ALERT

Preventing Injuriesand Deaths of FireFighters due toStructural Collapse

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICESPublic Health Service

Centers for Disease Control and PreventionNational Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

REQUEST FOR ASSISTANCE INALERT

DISCLAIMER

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DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 99�146August 1999

WARNING!

ALERTPreventing Injuries and Deaths of Fire Fightersdue to Structural Collapse

Fire fighters are frequently injured or killed when burning structures collapse without warning.

Implement and review occupationalsafety programs and standard operat-ing procedures.

Ensure that the incident commanderconducts an initial size-up and riskassessment of the incident scenebefore beginning interior fire fighting.

Ensure that the incident commanderalways maintains accountability for allpersonnel at a fire scene�both bylocation and function.

Establish rapid intervention crews(RICs)�often called rapid interventionteams�and make sure they are posi-tioned to respond immediately toemergencies.

Ensure that at least four fire fightersare on the scene before beginninginterior fire fighting at a structural fire(two fire fighters inside the structureand two outside).

Equip fire fighters who enter hazardousareas (such as burning or suspectedunsafe structures) to maintain two-waycommunications with the incidentcommander.

Ensure that standard operating proce-dures and equipment are adequate andsufficient to support radio traffic atmultiple-responder fire scenes.

Provide all fire fighters with personalalert safety system (PASS) devices andmake sure that they wear and activatethem when they are involved in fire fight-ing, rescue, or other hazardous duties.

Conduct prefire planning and inspectionsthat cover all building materials and com-ponents of a structure.

Transmit an audible tone or alert immedi-ately when conditions become unsafe forfire fighters.

Establish a collapse zone around build-ings with parapet walls.

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Fire departments should take the following steps to minimize the risk ofinjury and death to fire fighters during structural fire fighting:

Please tear out and post. Distribute copies to workers.See back of sheet to order complete Alert.

For additional information, see NIOSH Alert: Preventing Injuries and Deathsof Fire Fighters due to Structural Collapse (DHHS [NIOSH] Publication No.

99�146). Single copies of the Alert are available free from the following:

Publications Dissemination, EIDNational Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

4676 Columbia ParkwayCincinnati, OH 45226-1998

Fax number: 1�513�533�8573Phone number: 1�800�35�NIOSH (1�800�356�4674)E-mail: pubstaft@cdc.gov/nioshNIOSH Web site: http://www.cdc.gov/niosh

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICESPublic Health ServiceCenters for Disease Control and PreventionNational Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

NATIONAL INSTITUTE FOROCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH

WARNING!

ALERT

Fire fighters are frequently injured or killed when burning structures collapse without warning.

Preventing Injuries and Deaths of Fire Fightersdue to Structural Collapse

The National Institute for Occupational Safetyand Health (NIOSH) requests assistance inpreventing injuries and deaths of U.S. firefighters due to structural collapse during fire-fighting operations. Structural collapse of abuilding during fire fighting is a leading causeof death among fire fighters. Such collapse isvery difficult to predict during fire fighting,and it usually occurs without warning.

Fire departments should implement and re-view occupational safety programs and stan-dard operating procedures to prevent seriousinjuries and deaths of fire fighters. NIOSHrecommends that fire departments take 10essential steps to minimize the risk of injuryand death to fire fighters during structural firefighting:

1. Ensure that the incident commander con-ducts an initial size-up and risk assessment ofthe incident scene before beginning interiorfire fighting.

2. Ensure that the incident commander alwaysmaintains accountability for all personnel ata fire scene�both by location and function.

3. Establish rapid intervention crews (RICs)�often called rapid intervention teams�andmake sure they are positioned to respondimmediately to emergencies.

4. Ensure that at least four fire fighters areon the scene before beginning interior firefighting at a structural fire (two fire fightersinside the structure and two outside).

5. Equip fire fighters who enter hazardousareas (such as burning or suspected unsafestructures) to maintain two-way communica-tions with the incident commander.

6. Ensure that standard operating proceduresand equipment are adequate and sufficient tosupport radio traffic at multiple-responder firescenes.

7. Provide all fire fighters with personal alertsafety system (PASS) devices and make surethat they wear and activate them when theyare involved in fire fighting, rescue, or otherhazardous duties.

8. Conduct prefire planning and inspectionsthat cover all building materials and compo-nents of a structure.

9. Transmit an audible tone or alert immedi-ately when conditions become unsafe for firefighters.

10. Establish a collapse zone around build-ings with parapet walls.

NIOSH requests that the information in thisAlert be brought to the attention of all U.S.fire fighters�including those in the largestmetropolitan and the smallest rural depart-ments� by the following: fire chiefs and firecommissioners and administrators, editors oftrade journals and other publications, safetyand health officials, State fire marshals, unionsand labor organizations, fire-fighting agencies,and insurance companies.

1

BACKGROUND

The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)reports that 968 fire fighters died between 1989and 1998 [NFPA 1999]. Nearly half of these deaths(443) occurred on the fireground. Furthermore,structural collapse caused 56 (18%) of the 316fire fighter deaths at structure fires. A structuralcollapse often results in multiple fire fighterfatalities. For example, during this time period,43 fire fighters were fatally injured by collaps-ing materials at 11 fires.

As these statistics show, structural collapse of anypart of a building (floors, walls, ceilings, roofs,or structural members) during fire fighting is aleading cause of death among fire fighters. Thepotential for structural collapse is one of the mostdifficult factors to predict during initial size-upand ongoing fire fighting. Structural collapseusually occurs without warning. For example,the floor of a burning structure may suddenly col-lapse, spilling fire fighters into a burning inferno.Or a sudden roof collapse may trap fire fightersinside the structure. After arrival at a fire scene,the incident commander must consider numerousvariables to determine the structural integrity ofa burning building [Dunn 1988]:

Fire size and location

Length of time the fire has been burning

Conditions on arrival

Size of the building (single or multistory, floor area,and height)

Age of the building (deterioration of structuralmembers, evidence of weathering, use of light-weight materials in new construction)

Presence of combustible materials

Occupancy

Renovations or modifications to the building

Previous fires

Supported loads (such as roof-top heating and cool-ing systems) that might affect the integrity of thestructure

Exposures that might pose fire and smoke hazardsto nearby people or buildings

Resources at the scene for extinguishing the fire(number of apparatus, fire-fighting personnel, wa-ter supply, and auxiliary appliances)

Other factors such as the time of day (day or night)and weather conditions (extreme heat or cold)

OSHAState and local government employees (such as firefighters) are exempt from Federal OccupationalSafety and Health Administration (OSHA) stan-dards. However, in the 25 States currently autho-rized by OSHA to run an occupational safety andhealth program, all OSHA regulations apply to bothpublic and private employees.

Current OSHA regulations that apply to fire fightersinclude 29 CFR* 1910.134 (Respiratory protection)and 29 CFR 1910.156 (Fire brigades). In 29 CFR1910.134, employers are required to provide res-pirators suitable for the purpose intended and toestablish and maintain a respirator protection program.The standard also states that if fire fighters must enteran area that is immediately dangerous to life andhealth (IDLH), at least two must enter the area to-gether and remain in visual or voice contact withone another at all times. They must also conductinterior fire fighting using self-contained breathingapparatus (SCBA). In addition, at least two prop-erly equipped and trained fire fighters must be

� positioned outside the IDLH atmosphere,

� account for the interior team(s), and

� remain capable of rapid rescue of the interior team(s).

In 29 CFR 1910.156, OSHA lists the requirementsfor organizing, training, and equipping fire brigadesestablished by the employer.

*Code of Federal Regulations. See CFR in references.

CURRENT STANDARDS

2 Structural Collapse

NFPAThe National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)recommends in NFPA 1500 that all fire departmentsestablish a policy of providing and operating at "thehighest possible levels of safety and health for allmembers" [NFPA 1997a]. Several NFPA stan-dards apply to structural fire fighting operations:

NFPA 220, Standard on Types of BuildingConstruction, specifies methods of classifyingtypes of construction and fire resistance ratings[NFPA 1995a].

NFPA 1404, Standard for a Fire DepartmentSelf-Contained Breathing Apparatus Program,specifies the minimum requirements for a res-piratory protection training program in a firedepartment [NFPA 1996].

NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire DepartmentOccupational Safety and Health Program,specifies (1) the minimum requirements fora fire department's occupational safety andhealth program; (2) the safety procedures formembers involved in rescue, fire suppression,and related activities; and (3) the integrationof risk management into regular functions ofthe incident commander [NFPA 1997a].

NFPA 1561, Standard on Fire Department In-cident Management System, defines the essen-tial elements of an incident management sys-tem [NFPA 1995b].

Other relevant NFPA Standards include the fol-lowing:

NFPA 1971, Standard on Protective Ensemblefor Structural Fire Fighting, which includesprotective coat, pants, helmet, gloves, hood,and footware [NFPA 1997b]

NFPA 1981, Standard on Open-Circuit Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus for the FireService [NFPA 1997c]

NFPA 1982, Standard on Personal AlertSafety Systems (PASS) for Fire Fighters.[NFPA 1998].

The following case reports describe incidents in-volving fire fighter injuries and deaths due to struc-tural collapse. They were investigated by theNIOSH Fire Fighter Investigation Team using theFatality Assessment and Control Evaluation(FACE) protocol.

CASE 1�Commercial Structure Fire inCalifornia

On March 8, 1998, one male fire fighter (a captain)died at a fire scene while trying to exit from a com-mercial structure. The first unit on the scene re-ported light smoke showing from a one-story com-mercial building. A ventilation team proceeded tothe roof of the building and began ventilating. An-other team began forcible entry into the front of thebuilding through two metal security doors (whichtook 7½ to 9 minutes to force open). While firecompanies waited for the front door to be opened,fire conditions changed dramatically on the roof.Fire was coming from the ventilation holes openedby the ventilation crew.

About the same time, three engine crews advancedhand lines through the front door to determine theorigin of the fire. Approximately 15 feet inside thefront door, the fire fighters encountered heavysmoke and near-zero visibility. The engine crewsadvanced their lines 30 to 40 feet inside the build-ing, but could not locate the fire. Conditions con-tinued to deteriorate rapidly, so the officers on theengine crews ordered their fire fighters to exit fromthe building. During this time, the victim becameseparated from his crew and remained in the build-ing. About 1 minute later, a partial roof collapseblocked the front door. The rapid intervention teamsubsequently located the victim. Cardiopulmonaryresuscitation was performed immediately and enroute to the hospital, where the victim was pro-nounced dead. The medical examiner listed smokeinhalation and burns as the cause of death [NIOSH1998a].

Applicable Recommendations: 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, and 9in the Recommendations section.

CASE REPORTS

Structural Collapse 3

CASE 2�Floor Collapse in a Single-FamilyDwelling in Kentucky

On February 17, 1997, one male fire fighter diedand another was injured in a fire in a single-familydwelling. When the fire company arrived at thefire scene, the district major reported that heavysmoke was coming from the roof area of the dwell-ing. Two male fire fighters pulled two 1¾-inchcharged lines from their assigned engine and pro-ceeded toward the dwelling. After knocking downa ceiling fire, they entered the dwelling, apparentlywithout the district major�s knowledge. On enter-ing the front door, both fell through the floor intothe basement. The fire fighters landed at the fire�sorigin in extremely hot water and heavy blacksmoke. Neither was equipped with a radio, so anemergency transmission to the incident commanderwas impossible. The fire fighters manually triggeredtheir PASS devices, but the pumps and enginesoperating on the street made it impossible to hearthe alarm. About 8 minutes into the operation, thedistrict major discovered that two fire fighters weremissing. A lieutenant noticed the hose lines lead-ing into the front door. He crawled along theground, following them to the front door, where hesaw a light shining up from the basement. A ladderwas lowered. One fire fighter grabbed the ladderand was pulled from the basement. He stated thatanother fire fighter was still in the basement. Afternumerous search efforts, the second fire fighter wasfound (about 53 minutes into the operation). Eightto ten minutes after the two fire fighters had enteredthe structure, their SCBAs had run out of air and theyhad tried to breathe entrained air from the water sprayin their lines. The first fire fighter was injured but sur-vived. The second fire fighter died from asphyxiationdue to smoke inhalation [NIOSH 1997].

Applicable recommendations: 2, 3, and 5in the Recommendations section.

CASE 3�Sudden Roof Collapse of a BurningAuto Parts Store in Virginia

On March 18, 1996, two male fire fighters diedwhile fighting a fire in an auto parts store. At1129 hours, a 911 call to the fire dispatch reportedsparking in the fuse box at a local auto parts

store. At 1135 hours, fire fighters arrived, notknowing that a power company service truck hadaccidentally broken the neutral line to the auto partsstore. The store did not have adequate electricalgrounds; thus all electrical circuits in the store su-perheated and started a series of fires above thedropped ceiling. A lieutenant and a fire fighter fromEngine 3 went into the auto parts store with acharged 1¾-inch line to locate the origin of the fire(only light smoke was showing inside). All employ-ees had left the store and all lights were out. At 1149hours, the lieutenant inside the store radioed thatthey were in trouble and could not get out. How-ever, because of heavy radio traffic, the battalionchief did not understand the transmission. At 1150hours, the fire rapidly accelerated without warningand the entire roof (containing 50-foot wood trussessupporting heavy heating and cooling units) col-lapsed into the store. Both fire fighters died fromburns and smoke inhalation [NIOSH 1996].

Applicable recommendations: 2, 3, 6, and 8 inthe Recommendations section.

CASE 4�Parapet Wall Collapse during aWarehouse Fire in Vermont

On September 5, 1998, one fire fighter died whena parapet wall collapsed on him during a ware-house fire. Four fire departments were dispatchedto fight a fire in a warehouse that stored recycledpaper. The warehouse was built in the late 1800sof brick masonry frame with heavy wood trussconstruction. The first arriving chief of an en-gine company saw smoke issuing from below the

Photo courtesy of Bradley Whitcomb, St. Johnsbury Fire Department,St. Johnsbury, Vermont

4 Structural Collapse

eaves at the rear of the structure. He decided not toenter the building but to "surround and drown" it.When the Engine 3 crew arrived, they were orderedto place their engine at the north end of the struc-ture and attack from the exterior. One of the firefighters from Engine 3 approached the structure toopen the large, barn-like doors and enable the firefighters to attack from the exterior. The fire fighterthen returned to the hose line and discovered thatthe doors had closed behind him (they were selfclosing). He was returning to prop them open when,without warning, the parapet wall above the doorssuddenly collapsed on him. He died as a result ofmultiple crushing injuries [NIOSH 1998b].

Applicable recommendations: 8 and 10 in the Rec-ommendations section.

Many complex factors are present when fighting astructural fire, and conditions can deteriorate rap-idly at the fire scene�sometimes with little or nowarning. Fire departments need to be constantlyaware of the potential for a structural collapse andtake appropriate steps to ensure the safety of firefighters.

To minimize the risk of injury and death to fire fight-ers during structural fire fighting, NIOSH recommendsthat fire departments (1) implement and review occu-pational safety programs and standard operating pro-cedures and (2) take the following steps:

1. Ensure that the incident commander conductsan initial size-up and risk assessment at the inci-dent scene before beginning interior fire fighting.

This size-up and risk assessment should continuethroughout the incident and should include evalua-tion of the situation, fire-fighting strategy, tactical plan-ning, plan evaluation and revision, and operationalcommand and control. A primary concern iswhether the scene involves an imminent life-threat-ening situation that may require rescue.

An initial size-up and assessment of a fire shouldinclude an evaluation of the following factors[Dunn 1988]:

Fire size and location

Length of time the fire has been burning

Conditions on arrival

Size of the building (single or multistory,floor area, and height)

Age of the building (deterioration ofstructural members, evidence of weathering,use of lightweight materials in newconstruction)

Presence of combustible materials

Occupancy

Renovations or modifications to thebuilding

Previous fires

Supported loads (such as roof-top heatingand cooling systems) that might affect theintegrity of the structure

Exposures that might pose fire and smokehazards to nearby people or buildings

Resources at the scene for extinguishing thefire (number of apparatus, fire-fightingpersonnel, water supply, and auxiliaryappliances)

Other factors such as the time of day (dayor night) and weather conditions (extremeheat or cold)

CONCLUSIONS

RECOMMENDATIONS ANDDISCUSSION

Structural Collapse 5

2. Ensure that the incident commander alwaysmaintains close accountability for all person-nel at the fire scene�both by location andfunction.

Accountability for all fire fighters at a fire sceneis essential and constitutes one of the incidentcommander's most important duties. Personnelaccountability systems should be integrated intothe incident command policy and used to tracklocations and assignments of companies operat-ing at a fire scene. Personnel accountability sys-tems include accountability checks that requirethe incident commander to communicate withofficers at each level within the incident com-mand system.

3. Ensure that at least four fire fighters areon the scene before entering a structure andbeginning interior fire fighting at a structuralfire (two fire fighters inside the structure andtwo outside).

The NFPA and the OSHA state that at a minimumfour persons (each with full protective clothing andrespiratory protection) are needed to assure thesafety of those working inside a burning structure.Two fire fighters may be inside the structure, buttwo must remain outside. The team members shouldbe in visual, audible, or electronic communicationwith each other to coordinate all activities and de-termine whether emergency rescue is needed.

4. Establish rapid intervention crews (RICs) andmake sure they are positioned to respond imme-diately to emergencies.

The primary purpose for an RIC is to provide a dedi-cated and specialized team of fire fighters ready torescue fire fighters who become trapped in a burn-ing structure. An RIC is vitally important at a struc-ture fire, as it provides the incident commander witha designated emergency team and thereby eliminatesthe need for reassigning other fire fighters to thisduty during a critical period. The RIC's primary dutyis to respond to emergencies in which fire fightersare trapped, lost, or disoriented in a burning struc-ture. Under optimum conditions, an RIC shouldrespond with the first alarm to eliminate later re-sponse time. The RIC should be equipped with fullturnout gear, SCBAs, portable radios and lights,axes, forcible entry tools, hooks, and other equip-ment needed for the rescue effort. The RIC shouldreport directly to the incident commander and benearby to await rescue commands. An RIC shouldconsist of at least two fire fighters, but the size andcomplexity of the incident dictates the size of theRIC.

5. Equip fire fighters who enter hazardous ar-eas (such as burning or suspected unsafe struc-tures) to maintain two-way communications withthe incident commander.

Lack of effective communications on the firegroundcan result in tragic loss of life. Fire fighters whoenter burning structures must be able to communi-cate with the incident commander about interiorconditions, the need for additional support, andemergencies that require rescue or response teams.Effective communications are of primary impor-tance to the incident commander in decision mak-ing, overall operations, and safety on the fireground.

6. Ensure that standard operating procedures andequipment are adequate and sufficient to supportradio traffic at multiple-responder fire scenes.

Communications become ineffective at the firescene when radio traffic becomes so heavy thatmessages cannot be understood. The ambient noiseon the fireground further hampers effective com-munication. Specified channels should bePhoto courtesy of National Institute of Standards and Technology

6 Structural Collapse

used for the tactical channel and dispatch to pre-vent competition for air time. Radio traffic can bereduced if users

� avoid unnecessary transmissions,

� are brief but accurate,

� speak clearly,

� wait for the air channel to clear, and

� allow priority for emergencies and rescues.

The standard operating procedures, personnel, andcommunications equipment should be of sufficientquality and quantity to support the volume of com-munications encountered at various types of firescenes. Fire department communication policiesshould include a standard operating procedure forthe delivery and acknowledgment of "emergencytraffic" at the incident scene. Common terminol-ogy must be readily identifiable by all personnel atthe incident scene and by the dispatcher ortelecommunicator in all communications centers.

7. Provide all fire fighters with PASS devicesand make sure that they wear and activate themwhen they are involved in fire fighting, rescue,or other hazardous duties.

PASS devices are designed to set off an audiblealarm when a fire fighter becomes motionless for30 seconds. However, a primary complaint aboutPASS devices is that the alarm often sounds whilefire fighters are on standby or in a rest period. Thealarm is manufactured so that any movement bythe fire fighter should reset the alarm. Also, thefire fighter can manually activate the PASS devicealarm whenever assistance is required.

The PASS device should be worn by fire fight-ers and activated whenever they operate in a haz-ardous area. The devices are not designed to beheard outside a building, but they are intendedto alert nearby fire fighters or officers that some-one is missing, lost, or trapped. An activatedPASS alarm will also help an RIC find lost ortrapped fire fighters.

8. Conduct prefire planning and inspections thatcover all building materials and components ofa structure.

Prefire inspections are an excellent opportunity forfire departments to determine the following:

Age of the structure

Structural integrity

Exposed interior insulation materials

Type of roof structure and supports(truss, bow, etc.)

Type of interior support structures

Type of materials used in the structure(such as wood, steel, plastics, foam, ormaterials that produce toxic gases whensubjected to heat)

Storage of flammable or toxic materials

Amount of load (for example, heavyheating and cooling units) on roofstructures that could weaken the supports

Water supply

Automatic sprinkler systems

Truss roofs should be evaluated for a minimum fireresistance rating of 1 hour. Each structure in amultistructure (such as a strip mall) should receivea prefire inspection to determine the interior designand types of materials used in construction.

9. Transmit an audible tone or alert immedi-ately when conditions become unsafe for firefighters.

An emergency evacuation is ordered when an ex-tremely serious emergency has occurred or is aboutto happen. Examples of such emergencies are miss-ing fire fighters, explosion, and structural collapse.Unlike a withdrawal, an emergency evacuationrequires that fire fighters leave behind tools andhoses and that the incident commander

Structural Collapse 7

conduct a roll call or a head count. An emergencyevacuation is a rare event in fire fighting, and thusconfusion and delay usually occur when it is or-dered. For this reason, a prearranged audible sig-nal should be sounded to alert fire fighters of anemergency evacuation. Fire departments shouldtrain their members to evacuate the building atthe sound of the signal.

10. Establish a collapse zone around build-ings with parapet walls.

A parapet wall is the continuation of an exteriorwall above the roof level. A parapet wall hasreduced stability because it has fewer connectionsto the rest of the structure and is subject to col-

lapse if it suffers any movement, shock, or vi-bration during fire-fighting operations. A col-lapse zone is the distance from the fire buildingequal to the height of the wall. However, sincethe falling wall may break apart and allow flyingdebris to cover a greater distance than the heightof the wall, a safety margin should be consid-ered when establishing a collapse zone. Fire fight-ers should not be allowed to operate inside a col-lapse zone. For example, they should not advanceattack lines or conduct staging or fire fighter re-habilitation within this zone. In addition, hosestreams, deck guns or pipes, portable delugenozzles, and aerial ladders with fire fighters op-erating at the tip or inside buckets should oper-ate outside the collapse zone.

8 Structural Collapse

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES CITED

The principal contributors to this Alert were TedPettit, Division of Safety Research, NIOSH;Vincent Dunn, Deputy Chief (retired), New YorkCity Fire Department; and Greg Main, DistrictChief, Evansville Indiana Fire Department. RitaFahy, NFPA, provided the NFPA data. Ted Pettit,Richard Braddee, and Frank Washenitz, Fire FighterInvestigation Team, Division of Safety Research,NIOSH, investigated the cases used. Kim Clough,Health Effects Laboratory Division, NIOSH, cre-ated the document design and layout. Jason Britton,Health Effects Laboratory Division, NIOSH, cre-ated the Web document.

Please direct any comments, questions, or requestsfor additional information to the following:

Dr. Nancy A. Stout, DirectorDivision of Safety ResearchNational Institute for Occupational Safety andHealth1095 Willowdale RoadMorgantown, WV 26505�2888

Telephone: 304�285�5894; or call1�800�35�NIOSH (1�800�356�4674)

We greatly appreciate your assistance in protectingthe health of U.S. workers.

Linda Rosenstock, M.D., M.P.H.Director, National Institute for Occupational Safety and HealthCenters for Disease Control and Prevention

CFR. Code of Federal regulations. Washington,DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, Office of theFederal Register.

Dunn V [1988]. Collapse of burning buildings: aguide to fireground safety. Saddle Brook, NJ: PennWell.

NFPA [1995a]. NFPA 220: standard on types ofbuilding construction. Quincy, MA: National FireProtection Association.

NFPA [1995b]. NFPA 1561: standard on fire de-partment incident management system. Quincy,MA: National Fire Protection Association.

NFPA [1996]. NFPA 1404: standard for a fire de-partment self-contained breathing apparatus pro-gram. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Asso-ciation.

NFPA [1997a]. NFPA 1500: standard on fire de-partment occupational safety and health program.Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association.

NFPA [1997b]. NFPA 1971: standard on protec-tive ensemble for structural fire fighting. Quincy,MA: National Fire Protection Association.

NFPA [1997c]. NFPA 1981: standard on open-cir-cuit self-contained breathing apparatus for the fireservice. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection As-sociation.

NFPA [1998]. NFPA 1982: standard on personalalert safety systems (PASS). Quincy, MA: NationalFire Protection Association.

NFPA [1999]. Personal communication from RitaFahy, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy,MA, to Ted Pettit, Division of Safety Research,National Institute for Occupational Safety andHealth, Centers for Disease Control, Public HealthService, U.S. Department of Health and HumanServices, Morgantown, WV.

Structural Collapse 9

NIOSH [1996]. Sudden roof collapse of a burningauto parts store claims the lives of two fire fight-ers�Virginia. Morgantown, WV: U.S. Depart-ment of Health and Human Services, Public HealthService, Centers for Disease Control and Preven-tion, National Institute for Occupational Safety andHealth, Fatality Assessment and Control Evalua-tion (FACE) Report 96-17.

NIOSH [1997]. Floor collapse in a single familydwelling fire claims the life of one fire fighter andinjures another�Kentucky. Morgantown, WV:U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Con-trol and Prevention, National Institute for Occupa-tional Safety and Health, Fatality Assessment andControl Evaluation (FACE) Report 97-04.

NIOSH [1998a]. Commercial structure fire claimsthe life of one fire fighter�California.Morgantown, WV: U.S. Department of Health andHuman Services, Public Health Service, Centersfor Disease Control and Prevention, National In-stitute for Occupational Safety and Health, Fatal-ity Assessment and Control Evaluation (FACE)Report 98-F07.

NIOSH [1998b]. Fire fighter dies while fightingwarehouse fire when parapet wall collapses�Ver-mont. Morgantown, WV: U.S. Department ofHealth and Human Services, Public Health Service,

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Na-tional Institute for Occupational Safety and Health,Fatality Assessment and Control Evaluation(FACE) Report 98-F20.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Brunacini A [1985]. Fire command. Quincy,MA: National Fire Protection Association.

Dunn V [1992]. Safety and survival on the fireground. Saddle Brook, NJ: Penn Well.

Dunn V [1996]. Systems analysis/size-up: part1. Firehouse Magazine (Oct).

Dunn V [1996]. Systems analysis/size-up: part2. Firehouse Magazine (Dec).

International Fire Service Training Association[1995]. Essentials of fire fighting. 3rd ed.Stillwater, OK: Oklahoma State University, FireProtection Publications.

Kipp JD, Loflin ME [1996]. Emergency inci-dent risk management. New York, NY: VanNostrand Reinhold.

NFPA [1997]. Fire protection handbook. 18th ed.Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association.

10 Structural Collapse

Structural Collapse 11

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICESPublic Health ServiceCenters for Disease Control and PreventionNational Institute for Occupational Safety and Health4676 Columbia ParkwayCincinnati, OH 45226-1998

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Call NIOSH at 1-800-35-NIOSH (1-800-356-4674)Fax number: (513) 533-8573E-mail: pubstaft@cdc.govVisit the NIOSH Web site at: www.cdc.gov/niosh

DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 99-146