THEORY CHARACTERISTICS

Bronfenbrenner's Socio-ecological Model

(Berk, 2010)

Microsystem- places where the individual can be found (e.g., home with parents & siblings, school with peers, friends & teachers, swimming pool with other swimmers, etc); mesosystem- interactions between components of microsystem (e.g., influence of family factors on child's behaviour at school) exosystem- elements in broader environment that affect child's immediate environment (e.g., school board, parent's workplace); macrosystem- overarching environmental influences such as cultural beliefs, economic conditions & political ideologies; chronosystem- environmental events that occur over an individual's lifespan and impact the individual in ways that depend on the individual's circumstances & developmental stage (e.g., immediate and long-term effects of change in family structure or SES).

Rutter's family risk factors that predict child psychopathology (Collins, 1982)

1. Severe marital discord 2. low SES 3. overcrowding or large family size in a small space 4. parental criminality 5. maternal psychopathology 6. placement of child outside the home.

Piaget Concepts (Berk, 2010)

Development occurs when a state of disequilibrium is brought on by a discrepancy between reality and the person's current understanding of the world (cognitive schemas) and is resolved through adaptation, which includes 2 complimentary processes: assimilation - incorporation of new knowledge into existing cognitive schemas and accommodation- modification of existing schemas to incorporate new knowledge.

1.-Piaget Stages of Cognitive Development

I. sensorimotor (0-2) 2. preoperational (2-7) 3. concrete operational (7-11) 4. formal operational (from 11 to adulthood)

Piaget: I. Sensorimotor (0-2)

-circular reactions- actions that are performed in order to reproduce events that initially occurred by chance. Six Substages: 1. reflexive schemas (0-1 months)- exercises reflexes 2. primary circular (1-4 mo)- repeat pleasure events involving own body 3. secondary circular (4-8)- reproduce pleasure events involving other people 4. coordinated secondary (8-12)- infant combines secondary circular reactions (schemes) into new, more complex action sequences 5. tertiary circular reactions (12 to 18 mo)- infant deliberately varies an action or action sequence to discover the consequences of doing so 6. mental representation (18-24 mo)- infant develops representational (symbolic) thought, which involves forming internal representations that allow him/her to think about absent objects and past events & to anticipate consequences of doing so

Piaget: Sensorimotor (0-2) Accomplishments

1. Object permanence- begins in substage 4 and allows child to recognize that objects & people continue to exist when they are out of sight. 2. beginning of an understanding of causality and emergence of deferred imagination and make-believe play.

Piaget: Preoperational (2-7)

-symbolic function- extension of representational thought and permits child to learn through use of language, mental images, and other symbols. -children exhibit precausal (transductive) reasoning- reflects incomplete understanding of cause and effect, magical thinking- belief that thinking about something will cause it to occur, animism- tendency to attribute human characteristics to inanimate object, -egocentrism- child unable to imagine another person's point of view – These age children DO NOT recognize that actions can be reversed (irreversibility) and they focus on the most noticeable features of objects (centration). Unable to conserve or understand that changing one dimension of an object does not change its other dimensions. (liquid- short to tall glass---child is likely to say more liquid in tall glass).

Piaget: Concrete Operational (7-11)

-capable of mental operations, which are logical rules for transforming and manipulating information -understand part-whole relationships -Conservation- depends on the operations of irreversibility and decentration and develops gradually, with conservation of # occurring 1st , followed by conservation of liquid, length, weight, and displacement of volume. -horizontal decalage- term Piaget used to describe gradual acquisition of conservation abilities.

Piaget: Formal Operational (11+)

-able to think abstractly and capable of hypothetico-deductive reasoning- can identify competing hypotheses about a problem and strategies for systematically testing those hypotheses -renewed egocentrism during adolescence--inability to separate one's own abstract thoughts from the thoughts of others -Elkind extended Piaget's work by identifying specific characteristics of adolescent egocentrism. These include personal fable (belief that one is unique and not subject to the natural laws that govern others) and the imaginary audience (the belief that one is always the centre of attention).

2.-Piaget: Theory of Moral Development

3 stages 1. premoral stage (prior to age 6): exhibit little concern for rules, obey to avoid punishment 2. heteronymous morality (morality of constraint), extends from 7-10 yrs. Children believe that rules are set by authority figures and are unalterable. When judging whether something is right or wrong, they consider whether a rule has been violated. 3. autonomous morality (morality of cooperation)- from age 11, view of rules as culture, law and circumstances. Morality is arbitrary and adults judge acts based on intention of actor rather than focus on consequences.

Postformal cognitive theory (Riegel, 1973; Arlin, 1975; Basseches,

1980; Kramer, 1983; Commons, Richards & Armon, 1984;Sinnott 1993)

With the objective of expanding the Piagetian view of formal thought, various theories arose based on the assumption that the distinctive characteristic of adult thought was the acceptance and integration of various, sometimes incompatible, truths dependent upon context and upon perceptions. Sinnott (1993) coined this movement “postformal thought”. The two main postformal theories are the Newtonian dialectical model and Einstein’s relativist models. According to Sinnott (1993), the "strong" Newtonian logic would be a more adequate model for representing postformal thought than the bivalent logic model of propositions. Arlin defends a similar opinion (1984) when she affirms that the logical relativist model combines various INRC groups, and integrates hypothetico-deductive logic, an opinion supported by Labouvie-Vief (1984), who claims that "hard" logic is insufficient to explain postformal thought and that a more "flexible" logic would better explain the complexity of adult thought. Commons, Richards and Armon (1984) used the term "postformal" to refer to behaviours seen in adults that were not explained in Piaget’s last stage of his cognitive theory, that of formal operations. Postformal thinking is based not only on logic but also on subjectivity and intuition, and is characterized by a shift away from dichotomies (logic vs emotion, mind vs body, right vs wrong) towards an integration of concepts (Commons & Richards, 1984). Postformal theory may account for part of unequal human accomplishment.

Labouvie-Vief’s postformal thought & cognitive affective

complexity theory (Berk, 2010)

Addresses the concept of how adult thought processes become more realistic as adults consider the positives and negatives of a situation, seeing the full picture and able to see bias. Labouvie-Vief acknowledges that this ability declines with age, however a new strength, improved affect optimization, compensates for this loss.

Vygotsky's Socio-cultural Theory

(Berk, 2010)

Recognized impact of biology on development, but put more emphasis on role of social & cultural factors -sociocultural theory- views all learning as socially mediated and proposes that cognitive development is first interpersonal (child's interactions with others), then intrapersonal (child internalizes what he or she has learned). -cognitive development facilitated when instruction and other environmental demands fall within ZPD = zone of proximal development- discrepancy between a child's current developmental level and the level of development that is just beyond his or her level but can be reached when adult (= MKO more knowledgeable other) provides scaffolding (instructions, assistance, and support....most effective when it involves modelling, providing cues, and encouraging child to think about alternative plans of action)

Pavlov’s classical

conditioning learning theory (Berk, 2010)

Classical conditioning of reflexes is an association between two stimuli, one is neutral (conditioned) and in the beginning has no meaning, like the sound of a bell; the other stimulus is one that does already have a natural meaning for the individual, like food (unconditioned). Individuals salivate when they see or smell food. If every time the individual sees or smells food, we ring a bell, there will be a time when ringing the bell means food and the individual will salivate. We can put an end to this association when the bell is not followed by food. This is called extinction.

Skinner’s operant conditioning learning theory

(Berk, 2010)

Operant conditioning of behaviour is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behaviour and the consequence of that behaviour. Concepts in operant conditioning: Reinforcer is anything that favours the maintenance of a behaviour. There are two kinds of reinforcers: Positive reinforcer: ‘add something positive” like a praise or treat for the behaviour. The behaviour is likely to be repeated or maintained. Well done! Here, have a lolly! Negative reinforcer: remove something negative, like “if you do your homework, you will not have to mow the lawn tomorrow”. In both of these cases of reinforcement, the behaviour increases. Punishment, decreases a behaviour. There are two kinds of punishment: Positive punishment, an active

punishment like a slap in the hand. Negative punishment, removal of something good, like no dessert after dinner. In both of these cases of punishment, the behaviour decreases.

Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

(Berk, 2010)

Learning happens through modelling, that is imitation of what other people do. For Bandura the individual is influenced by the environment (parents smoke, child will smoke), but the environment is influenced by the individual (child becomes a smoking adult whose children will smoke). Bandura coined the term self-efficacy which is a person’s belief in his or her ability to succeed in a particular situation. Bandura believed that self-efficacy determines how people think, behave, and feel.

Thomas & Chess Temperament Model

(Collins, 1982)

-9 basic temperament qualities (activity level, rhythmicity, approach/withdrawal, adaptability, threshold of responsiveness, intensity of reaction, quality of mood, distractibility, and persistence). -Easy Children- even tempered, have regular sleeping and eating patterns, adapt easily to new situations and people, and have positive mood -Difficult Children- irritable, withdraw from new situations and people, and have unpredictable habits and negative mood - Slow-to-Warm-Up- inactive and somewhat negative in mood, takes them time to adjust to new stimuli -Thomas & Chess found that many children categorized as difficult or easy at age 3 were rated the same as young adults -Goodness of fit model- predicts that it is the degree of match between parents' behaviours and their child's temperament that contributes to the child's outcomes. -Thomas & Chess designed interventions to help parents interact with child in ways consistent with their temperament.

Freud Psychosexual Theory of Development

(Berk, 2010)

1. Oral stage (0-1 yr): mouth is focus of sensation and stimulation and weaning is primary source of conflict. Fixation results in dependence, passivity, gullibility, sarcasm, and orally-focused habits 2. Anal stage (1-3 yrs): main issue is control of bodily wastes and conflicts stem from issues related to toilet training. Fixation produces anal retentiveness or anal expulsiveness (cruelty) 3. Phallic stage (3-6 yrs): sexual energy centred on genitals and primary task is resolution of oedipal conflict, desire for opposite-sex parent and view of same-sex parent as rival. A successful outcome comes from identification with same-sex parent and development of superego. Fixation can produce a phallic character, which involves sexual exploitation of others. 4. Latency stage (6-12 yrs): libidinal energy is diffuse rather than on one part of body, and emphasis is on developing social skills rather than achieving sexual gratification. 5. Genital stage (12+ years): libido centred in genitals and a successful outcome occurs when sexual desire is blended with affection to produce mature sexual relationships.

Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development

(Berk, 2010)

Crises & outcomes: 1. Trust vs. mistrust (infancy)- positive relationship with one's primary caregiver during infancy results in a sense of trust and optimism 2. Autonomy vs. shame & doubt (toddlerhood)- sense of self (autonomy) develops out of positive interactions with one's parents or other caregivers 3. Initiative vs. guilt (early childhood)- favourable relationships with family members result in ability to set goals and devise and carry out plans without infringing on the rights of others. 4. Industry vs. inferiority (school age): most important influences are people in school & neighbourhood. To avoid feeling inferior, must master certain social and academic skills. 5. Identity vs. role confusion (adolescence): peers are dominant social influence and positive outcome is reflected in sense of personal identity and a direction for the future 6. Intimacy vs. isolation (young adulthood)- main task is establishment of intimate bonds of love and friendship. If not achieved, self-absorption and isolation result. 7. Generativity vs. stagnation (middle adulthood)- the people one lives and works with most important. A generative person exhibits commitment to the well-being of future generations. 8. Ego Integrity vs. despair (maturation/old age)- social influence broadens to include all of "humankind." Development of wisdom (an informed detached concern with life in face of death) and a sense of integrity require coming to terms with one's limitations and mortality.

Elkington’s Maori theory of

social development (Elkington, 2010)

0 – 15yrs Tiaki (Cared for) Early development begins with other people telling stories about the newly arrived member of society. At this stage, the new individual needs to be cared for. 15 -25yrs Taraia (Experimentation) The individual experiments with various ‘plots’. S/he depends less and less on ‘editing’ by others for provision. The individual starts creating his/her own life story by experimenting with life choices. 25 – 50yrs Tino Rangatiratanga (Self-determination) The individual takes on his/her own life course; choices are made about with whom one becomes a ‘co-author’ (choosing spouse, creating own family).

50 – 65yrs Arotakenga (Evaluation) The person, or story writer, adds new ‘editions’ or changes to his/her history depending to whom the story is being told. It also is a time of reflection and evaluation. 65 – death Whanau Whanui (Extended family) At this last stage of development, moments in one’s life story are reviewed in a ‘biography’, like a ‘movie’ being played in one’s mind. Enjoying and depending on family becomes significant. At this stage, the individual needs to be cared for, closing the life’s story circle.

Levinson's social "Seasons of a Man's Life"

(Berk, 2010)

4 periods: infancy-adolescence; early adulthood; middle adulthood; late adulthood -transitions from one period to the next are stressful and during these times major changes occur Early Adult Transition (17-22): leave childhood and form initial foundation for life in adult would. Tasks include becoming independent from one's parents and getting involved in college, military, job etc. Transition leads to formation of The Dream, which is an image of an ideal life that guides one's decisions and choices. Age 30 Transition (28-33): realization that life structure built during 20s is not adequate. Sense of urgency develops as result of pressure to fully enter adult world and the life structure is resolved. Followed by period of "settling down." Mid-Life Transition (40-45): stress and reorganization. Deflation of The Dream as one realizes that one's goals are not satisfying or won't be met. Marked by shift from "time since birth" to "time left to live" due to increasing awareness of morality. Late adulthood transition occurs about age 60 to 65 when people begin to view themselves as older adults and struggle with being "old", often must face illness and death of loved ones, they must struggle with the loss of power, respect, and authority. However, they can serve as resources for younger people and be in a position to give advice. Also, old age brings freedom to do things for fun and entertainment.

Neugarten’s coping and ageing theory (Berk, 2010)

Rather than focusing on commonalities of aging, Neugarten focused on the different ways that people cope with aging. Elderly individuals may exhibit: Disintegrated & disorganized personality (unable to accept aging, experience despair as they age, often end up in nursing homes, or are hospitalized), Passive-dependent personalities (lead lives filled with fear of Illness or future, Inability to cope, may seek out hope, even when not needed, Defended personalities(Seek to ward off aging, May try to act young, Exercise vigorously, Youthful activities, Unrealistic expectations may lead to disappointment), Integrated personalities (Most successful, Cope comfortably with aging, accept becoming older & maintain self dignity, most people falls into this category)

Baumrind Parenting Style: Authoritarian ??(Berk, 2010)

Overall approach combines 2 dimensions of parenting: responsivity (acceptance and warmth) and demandingness (control). -Authoritarian: high degree of demandingness and low responsivity. Offspring are irritable, aggressive, mistrusting, and dependent and have a limited sense of responsibility and lower levels of self-esteem and academic achievement.

Baumrind Parenting Style: Authoritative

Combine rational control with responsivity. Offspring are assertive, socially responsible, and achievement-oriented, have high self-esteem, self-confident, and obtain high grades in school

Baumrind Parenting Style: Permissive (Indulgent)

Warm and caring but make few demands and are nonpunitive. Allow kids to make own decisions. Offspring tend to be immature, impulsive, self-centred, easily frustrated, and low in achievement and independence.

Baumrind Parenting Style: Rejecting-Neglecting

Low levels of responsivity and demandingness and may be overtly hostile toward children. Offspring have low self-esteem and poor self-control and are often impulsive, moody, and aggressive. This type of parenting may lead to juvenile delinquency.

Kohlberg Moral Development Theory

(Berk, 2010)

1.Preconventional Level or Self-focused Morality (birth to 9) For children in this stage, morality is defined as obeying rules and avoiding negative consequences. Morality is externally controlled: _ Stage 1– Morality is obedience to avoid punishment because they fear of authority. _ Stage 2 – Morality is obedience for a purpose: self interest or in exchange for favours. 2. Conventional Level or Others-focused Morality (ages 9 to 18) Pre-teens and teenagers think morality is doing what is expected of them by their parents and teachers. 3. Post-conventional Level or Higher-focused Morality (over 18) For adults morality is culture (keeping its values, traditions), law (abiding by it) and circumstances (morality depends on the circumstances surrounding an act)

Kohlberg Cognitive Development Theory &

Gender Roles (Berk, 2010)

Involves sequence of stages that parallels cog development - by age 2-3 kids recognize that they are either male or female (gender identity) - soon thereafter, kids realize that their gender identity is stable over time (gender stability) - by age 6-7, kids understand that gender is constant over situations and know that people cannot change gender by superficially altering external appearance or behaviour (gender constancy)

Marcia’s expanded version of Erikson’s social "Identity

Crisis" ?? (Berk, 2010)

Erikson considered achievement of coherent identity to be a primary developmental task - Marcia distinguished between 4 identity statuses 1. Identity Diffusion: adolescents exhibiting diffusion have not yet experienced an identity crisis or explored alternatives and are not committed to an identity. 2. Identity Foreclosure: manifesting foreclosure when they have not experienced a crisis but have adopted an identity (occupation, ideology) that has been imposed by the same-sex parent or other persons. 3. Identity Moratorium: occurs when adolescent experiences an identity crisis and actively explores alternative identities. During this period exhibit a high degree of confusion, discontent, and rebelliousness. 4. Identity Achievement: resolved identity crisis by evaluating alternatives and committing to an identity.

Harlow Attachment Theory

??(Berk, 2010)

Attachment occurs because of contact comfort: based on studies of rhesus monkeys raised by surrogate mothers (wire mesh vs. terrycloth). Monkeys liked cloth mother. Term refers to pleasant tactile sensation that is provided by a soft, cuddly parent.

Bowlby Attachment Theory (Berk, 2010)

Critical period: exposure of infant to mom during this period results in bond. -humans born with bio predisposition that increases the likelihood that attachments will form: programmed to cry, smile, etc. to gain caregiver's attention. 4 stages: 1 Pre-attachment (0 - 2 months): infants do not discriminate one person from another – no fear of strangers. 2 Attachment-in-the-making (2 - 6 months): Infant prefers a particular person. Recognises their parents but do not protest when separated. 3 Clear-cut attachment (6 months – 3 years): Separation anxiety: Cry when separated from caregiver. Can be attached to several persons. 4 Goal-corrected partnership (4 yrs onwards): Understand caregiver’s schedule. Separation protests decline. -internal working model: mental representation of self and others that influences future relationships.

Lorenz’s Ethological Attachment Theory

(Berk, 2010)

Attachment happens for survival purposes; originated from studies of imprinting- in geese critical period during first 2-3 days after birth.

Ainsworth Patterns of Attachment (Berk, 2010)

1. Secure Attachment: baby explores the room and plays with toys in room while mom is present. Baby becomes mildly upset when she leaves and actively seeks contact when she returns. Mothers of securely attached babies are emotionally sensitive and responsive to babies. 2. Insecure (Anxious)/ Ambivalent Attachment: alternates between clinging and resisting mom; disturbed when left alone with stranger; ambivalent when mom returns and may become angry and resist her attempts at physical contact. Mothers are often moody and inconsistent in their caregiver (also referred to as insecure/resistant attachment). 3. Insecure (Anxious)/ Avoidant Attachment: interacts little with mom, shows little distress when she leaves, and avoids or ignores her when she returns. Suspect abuse. Caregivers are impatient and unresponsive, or at the other extreme, provider their children too much simulation 4. Disorganized/Disoriented Attachment: exhibit fear of caregivers, a dazed or confused facial expression, and a variety of other incoherent attachment behaviours (e.g., greeting mom when she returns but then turning away from her). About 80% of infants who exhibit this pattern have been mistreated by caregivers.

Adult Attachment Interview (AAI)

??(Berk, 2010)

AAI has confirmed relationship between parents' own attachment experiences and attachment patters of their children 1. Autonomous- adults who give coherent descriptions of childhood relationships with parents tend to have children who exhibit secure attachment in strange situation. 2. Dismissing-adults who provide a positive description of childhood relations with parents, but descriptions are either not supported or are contradicted by specific memories, tend to have children who often exhibit avoidant attachment pattern. 3. Preoccupied- adults who become very angry or confused when describing their childhood relationships with parents or seem passively preoccupied with a parent, tend to have children who most often exhibit resistant/ambivalent pattern.

Patterson: Coercive Family Interaction Model

(a) children’s aggressive behaviour is learned from parents who rarely reinforce prosocial behaviours, use harsh discipline, and reward their children's aggressiveness with approval & attention (b) over time,

?? (Berk, 2010) aggressive parent-child interactions escalate. -Developed interventions designed to stop coercive cycle by teaching parents effective child management skills and providing them with therapy to help them cope more effectively with stress.

Perry’s Social-Cognitive Factors: Aggression

??(Berk, 2010)

Aggressive children differ from less aggressive peers in terms of: (a) self-efficacy beliefs (more likely to say that it is easy to perform aggressive acts & difficult to inhibit aggressive impulses (b) beliefs about outcome of behaviours (they expect that aggression will be followed by positive consequences including reduced aversive treatment by others (c) regret or remorse (little remorse after committing aggressive act. Some studies have linked aggression to tendency to misinterpret the positive or ambiguous actions of others as intentionally hostile.

Gilligan's Feminist Theory of Moral Development

(Gillian, 1982)

Gillian points out that Kohlberg's research only included males and she argues that his theory is NA to females whose moral judgments are influenced less by concerns about justice and individual rights and more with concerns related to caring, compassion, and responsibility to others. Her research with females led to a stage model that emphasizes: - Level 1- orientation of individual survival (focus on what is best for oneself) - Transition 1- from selfishness to responsibility (recognition that one is connected to others) - Level 2- goodness as self-sacrifice (sacrifice of one's own desires for those of others - Transition 2- goodness to truth (focus on coordinating one's responsibilities to self & others) - Level 3- morality of nonviolence (avoiding harm to oneself and to others is the foremost consideration). This theory is controversial.

Peck’s developmental tasks

Robert Peck suggests that personality development in elderly people is occupied by 3 major developmental tasks or challenges. The first is redefinition of self vs preoccupation with work-role, which means that those in old age must redefine themselves in ways that do not relate to their work-roles or occupations. The second major task is body transcendence vs body preoccupation, a period in which people must learn to cope with and move beyond changes in physical capabilities as a result of aging. The third developmental task is ego transcendence vs ego preoccupation in which elderly people must come to grips with their coming death.

Schaie’s life span model of cognitive development

The first stage is the “acquisitive stage” when children & adolescents focus on gaining knowledge that will help them in life; the final “legacy-creating stage” refers to thinking about what to leave behind (funeral arrangements, ensuring family photos, treasures, and stories to be passed on).

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development. New York, NY: Praeger. Elkington, J. (2010). Dissertation 1: Working with Maori communities. Auckland, New Zealand: Auckland University of Technology Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice: Psychological theory and women's development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Hofstede, G. (1984). Culture’s consequences: International differences in work-related values. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Labouvie-Vief, G. (1980). Beyond formal operations: Uses and Limits of Pure Logic in Life-span Development. Human Development, 23,

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