed by each of the above-mentioned countries and by inquiring into the major discrepancies among the six regimes, generically referred to as “communist” or “totalitarian.” In this sense, the main argument put forward by the following theoretical endeavor is that, regardless of the generalized labeling of the regimes installed in ECE after WW II as “communist” and “totalitarian” par excellence, these regimes proposed different paths of modernization in the region across the six countries under scrutiny. Concretely, starting from the premise that the six countries considered here entered the era of state socialism when facing various degrees of modernization, this inquiry traditionally distinguishes among three species of state socialism, responding and corresponding to the needs imposed by the level of socio-political development

40

encountered in each case: (1) “national accommodative” communist dictatorships (i.e. Poland and Hungary) ; (2) “bureaucratic-authoritarian” (“welfare”) communist dictator-ships (i.e. Czechoslovakia and East Germany), and (3) “patrimonial” (“modernizing-nationalizing,” Petrescu 2012) communist dictatorships (i.e. Romania and Bulgaria).

The first section of the paper briefly tackles a series of conceptual complexities, with the purpose of summarily clarifying the usage of such notions as “communist”, “totalitarian”, “authoritarian”, in reference to the regimes installed at the end of the 1940s in the countries of East-Central Europe, by making recourse to largely canonical bibliographical references (Kitschelt et al. 1999; Holmes 1997; Dieter, Voss & Gern 1995; Walicki 1995; Jowitt 1992; Linz & Stepan 1996; Kornai 2000, etc.). In compensating for the conceptual shaw, the threefold categorization sheds some light on the main paths of development and modernization under state socialism which are properly surveyed in part two. In addition, the second part discusses the burdens of incomplete modernization for the region of East-Central Europe, considering, in a largely descriptive and comparative manner, the status of modernization of the six countries under discussion; on the fundament and background of incomplete modernization, state socialism was installed and evolved in at least three forms of further modernization. Finally, the third section employs the framework constructed under the form of the threefold classification to partially and lacunary account for the sequence and outlook of the regime change in the 1989’ “Autumn of the Nations” in Sovietized Europe. Vlad Paşca, Territorial Expansion of Higher Education in Communist Romania (1948-1989)

This paper brings forth the question of extensive growth of higher education in relation to the pattern of industrialization in postwar Romania. During the communist rule, the educational network was shaped by political decision, and market mechanisms barely existed. Moreover, the connection

41

between economic growth and higher education has determined the communist leadership to take into consideration the polycentric model of development, thus placing together same profile academia and industry. Other factors, such as the question of national minorities, the doctrine of balanced economic development, or temporary demands of specific professionals, also affected the dynamics of the institutional network. Judging by the number of students, the traditional centres of higher education have remained topmost, therefore the 19th century model still lingered on, while the academic staff and the political leadership engaged in a self-effacing competition for placements and/or investments. After an explosive stage of development especially during the 1960s, Nicolae Ceauşescu’s regime tried to cope with structural problems, one of the consequences being the recession of the network of higher education. This survey employs statistical data and evidence from the archives of the former Romanian Communist Party.

42

Useful information

The accommodation (inclusive breakfast) for the participants is supported by organisers at:

“Cetate” Hotel. For more details, please follow the next link: (Vezi Harta) Address: Alba Iulia, 3 Unirii Str. Facilities: free Wi-Fi and free parking. Plenary lectures of the conference will take place at the central headquarters of the University (Apor Palace). Address: Alba Iulia, 5 Gabriel Bethlen Str., 510009. Tel. 0040/(0)258 806130.

Contact persons: Ass. Prof. Daniel Dumitran, tel. 0040/(0)729068644; Ass. Prof. Valer Moga, tel. 0040/(0)740783232; Assist. Lect. Sorin Arhire, tel. 0040/(0)720738534.

alba iulia this conference is supported by alba county … · 1800-1830: eva ondruŠovÁ (history...

Documents