algorithms, models and metrics for workholding using part concavities. k. gopalakrishnan ieor, u.c....
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![Page 1: Algorithms, Models and Metrics for Workholding using Part Concavities. K. Gopalakrishnan IEOR, U.C. Berkeley](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062804/56649d425503460f94a1e0cf/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Algorithms, Models and Metricsfor Workholding using
Part Concavities.
K. Gopalakrishnan
IEOR, U.C. Berkeley.
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Workholding
Grasping Fixturing
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Conventional Fixtures• Bulky• Complex• Multilateral• Dedicated, Expensive• Long Lead time,
Designed by
human intuition
Ideal Fixtures• Compact• Simplified• Unilateral• Modular, Amortizable• Rapid Setup,
Designed by
CAD/CAM software
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Inspiration
• GBL (Global Body Line) (Toyota, 1998-)– Multiple models.– Fewer Jigs/Fixtures.
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Workholding: Basic concepts
• Immobility– Any part motion causes
collision
• Force Closure– Any external Wrench
resisted by applying suitable forces
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C-Space
C-Space (Configuration Space):
• [Lozano-Perez, 1983]
• Dual representation of part position and orientation.
• Each degree of part freedom is one C-space
dimension.
y
x
/3
(5,4)
y
x
4
5
/3(5,4,- /3)
Phy
sica
l spa
ceC
-Spa
ce
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Avoiding Collisions: C-obstacles
• Obstacles prevent parts from moving freely.• Images in C-space are called C-obstacles.
• Rest is Cfree.
Phy
sica
l spa
ceC
-Spa
ce
x
y
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Workholding and C-space
• Multiple contacts.
• 1 Contact = 1 C-obstacle.
• Cfree = Collision with no
obstacle.
• Surface of C-obstacle: Contact, not collision.
Phy
sica
l spa
ceC
-Spa
ce
x
y
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Form Closure
• A part is grasped in Form Closure if any
infinitesimal motion results in collision.
• Form Closure = an isolated point in C-free.
• Force Closure = ability to resist any wrench. Phy
sica
l spa
ceC
-Spa
ce
x
y
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First order Immobility
• Consider escape path.
• Distance to C-obstacles.
• Truncate to First order.
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First order Immobility
Phy
sica
l spa
ceC
-Spa
ce
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First order ImmobilityIn n dimensions there are n(n+1)/2 DOF:
n translations n(n-1)/2 rotations
For first order immobility, n(n+1)/2+1 are necessary and sufficient
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Fast Test for First OrderImmobility
• Any infinitesimal motion
on the plane is a rotation.
• No center of rotation possible for a part in Form-Closure.
• Try to identify possible centers.
+ -
+ -
+-
++
-
-
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Workholding: Rigid parts
• Number of contacts– [Reuleaux, 1876], [Somoff, 1900]
– [Mishra, Schwarz, Sharir, 1987], [Markenscoff, 1990]
• Nguyen regions– [Nguyen, 1988]
• Form and Force Closure– [Rimon, Burdick, 1995]
• Immobilizing three finger grasps– [Ponce, Burdick, Rimon, 1995]
[Mason, 2001]
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Workholding: Rigid parts
+ -
+-
++-
-
• Caging Grasps– [Rimon, Blake, 1999]
• Summaries of results– [Bicchi, Kumar, 2000]– [Mason, 2001]
• C-Spaces for closed chains– [Milgram, Trinkle, 2002]
• Fixturing hinged parts– [Cheong, Goldberg, Overmars,
van der Stappen, 2002]• Contact force prediction
– [Wang, Pelinescu, 2003]
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2D v-grips
Expanding.
Contracting.
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AlgorithmStep1: We list all concave vertices.
Step2: At these vertices, we draw normalsto the edges through the jaw’s center.
Step3: We label the 4 regions as shown:
I
II
IV
III
Theorem:
Both jaws lie strictly in the other’s Region I means it is an expanding v-grip
orBoth jaws lie in the other’s Region IV, at least
one strictly, means it is a contracting v-grip
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• Maximum change in orientation occurs with one jaw at a vertex.
• The metric is given by |d/dl|.• Using sine rule and neglecting 2nd order terms,
|d/dl| = |tan()/l|
l
l-l
v a v b
Ranking Grips
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3D v-grips
3D v-grip:
– Start from a stable initial orientation.
– Close jaws monotonically.
– Deterministic Quasi-static process.
– Final configuration is a 3D v-grip if only vertical translation is possible.
• Input: A CAD model of the part and the position of its center of mass.
• Output: A list (possibly empty) of all 3D v-grips.
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Phase I
A candidate 2D v-grip occurs at end of phase I
This is because a minimum height of COM occurs at minimum jaw distance
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Phase II
All configurations in Phase II are
candidate 2D v-grips.
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Gear & Shaft
We assume that the gear is a cylinder (no teeth)
This part is symmetric about the axis (one redundant degree of freedom). Search is thus reduced to 0 dimensions!
l1 l2
2r
2R
rR
rRlt
2 to allow gripping.
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Gear & Shaft: Solution
Work-surface
-0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
10.6 10.8 11 11.2 11.4 11.6 11.8 12 12.2 P
art O
rien
tati
on
Final position Jaw separation
Grasp progress
Part OrientationShaft Trajectory
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Example without Symmetry
Orthogonal views:
Initial 3Dpart orientation Final 3D v-grip
x
y
z
y
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Unilateral Fixtures
• “Unilateral” loading of body panels.
• Fixture lies on interior of assembled body.
• Reconfigurable fixtures.
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Proposed Modular Components
• Use plane-cone contacts:– Jaws with conical grooves: Edge contacts.
– Support Jaws with Surface Contacts.
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Definition: Vg-grips
• Rigid approximation.
• <va, vb> is a vg-grip if:
– Jaws engage part at va, vb.
– Achieves form closure.
• Not easy to check.
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Notation: Coordinate Axes
z
x: line joining vertices Projection perpendicular to x
x
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Sufficient Test
• Form-closure is achieved if:1. 2D v-grip in x-y plane.
2. 2D v-grip in x-z plane (same nature as 1)3. qij, i=a,b; j=1,2; penetrate cone (angle with axis less
than half-cone angle)
qij
rij
ex qij = ex x rij.
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Proof: Outline
• Any displacement of part guarantees jaw
displacement.
• Jaws are rigid.
• Thus Form-closure is achieved.
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Quality Metric
• Maximum sensitivity of Rx, Ry, Rz.
• Ry, Rz: Approximated to v-grip.
• Rx: Derived from grip of jaws by part.
Jaw Jaw
Part
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Apparatus: Schematic
BaseplateTrack
Slider Pitch-Screw
Mirror
Dial Gauge
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Experimental Apparatus
A1 A2A3
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0.0250.020.0150.010.005
A1-A3
77.43
A1-A2
31.74
0.3
0.2
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
0.1
0
Orie
ntat
ion
erro
r (d
egre
es)
Jaw relaxation (inches)
Experiment Results
"Unilateral Fixtures for Sheet Metal Parts with Holes" K. Gopalakrishnan, Ken Goldberg, Gary M. Bone, Matthew, Zaluzec, Rama Koganti, Rich Pearson, Patricia Deneszczuk. Accepted in March 2004 to the IEEE Transactions on Automation Sciences and Engineering.
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Secondary Jaws
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• Grasp planning: Combining Geometric and Physical models- [Joukhadar, Bard, Laugier,
1994]
• Bounded force-closure- [Wakamatsu, Hirai, Iwata,
1996]
• Minimum Lifting Force- [Howard, Bekey, 1999]
Holding Deformable Parts
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Holding Deformable Parts
• Manipulation of flexible sheets- [Kavraki et al, 1998]
• Quasi-static path planning.- [Anshelevich et al, 2000]
• Robust manipulation- [Wada, Hirai, Mori,
Kawamura, 2001]
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Deformable parts
• “Form closure” does not apply:
Can always avoid collisions by deforming the part.
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• Deformation Space: A Generalization of Configuration Space.
• Based on Finite Element Mesh.
D-Space
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Deformable Polygonal parts: Mesh• Planar Part represented as Planar Mesh.• Mesh = nodes + edges + Triangular elements.• N nodes• Polygonal boundary.
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D-Space• A Deformation: Position of each mesh node.• D-space: Space of all mesh deformations.• Each node has 2 DOF.• D-Space: 2N-dimensional Euclidean Space.
30-dimensional D-space
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Nominal mesh configuration
Deformed mesh configuration
Deformations
• Deformations (mesh configurations) specified as list of translational DOFs of each mesh node.
• Mesh rotation also represented by node displacements.
• Nominal mesh configuration (undeformed mesh): q0.
• General mesh configuration: q.
q0
q
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D-Space: Example• Simple example:
3-noded mesh, 2 fixed.• D-Space: 2-dimensional Euclidean Space.• D-Space shows moving node’s position.
x
y
Phy
sica
l spa
ceD
-Spa
ce
q0
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Topological Constraints: DT
x
y
Phy
sica
l spa
ceD
-Spa
ce
• Mesh topology maintained.• Non-degenerate triangles only.
DT
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Topology violating
deformation
Undeformed part
Allowed deformation
Self Collisions and DT
TDq
TDq
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D-Obstacles
x
y
Phy
sica
l spa
ceD
-Spa
ce
• Collision of any mesh triangle with an object.
• Physical obstacle Ai has an image DAi in D-Space.
A1
DA1
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D-Space: Example
Phy
sica
l spa
ce
x
y
D-S
pace
• Dfree = DT [ (DAiC)]
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Free Space: Dfree
Slice with only node 5 moving.
Part and mesh
1
2 3
5
4
x
y
Slice with only node 3 moving.
x3
y3x5
y5
x5
y5
x5
y5
c
ii
Tfree DADD
Phy
sica
l spa
ceD
-Spa
ce
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Nodal displacement
• X = q - q0: vector of
nodal translations.
• Equivalent to moving origin in D-Space to q0.
D- space
q0
q
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Potential Energy
• Linear Elasticity.
• K = FEM stiffness matrix. (2N 2N matrix for N nodes.)
• Forces at nodes:
F = K X.
• Potential Energy:
U(q) = (1/2) XT K X
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Potential Energy “Surface”
• U : Dfree R0
• Equilibrium: q where U is at a local minimum.
• Stable Equilibrium: q where U is at a strict local minimum.
• Stable Equilibrium = “Deform Closure Grasp”
q
U(q)
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Potential Energy Needed to Escape from a Stable Equilibrium• Consider:
Stable equilibrium qA, Equilibrium qB.
• Capture Region:
K(qA) Dfree, such that any configuration in K(qA) returns to qA.
qA
qB
q
U(q)
K( qA )
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• UA (qA) = Increase in Potential Energy needed to escape from qA.
= minimum external work needed to escape from qA.
• UA: Measure of “Deform Closure Grasp
Quality”
qA
qB
q
U(q)
UA
Potential Energy Needed to Escape from a Stable Equilibrium
K( qA )
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Deform Closure
• Stable equilibrium = Deform Closure where
• UA > 0.
qA
qB
q
U(q)
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• Theorem: Definition of Deform closure grasp and UA is frame-invariant.
• Proof: Consider D-spaces D1 and D2.
- Consider q1 D1, q2 D2.
such that physical meshes are identical.
Theorem 1: Frame Invariance
xy
x
y
D1:
D2:
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• There exists distance preserving linear transformation T such that
q2 = T q1.
• It can be shown that
UA2(q2) = UA1 (q1)
Theorem 1: Frame Invariance
xy
x
y
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Form-closure of rigid part
Theorem 2: Form Closure and Deform Closure
Deform-closure of equivalent deformable part.
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Numerical Example
4 Joules 547 Joules
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• High Dimensional.
• Computing DT and DAi.
• Exploit symmetry.
Computing Dfree
DAi
Dfree
DTC
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• Consider obstacle A and one triangular element.
• Consider the slice De of D, corresponding to the 6 DOF of this element.
• Along all other axes of D, De is constant.
• Extruded cross-section is a prism.
• The shape of DAe is same for all elements.
Computing DAi
1
32
4
5
1
32
4
5
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• Thus, DA is the union of identical prisms with orthogonal axes.
• Center of DA is the deformation where the part has been shrunk to a point inside A.
• Similar approach for DT.
Computing DAi
1
32
4
5
1
32
4
5+
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• Given:
Pair of contact nodes.
• Determine:
Optimal jaw separation.
Optimal?
Two Point Deform Closure Grasps
M
E
n0
n1
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• If Quality metric Q = UA.
• Maximum UA trivially at = 0
Naïve Quality Metric
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New Quality Metric
• Plastic deformation.
• Occurs when strain exceeds eL.
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New Quality Metric
• Additional work UL done by jaws for plastic deformation.
• New Q = min { UA, UL }
Stress
Strain
Plastic Deformation
A
B
C
eL
A
B
C
UL
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• Additional input:
eL : Elastic limit strain.
: allowed error in quality metric.
• Additional assumptions:
Sufficiently dense mesh.
Linear Elasticity.
No collisions
Problem Description
M, K
E
n0
n1
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Potential Energy vs. ni
nj
kij
Pot
entia
l Ene
rgy
(U)
Distance between FEM nodes
Undeformed distance
Expanding
Contracting
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• Points of interest: contact at mesh nodes.
• Construct a graph:
Each graph vertex = 1 pair of perimeter mesh nodes.
p perimeter mesh nodes.
O(p2) graph vertices.
Contact Graph
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A
B
C
E
F
G
D
Contact Graph: Edges
Adjacent mesh nodes:
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
H
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Contact Graph
0.1
0.4
0.71
1.3
1.6
1.9
2.2
2.5
2.8
3.1
3.4
3.74
4.3
4.6
4.9
5.2
5.5
5.8
0.1
0.8
1.5
2.2
2.9
3.6
4.3
5
5.7
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
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Contact Graph: Edges
Non-adjacent mesh nodes:
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• Traversal with minimum increase in energy.
• FEM solution with two mesh nodes fixed.
ni
nj
Deformation at Points of Interest
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U (
v(n
i, n j),
)
Peak Potential Energy Given release path
0.1
0.4
0.71
1.3
1.6
1.9
2.2
2.5
2.8
3.1
3.4
3.74
4.3
4.6
4.9
5.2
5.5
5.8
0.1
0.8
1.5
2.2
2.9
3.6
4.3
5
5.7
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
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0.1
0.4
0.71
1.3
1.6
1.9
2.2
2.5
2.8
3.1
3.4
3.74
4.3
4.6
4.9
5.2
5.5
5.8
0.1
0.8
1.5
2.2
2.9
3.6
4.3
5
5.7
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
Peak Potential Energy: All release paths
U (
v* ,
)
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U (
vo,
), U
( v
*,
)
Threshold Potential Energy
U ( v*, )
U ( vo, )
UA ( )
UA ( ) = U ( v*, ) - U ( vo, )
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UA (
)
, UL (
)
Quality Metric
UA ( )UL ( )
Q ( )
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• Possibly exponential
number of pieces.
• Sample in intervals of .
• Error bound on max. Q =
* max { 0(ni, nj) *
kij }
Numerical Sampling
Q
(
)
![Page 78: Algorithms, Models and Metrics for Workholding using Part Concavities. K. Gopalakrishnan IEOR, U.C. Berkeley](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062804/56649d425503460f94a1e0cf/html5/thumbnails/78.jpg)
• Calculate UL.
• To determine UA:
Algorithm inspired by Dijkstra’s algorithm for sparse graphs.
Fixed i
0.1
0.4
0.71
1.3
1.6
1.9
2.2
2.5
2.8
3.1
3.4
3.74
4.3
4.6
4.9
5.2
5.5
5.8
0.1
0.8
1.5
2.2
2.9
3.6
4.3
5
5.7
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
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Algorithm for UA(i)
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Algorithm for UA(i)
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U
Vertex v (traversed on path of minimum work)
U(v)
U(v*)
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Numerical Example
Undeformed
= 10 mm.
Optimal
= 5.6 mm.
Rubber foam.
FEM performed using ANSYS.
Computing Deform Closure Grasps, K. "Gopal" Gopalakrishnan and Ken Goldberg, submitted to Workshop on Algorithmic Foundations of Robotics (WAFR), Oct. 2004.
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• 2D v-grips
- Grasping at concavities.
- New Quality metric.
- Fast necessary and sufficient conditions.
• 3D v-grips:
- Gripping at projection concavities.
- Fast path planning.
Summary
![Page 84: Algorithms, Models and Metrics for Workholding using Part Concavities. K. Gopalakrishnan IEOR, U.C. Berkeley](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062804/56649d425503460f94a1e0cf/html5/thumbnails/84.jpg)
• Unilateral Fixtures:
- New type of fixture: concavities at concavities
- New Quality metric.
- Combination of fast geometric and numeric approaches.
• D-Space and Deform-Closure:
- Defined workholding for deformable parts.
- Frame invariance.
- Symmetry in D-Space.
Summary
![Page 85: Algorithms, Models and Metrics for Workholding using Part Concavities. K. Gopalakrishnan IEOR, U.C. Berkeley](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062804/56649d425503460f94a1e0cf/html5/thumbnails/85.jpg)
• Two Jaw Deform-Closure grasps:
- Quality metric.
- Fast algorithm for given jaw separation.
- Error bounded optimal separation.
Summary