alnap 2012 meeting the urban challenge.pdf

7/29/2019 ALNAP 2012 Meeting the Urban Challenge.pdf

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M E ET I N G T H E U R B A N C H A L L E N G E 1

Meeting the Urban ChallengeADAPTINGHUMANITARIANEFFORTSTOANURBANWORLD


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CONTENTS

I Inroducion ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1II Te growh o ciies ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 2III Te naure o urban disasers and urban vulnerabiliy ........................................................................................................................................................... 3 3.1 Wha is a ciy? ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4 3.2 New ypes o disasers? ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5

3.3 Urban vulnerabiliy ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 6 3.4 Are urban disasers dieren? ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 9IV Emerging responses o urban disasers .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 10 4.1 Rehinking disaser risk reducion (DRR) ............................................................................................................................................................................. 10 4.2 Rehinking preparedness ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 12 4.3 Rehinking response ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 16 4.4 Rehinking developmen............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 21

V Nex seps: a new urban agenda or humaniarian policy and pracice ............................................................................................... 22

VI Bibliography.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 26

ALNAP is a unique secor-wide ne work in he inernaional humaniarian sysem, made up o keyhumaniarian organisaions and leading expers in he eld. Te broad range o experience and exper iserom across he membership is a he hear o ALNAPs eors o improve humaniarian perormancehrough learning and accounabiliy.

Tis meeing repor was w riten by Ben R amalingam and Paul Knox Clarke. Te original Background Paperbeneted grealy rom commens and eedback rom Josh Harris, Manu Gupa, John Michell , DavidSanderson, Kevin Savage and Kim Scriven.

For urher inormaion on ALNAPs work, please conac he ALNAP Secrearia on [email protected], or+44 (0)20 7922 0388.

Requess or commercial reproducion o ALNAP maerial should be direced o ALNAP.

Cover phoograph UN Phoo/Logan Abassi

ALNAP/Overseas Developmen InsiueLondon, July 2012


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I I N R O D U C I O NTis documen provides an overview o curren hinking and emerging good pracice relaed o humani-arian acion in an urban environmen. I is based on he discussions held a he 27h Meeing o he AciveLearning Nework or Accounabiliy and Perormance in Humaniarian Acion (ALNAP)Meeing he UrbanChallenge and on a review o recen lieraure on humaniarian responses o urban crises. I considers how henaure o urban space and o urban populaions inuences disasers in ciies; i oulines how he humaniariancommuniy is adaping o address he challenges posed by urban areas; and i proposes some nex seps orhe humaniarian communiy.

ALNAPs members have conduced preparedness, relie and early recovery work in urban environmens ormany years, in conexs as diverse as Huambo, Kabul and Kolkoa. In many cases, his work has been seen as arelaively small par o larger programmes, or as aypical or a one o . As a resul here has been comparaivelylitle analysis o urban humaniarian acion as a caegory.

For many in he humaniarian communiy, he earhquake ha devasaed Por-au-Prince on 12 January 2010served as a wake up cal l, as Francois Grunewald o Groupe URD pu i a he meeing. Te scale o he disaser,he challenges ha humaniarian acors aced in responding o i and he large number o evaluaions andlearning aciviies ha occurred as a resul o he response, ocused atenion on he opic o urban disasers.

As discussions a he meeing conrmed, urbanisaion presens a signican and urgen challenge. In recendecades, here has been a massive increase in he number o people living in ciies and who are vulnerable odisasers or conic (Pelling, 2003; IFRC, 2010). Te Disasers Emergency Commitee (DEC) Repor Urban

Disasers Lessons om Haii (DEC, 2011) suggess ha in he nex 10 years, here wil l probably be anoherhree o ve big urban disasers. Any one o hese could resul in ens o housands o deahs and hundreds ohousands o people in need o emergency assisance. Te meeing heard ha, in he even o an earhquake inhe Kahmandu valley, up o 100,000 people would be killed and over a million would need relie assisance(Piper, 2012). Disasers o his magniude pose a challenge o scale. Tey also, according o many paricipans,

pose a challenge hrough heir naure: urban disasers dier in imporan ways rom rural disasers, and orcehe humaniarian communiy o rehink undamenal ools, approaches and assumpions when deciding how

bes o respond.

Agains his background, he 27h Meeing o he ALNAP Nework , held rom 17 o 19 January 2012 inChennai, India, brough ogeher paricipans rom around he world o address he issue o how he humani-arian sysem could beter adap o urban disasers. Tere was general agreemen ha he inernaional humani-arian secor is currenly inadequaely prepared o address boh he scale and naure o he urban challenge(ALNAP, 2009; DEC, 2011; Saterhwaie, 2007). Urban disasers boh expose he sysems exising weak-

nesses, and bring new challenges o ligh.


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2 M E E T I N G T H E U R B A N C H A L L E N G E

Successully addressing hese challenges will require concered acion by many groups and organisaionsouside he ormal humaniarian sysem: pre-eminenly naional and municipal governmens, and also civilsociey groups and developmen acors. However, he experience o ALNAPs membership and ha o oherhumaniarian acors oulined in his repor helps o ideniy areas where progress is required, and in somecases provides suggesions as o how ha progress can be achieved.

Box 1 Focus on Chennai, India

As Mihir Bhat o All India Disaser Miigaion Insiue (AIDMI) reeced in his opening remarks o heALNAP Meeing, he chosen locaion Chennai, souhern India was in many ways ideally suied o heurban heme. Chennai is an hisorically imporan por, a booming meropolis one o he larges in arapidly urbanising counry and a coasal ciy. I conains boh opporuniy and v ulnerabiliy. Alongsideincreased prosperiy and acceleraed global conneciviy, here are large and growing slums, wih highpovery and marginalisaion levels. Tese inormal setlemens were badly hi by he 2004 sunami, and

he poliically complex recovery process ha ollowed has sill no nished. Similar examples o urbanvulnerabiliy o disasers are o be ound in ciies all around he world.

I I H E G R O W H O F C I I E S

Te growh o ciies in he 20h cenury was unprecedened. Te oal global urban populaion, which sooda jus 10% o he global populaion a he sar o ha cenury, had by he rs years o his cenury reached an

unprecedened 50% (UNDESA, 2010). Tis amouned o some 3.5 billion people, a gure which is projecedalmos o double in he nex 40 years (see Figure 1).

10m

9m

8m

7m

6m

5m

4m

3m

2m

1m

0 1950 1975 2000 2025 2050

TOTAL POPULATION

RURAL POPULATION

Rural population

in 2010 = 3.4 billion

Urban population


Rural population


Totalpopulation(

thousands)

Urban population


Figure 1 Urban and rural populaions, 19502050UN Deparmen o Economic and Social Afairs UNDESA, 2010


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Tis midway poin o a compleely urban world has been described as an irreversible ipping poin(Crane and Kinzig, 2005) or he hreshold o a new urban millennium (UNFPA, 2007). Socially,urbanisaion is seen as he mos signican change since he rise o agriculure. Physically, i is one o hemos visible and powerul orces on earh (IHDP, 2005). I is no exaggeraion o say ha urbanisaion,a is curren scale and speed (see Box 2), is redening boh human civilizaion and is relaionship wihhe plane (IHDP, 2005).

Box 2 Key acs abou urbanisaion

In 1900 here were 16 ciies around he world wih populaions o 1 million or morepeople, almos enirely in developed counries. By 2000, here were 400 ciies wih popu-laions o more han 1 million around he world, hree quarers o which were in devel-oping counries (UNDESA, 2010).

By 2030, he global populaion will sand a 9 billion, and he global urban populaion

will accoun or up o 60% o his gure (ibid.). Almos all populaion growh in he nex30 years will ake place in urban setings. o pu his shi ino perspecive, here will bealmos wice as many people living in ciies in 2030 as here were people living on heplane in 1970.

Mos o his urban growh will be in small and medium-sized ciies raher han mega-ciies, wih abou hal o he worlds urban populaion residing in ciies o 500,000 peopleor ewer (UN-Habia, 2009). Tese urban areas will accoun or up o 90% o all globaleconomic aciviy (UNDESA, 2010).

In erms o sheer numbers, Asia will coninue o house he larges number o people in is

owns and ciies. Arica, alhough he leas urbanised coninen oday, will become homeo 1.2 billion urban dwellers by 2050, wih a signican youh majoriy (ibid.).

I I I H E N A U R E O F U R B A N D I S A S E R S A N DU R B A N V U L N E R A B I L I Y

I is well esablished ha ciies can be much more efcien and eecive in providing or he needs oheir populaions han rural setings (Ravallion e al., 2007; ALNAP, 2009). I is oen easier o provideor basic needs, as well as deliver social and culural services, o people living in close proximiy o oneanoher and wihin reach o beter qualiy inrasrucure (World Bank, 2010). However, urbanisaionalso has is coss, oen considerable. As ciies grow, sresses on he environmen, inrasrucure, economyand social neworks increase. As a resul, human vulnerabiliy o disasers increases and, arguably, neworms o disaser and o v ulnerabiliy o disaser arise.

For humaniarians o develop an improved common undersanding o urban disasers, and o planeecive responses o hese disasers, we need rs o undersand and agree on some undamenals:

wha urban acually means (Cohen, 2003); wheher here are specically urban ypes o disaser; andwha he specic vulnerabiliies o urban populaions are o disasers and crises.


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3 . 1 W H A T I S A C I T Y ?

Despie numerous repors (including hose cied in he Inroducion) ha he world is becoming more urbanin naure, he deniion o urban isel is ambiguous and dependen on conex (Frey and Zimmer, 2001) 1.

Dening he basic erms urban and rural in a universal way is he subjec o on-going debae (Cohen, 2003).Wha is increasingly clear is ha a simplisic eiher/or caegorisaion is unhelpul and does no mach herealiy o how human setlemens are evolving. As he sudyBeyond Rural-Urban: Keeping up wih ChangingRealiies (IFPRI, 2005) noes:

Te labels urban and rural fall far shor of capuring he dynamism and diversiyof realiy. Conjuring up visions of crowded ciies and isolaed counryside, heysugges separae worlds and ways of living. Tey mask he many ways urban and ruraloverlap and inerwine, as well as he variey of livelihood sraegies wihin urban orrural areas. (IFPRI, 2005: 2)

One way o concepualising he dierence beween urban and rural environmens ha goes beyond asimplisic binary disincion is o consider he hree acors o diversiy, densiy and dynamics. In general, helarger he populaion cenre, he more diverse, dense and dynamic i will be. Tis is rue in erms o populaion(a mega-ciy will generally have a more heerogeneous, densely packed and mobile populaion han a smallown) and also in erms o oher acors, including inrasrucure, services and echnology. Criically, however,here is no simple cu o beween urban and rural: no level o densiy, or diversiy, which denes an area asurban. Raher, we should imagine a coninuum rom he very rural a one end (or example, small hamlesin he highlands o Ehiopia) o he very urban a he oher (mega-ciies such as Dhaka and heir sprawling

peripheries), wih villages, small owns, regional cenres and medium-sized ciies in beween. We should alsorecognise ha he place o any paricular setlemen on his coninuum will no be a uncion o is size alone:he degree o diversiy, densiy and dynamics will dier rom one large populaion cenre o anoher: and as several paricipans noed humaniarians will oen encouner conexs such as large inernally displacedperson (IDP) camps which have become ciy-like in some ways (such as densiy) bu no in ohers.

Te World Developmen Repor 2009 (World Bank, 2009), which ocused on economic geography, providesa useul graphic represenaion o he coninuum model, in conras o he older eiher/or model o he ciy.

Paricipans a he meeing also noed he imporance o recognising he amoun o economic movemen haoccurs along his coninuum, and considered he implicaion o urban-rural linkages or emergency prepared-ness and response. In Guinea and Zimbabwe, Acion Conre la Faim (ACF) ound ha urban-rural linkageshad a major eec on ood securiy and nuriion: rural producion oen plays an imporan par in supporingamily members who have moved o he ciy (Vaila, 2012; Egal, 2011). Conversely, many paricipans noedhe degree o which rural populaions are oen dependen on urban markes or ood and wages.

1 UN daa, which is he basis o many o he projecions, is relian on naional saisics. Dieren counries dene urbanpopulaions in dieren ways. In Angola and Ehiopia, or example, up unil relaively recenly, any localiy wih more

han 2,000 inhabians was auomaically classied as urban. In oher counries, such as Benin, he gure is higher. Insome counries such as Bangladesh or Pakisan, urban setlemens are hose wih a cerain kind o adminisraive orbureaucraic srucure (Cohen, 2003).


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In shor, ciies dier in imporan ways rom rural environmens, bu here is no one size s all deniion o aciy, and in mos cases he boundary beween urban and rural is porous and indisinc. Our undersanding ohe impac o a disaser in any given urban area needs o be grounded in an undersanding o ha specic urbanconex, and our vision should srech beyond he ormal ciy limis.

3 . 2 N E W T Y P E S O F D I S A S T E R S ?

Recen hisory suggess ha urban cenres, broadly dened, are hreaened by he same y pes o naural disaseras rural areas. In he las hree years alone, here are examples o ciies suering earhquakes (Por-au-Prince),sunamis (Sendai), ooding (Bangkok), declared miliary conic (Gaza), and even drough (Dadaab).

Ciies are also oen aeced by disasers ha occur elsewhere, as massive numbers o impoverished peopleseek sheler in an already overloaded urban environmen (Egal, 2011). However in addiion o hese nauraland man-made disasers, some paricipans a he meeing el ha he urban environmen is giving rise o new,specically urban, y pes o emergency.

Discussion ocused around wo poenially new caegories o disaser. Te rs is a new kind o armed conic a variaion o warare, oen in densely populaed slums and shany owns [involving] piched batlesbeween sae and non-sae armed groups (Muggah and Savage, 2012; Grunewald, 2011). As Kevin Savageexplained (see Case Sudy 1), humaniarians have ended o avoid working wih he consequences o heseundeclared wars, seeing hem as law and order raher han humaniarian issues. Te increasing prevalence ohis orm o violence, however, means ha humaniarians may be required o re-caegorise undeclared urbanconic, and work o address is humaniarian consequences. Some work is already occurring in his area. Teproecion clusers in Nairobi and Bogoa have developed innovaive approaches o provide proecion againslocalised violence rom armed acors, gangs, drug carels and crime syndicaes (IASC, 2010).

Te second disincly urban ype o disaser discussed a he meeing was he chronic urban emergency, wherespecic socio-economic groups coninually display levels o ill healh or malnuriion which, in anoher envi-

THE OLD EITHER/OR MODEL

Figure 2 Beyond Rural and Urban rom World Developmen

Rural Urban Rural

Urban

Villages

Large city

Secondary cities

Towns

THE CONTINUUM MODEL

(World Bank, 2009)

Metropolis


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ronmen, would be classed as an emergency, bu which is rendered invisible by a lack o daa or a lack o disaggre-gaed daa (Egal, 2011; UN-Habia, 2011). Tese siuaions, while similar o oher chronic siuaions o whichhumaniarians respond (eiher periodically, as in norhern Kenya, or coninuously, as in pars o he DemocraicRepublic o Congo (DRC)) are arguably disinc in ha he emergency is no necessarily relaed o any specicgeographical area. Tey are paricularly challenging o humaniarian acors because hey lack clear riggers orengagemen due o heir chronic naure (DEC, 2010; UN-Habia, 2011).

More work is needed o explore hese and oher poenially new urban-specic y pes o disaser, and he impli-caions or humaniarian acion.

3 . 3 U R B A N V U L N E R A B I L I T Y

Humaniarian emergencies are commonly seen as he oucome o a rigger even (such as an earhquake, oran oubreak o ghing) combining wih he underlying vulnerabiliy o he populaion o ha even. Whilehe rigger evens in ciies are oen he same as hose in non-urban areas, urban setings are associaed wihparicular, heighened orms o vulnerabiliy o disasers.

A is simples, he exreme vulnerabiliy o many urban populaions o disasers can be atribued o a dangerouscombinaion o large numbers o poor people in areas wih inadequae inrasrucure.

As o 2008, esimaes were ha one hird o all urban residens were poor, represening a quarer o all he worldspoor (Ravallion e al., 2007). Tis amouns o approximaely 290 million people in urban areas in developingcounries who are living below he povery line o $1 per day in 2002. I he $2 per day gure is used, he gurerises dramaically o 750 million people. Wih coninued urbanisaion, he numbers o urban poor are predicedo rise, making povery increasingly an urban phenomenon (ibid.). Alhough, as previously discussed, i isimporan o recognise he specic siuaion o each ciy, i is air o say ha he urban poor end o ace a numbero common daily deprivaions which make hem paricularly v ulnerable o crises. For example:

Poor ciy dwellers oen have limied access o income and employmen, limied access o wild oodsand inadequae saniaion, all o which can resul in some urban groups having very poor nuriional saus andhigh levels o disease morbidiy in normal imes. Paricipans noed ha, or example, in he inormal setle-

mens o Nairobi, Kenya, global acue malnuriion (GAM), under-ves moraliy and overall moraliy raes arehe highes in he counry (UN-Habia, 2011).

In low and middle-income counries, beween one hird and one hal o he urban populaion lives inslums. Tese inormal setlemens house around 1 billion people globally. A curren growh raes o 25 millionpeople per year (UN-Habia, 2009) hey are se o double in size. Slum dwellers are more likely o encounerdisasers han residens in oher urban areas: hese setlemens are oen in areas prone o landslides, ooding,seismic aciviy or indusrial accidens (Grunewald, 2011). In he even o a disaser, hey are also more vulner-able as a resul o overcrowded living condiions, limied services, and a lack o adequae inrasrucure. Carlos

Padolina, in deailing he Ciizens Disaser Response Cenres (CDRC) experiences in responding o ooding


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in he Philippines suggesed ha hese acors led o he poor being mos aeced (Padolina, 2012; see alsoWorld Bank, 2008).

High dependence on ood produced ouside ciies make urban residens vulnerable o droughs,

ooding and oher exreme weaher evens ha occur some disance away. Te urban poor are he mos vulner-able. Sudies conduced by he UNs Food and Agriculure Organizaion (FAO) in urban areas show ha a 10%rise in he price o a saple can hur he botom 20% o he income disribuion he mos (FAO, 2008).

Te dynamic naure o urban environmens means ha a any given ime (and paricularly in periodso livelihood sress in surrounding rural areas) urban cenres may hos large numbers o recen rural-urbanmigrans who have no ye developed he skills and neworks o survive in he urban environmen (Egal, 2011).

As Morwenna Sullivan o ACF reminded he meeing , hese people oen dispersed hroughou he ciy may be paricularly vulnerable in ime o disaser.2

Te exisence o higher levels o governmen inrasrucure in ciies can decrease he vulnerabiliy osome populaion groups, as naional and municipal governmens can more easily mobilise emergency responsein urban areas during disasers han hey can in rural areas. However, as he meeing heard, (in he case oNepal) his can also make he oen large numbers o poor and marginalised people who are no ofcially regis-ered even more vulnerable, as hey are excluded rom suppor (see also IRIN, 2011).

As a resul o all hese acors, levels o pover y and vulnerabiliy in urban environmens end o be a leascomparable o, and in many cases greaer han hose in rural areas. However, his vulnerabiliy is oen dispersedacross he enire ciy, and can be hard o ideniy wih exising approaches o ideniying vulnerable popula-ions (Boyer, 2011). As Emily Rogers o Caholic Relie Services (CRS) poined ou in her presenaion ahe meeing on accounabiliy mechanisms in Por-au-Prince, humaniarian organisaions need o reconsiderheir approaches o local communiies when hey engage wih he urban conex (Rogers, 2012). In manycases he communiy is no a geographical eniy, bu a dispersed nework or religious or livelihood group. Inhis conex, we should no expec o nd vulnerabili y a he level o he (geographically locaed) communiy,and will need o rene how we ideniy hose mos in need. Tis issue is discussed more in Secion 4.3, onrehinking response.

Te vulnerabiliy o urban populaions and paricularly he poorer secions o hese populaions o exernal

shocks is grealy increased by poor urban inrasrucure. Urban growh in developing counries is requenlyhaphazard and overwhelming, ar exceeding hese ciies capaciy o plan adequaely and conrol developmen.

As a Chinese ofcial a he Asia Pacic Urban Forum in June 2011 noed, during rapid urbanisaion, manycriical inrasrucure and insiuional arrangemens are ignored in avour o oher prioriies (Alerne, 2011).Te resuling lack o inrasrucure, or in many cases lack o sae and appropriae inrasrucure, increases he

vulnerabiliy o disasers o populaions who are already vulnerable.

2 UNHCR in 2009 published a policy on reugee proecion in urban areas (UNHCR, 2009). While he ocus o hispolicy is on reugees, many o he issues idenied are also o relevance in conexs o displacemen and rural-urbanmigraion.


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Rober Piper o UNDP useully illusraed hese issues in his keynoe address a he meeing, ocusing onKahmandu and is vulnerabiliy o earhquakes. Curren scienic consensus suggess ha Nepal is likely ohave a large earhquake soon. Te las ime here was a major earhquake in Nepal, in 1934, 8,000 people died inKahmandu. However, he populaion a ha ime was relaively small 150,000 residens. oday, by compar-ison, here are 2.5 million people living in a sprawling meropolis, wih populaion densiy esimaed a 13,000people per square kilomere. Under hese condiions, he Nepal Sociey or Earhquake echnology (NSE)esimaes ha an earhquake would cause 100,000 aaliies. Weak inrasrucure would boh conribue oimmediae aaliies and o he abili y o he populaion o respond aer he earhquake. Esimaes sugges haall he ciys hospials, 60% o housing and 50% o schools would be desroyed; ha here would be inadequae

waer in he weeks ollowing an earhquake; and he ciy could be cu o or up o wo weeks as a resul ocollapsed roads and bridges.

Case Sudy 1 Urban violence as a humaniarian issue based ona presenaion by Kevin Savage, World Vision Inernaional

Hal o he world currenly lives in ciies, wih many o hese people living in slum dwellings. W hile inra-and iner-sae conic is decreasing, acue violence by armed groups is aecing large numbers o people,

and hose in urban conexs are exposed o exreme and shocking levels o vulnerabiliy as a resul. Tisissue has no been generally recognised by he humaniarian communiy.

Some 1.5 billion people are considered o live in chronic ragiliy and insabiliy in urban cenres andciies. Tere is a clear correlaion beween urbanisaion and increased violence. Tere are muliple causes:

violence is muli-aceed and emerges rom local conexs. Tere is no a linear causal relaionship; mega-ciies do no necessarily imply more violence. However, hose ciies wih he highes homicide raes, suchas Sano Domingo and Panama, are also hose where rapid growh is expeced in he near uure. Tis isrepresenaive o a broader shi rom ragile saes o ragile ciies. As a resul ciies are now a ocal poin

or sraegic miliary planning. Te UK rios show ha violence can also be highly conagious.

Tere are advanages o working in ciies, which include inormal sysems o governance. Urban plannersare looking a ways o change inrasrucure and ser vices o make srees saer and improve social cohesion.Tere is a need o look a applying new experimenal approaches in chronically violen ciies and usinghuman resilience o ackle violence. Tis is a paricular issue in Lain America.

Here, as wih many oher urban issues, he divide beween developmen and humaniarian eors becomeshighly problemaic. Join work is needed o srenghen communiy srucure and improve social cohesion

a neighbourhood level. Tere is also a need o engage wih he naional ramework o violence prevenionand local insiuions. Tis means everyhing rom beter undersanding o legal and insiuional mech-anisms, analysing gender issues wihin violence, and developing beter early warning sysems, hrougho engagemen and negoiaion wih armed groups, especially where he sae is rereaing. Disaser riskreducion needs o incorporae violence and conic as a key hazard acor. Disaser responses may occurin places wih exreme violence; while violence may no always be he cause, i can work o increase andshape paterns o v ulnerabiliy. (Savage, 2012).


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3 . 4 A R E U R B A N D I S A S T E R S D I F F E R E N T ?

A key recurring quesion a he meeing was: are urban disasers dieren? Do hey dier rom rural disasers inheir undamenal naure, or only in erms o scale?

While he meeing did no achieve consensus on his issue, paricipans did ideniy a number o elemens hawould appear o be specic o urban disasers, mos o which are relaed o he naure o ciies, and he naureo urban vulnerabiliy as previously discussed. Tese ell ino hree broad caegories o densiy, diversiy anddynamics.

Urban disasers are dieren because o he densiy o a ciy High populaion densiy means ha when disasers occur more people are likely o be killed and

injured wihin a small space, and he level o needs may overwhelm he abiliy o he humaniariansysem o provide suppor.

Te concenraion o governance insiuions in ciies (as opposed o rural areas), and he poliicalimporance o urban areas means ha governmens will more oen expec and be able o ake alead role in emergency response. Tis requires a undamenal rehinking o he role o inernaionalacors, who need o re-orien hemselves o work more eecively in a suppor role. However, hisconcenraion o governmen decision-makers in ciies is also a source o vulnerabiliy: in some siu-aions (as in Por-au-Prince) governmen sa and srucures may be vicims o he disaser.

Te dense physical naure o ciies means ha here will be more damaged inrasrucure o manage,such as buildings, roads, business areas, sewers. Te challenge or emergency response in his conexis no jus a lack o inrasrucure, bu removing and repairing large amouns o damaged inrasruc-

ure in order o launch relie operaions. Te dense physical naure o ciies also means ha, in general, access o ree goods and services

(paricularly land and waer) may be exremely limied. Tis consrain should be a oundaionelemen o planning or emergencies.

Te role o ciies as cenral logisics hubs may mean ha, aer an urban disaser, many o he elemensrequired or successul large-scale emergency response (pors, airelds, sorage aciliies) may beunavailable.

Recen urban disasers (paricularly he earhquake ha hi Por-au-Prince) have seen very largenumbers o humaniarian organisaions becoming involved. Coordinaion always a challenge in

humaniarian response is paricularly difcul under hese circumsances.

Urban disasers are dieren because o he diversiy o a ciy Te diversiy o urban populaions means ha wihin any given area, he needs o aeced popula-

ions will be highly diereniaed. A he same ime, populaions wih similar needs will be spreadhroughou he ciy. argeing approaches ha ocus on neworks, raher han geographical commu-niies, will end o be more eecive.

Urban populaions are oen highly skilled, and have a greaer diversiy o skills, han rural popula-ions. Many o he skills required or response will be available locally.

Te diversiy o governmen insiuions will mean ha humaniarians have more poenial iner-locuors.


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1 0 M E E T I N G T H E U R B A N C H A L L E N G E

Urban disasers are dieren because o he dynamics o a ciy Urban populaions end o have muliple, as-moving sources o inormaion: high populaion

densiy means ha word o mouh inormaion and rumours spread rapidly, while FM radio, rela-ively high levels o mobile phone use and, in some cases, Inerne conneciviy, provide he poenialor inormaion (and rumour) o be spread rapidly o large numbers o people.

A he same ime, access o goods and services hrough he marke will generally be higher in ciieshan in rural areas, and markes will be more highly developed. Again, he exisence and role o hemarke is a undamenal elemen o planning or emergency response in urban areas.

Complex economic connecions beween urban and rural areas may mean ha he impacs odisaser are el ar beyond he ciy limis. Humaniarian acors need o be sensiive o poenialknock-on eecs and, a he same ime, o consider he possibiliy o suppor rom rural areas.

Chronic urban violence may require humaniarians o work wih many dieren groups o armed,non-sae acors operaing in he same area.

aken ogeher, hese acors sugges ha hose involved in disaser managemen work will have o becomeused o working in a dramaically dieren conex as hey engage more wih urban disasers (World Bank,2010). As he DEC evaluaion o he Haii response suggess:

[Agencies need o] learn new rules of he game in urban pos-disaser response.Issues of complexiy, range of acors, space, he imporance of commerce and rade,services, infrasrucure and sheer concenraions of people require a consideraionof how o operae compared o rural conexs (DEC, 2011: 2).

I V E M E R G I N G R E S P O N S E S O U R B A ND I S A S E R S

Wha migh hese new rules o he game look like in pracice? Despie he long experience o many ALNAPmembers in urban conexs, and he exisence o a variey o bodies and parnerships esablished o addressissues relaed o urban disasers (see Box 3), here was general agreemen a he meeing ha our collecive

undersanding is pachy, inormal and sill largely undocumened. I is sill oo early o say how bes o respondo he challenge o urban disasers: he rules have ye o be writen. However, in he aermah o he inerna-ional response o Haii, here has been an increased ocus on improved policy, procedures and pracice. Temeeing provided a useul orum o discuss hese developmens. Tis secion o he repor oulines some o hekey hemes and examples ha came ou o hese discussions, under he (someimes overlapping) headings odisaser risk reducion; disaser preparedness; and disaser response.

4 . 1 R E T H I N K I N G D I S A S T E R R I S K R E D U C T I O N ( D R R )

Several acors poin o he need o decrease he risk and poenial impac o disasers in urban areas. Tese


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M E ET I N G T H E U R B A N C H A L L E N G E 1 1

include he high risk o disaser evens occurring in poor urban environmens; he exreme damage ha heseevens can cause; and he ac ha damaged inrasrucure can worsen he impac and hamper he response.

Tere has been a recen and welcome increase in ineres in he area o urban disaser risk reducion. A heinernaional level, 2010 saw he launch o an imporan new UNISDR campaign on resilien ciies, o whichmore han 1,000 ciies have signed up a he ime o wriing (UNISDR, 2011),3 while he World Banks GlobalFund or Disaser Reducion and Recovery is supporing he developmen o a muli-hazard Urban DisaserRisk Index (UDRI) as a ool o provide a baseline agains which risks can be mapped and progress owardsresilience measured over ime. Iniiaives are also under way a regional levels, including he Regional Srengh-ening and Disaser Risk Reducion in Major Ciies in he Andean Communiies run by UNDP and he Rocke-eller Foundaions Asian Ciies Climae Change Resilience Nework . In addiion, many naional governmenshave recognised disaser risks in heir ciies and have iniiaed risk assessmen, preparedness and in some cases,

miigaion programmes. urkey, Jordan, Indonesia, he Philippines, India, Uzbekisan, Ecuador and Colombiaall have acive naional urban DRR programmes.

However, as he 5h Asia Pacic Urban Forum highlighed in June 2011, much more needs o be done. Teorum posed he quesion: Complex urban disasers are we ready? Te answer rom expers in Japan, Chinaand Bangladesh represening he specrum rom high o low-income counries was: no, no ye.

Paricipans a he 27h ALNAP Meeing recognised ha he role o humaniarians in urban DRR, while poen-ially imporan, is limied. Te experience o Nepal and he Philippines suggess ha in order o be eecive,

3 As par o his campaign, UNISDR have creaed a useul sel-assessmen ool or ciies o use in judging heir ownresilience, and a handbook or local governmens.

Box 3 Iniiaives o address urban disaser-relaed issues

Many members o ALNAP are engaged in a variey o iniiaives ha relae o urban disasers. Whilesome o hese iniiaives are airly new, ohers have been in place or over a decade. Tese iniiaivesinclude:

Te Iner-Agency Sanding Commitee (IASC) projec on urban humaniarianism UNESCOs iniiaive on urban biospheres

Te Mil lennium Ecosysem Assessmen World Banks Ciies Alliance and Ciies in ransiion Inernaional Human Dimensions Programme (IHDP) urbanisaion science projec Diversias science plan on urbanisaion Inernaional Union or he Scienic Sudy o Populaion (IUSSP) Urbanisaions and Healh

Working Group US Naional Academies Panel on Urban Populaion Dynamics and Roundable on Science and

echnology or Susainabiliys ask Force on Rapid Urbanisaion UN Inernaional Sraegy or Disaser Reducions (UNISDR) Asia disaser risk reducion

nework Eors wihin specic agencies Inernaional Federaion o Red Cross and Red Crescen

Socieies (IFRC), Oxam GB, World Vision.


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iniiaives should ideally be governmen-led, involving new legislaion, rehinking deparmenal arges andprioriies o include risk reducion, and enorcemen o exising legislaion, planning decisions and buildingcodes. Te discussions highlighed he imporance o governmens in bringing a broad range o acors ino heDRR process: or insance, in Nepal, he risk reducion consorium includes inernaional agency, civil socieyand privae secor acors. In he Philippines, communiy-based organisaions, such as CDRC, work wih localgovernmen o ensure ha inormaion is ransmited eecively rom he meeorological ofce o vulnerablecommuniies.

Discussions also idenied areas where he specic naure o urban vulnerabiliy may require DRR praci-ioners o consider issues which are no (ye) regularly addressed. Te experience o ACF in Sierra Leone andGuinea suggess ha governmens may wish o develop inrasrucure which connecs rural producers o urbanmarkes as a way o making ciies more resilien in he ace o ood insecuriy (Vaila, 2012b). Several parici-pans also called or DRR planning o see urban violence as a disaser, and o incorporae violence prevenioneors in urban planning. Margare Sansberry o IFRC oulined one example o good pracice: he mapping o

violen incidens in Haii and he use o hese maps in urban design. Paricipans also considered CRSs GazaRisk Reducion and Miigaion Programme, which, wih he suppor o he Humaniarian Innovaion Fund,aims o develop a new programmaic ramework or urban areas in complex emergencies wih he inenion oreducing violence.4

A common challenge o urban DRR idenied by he paricipans was he difculy ha governmens ndin mainsreaming risk reducion across a variey o deparmens and bodies. Successul approaches (such asha used in Nepal) require working beween minisries and making he case o each one, ocusing rs on heciy level and hen working upwards. However, even when successul, hose working o embed urban DRR

in governmen planning oen nd ha compeing imelines and prioriies wihin he governmen presenchallenges, and ha as he memory o a disaser recedes, unding is reallocaed o oher prioriies (Alerne,2011). Tis is paricularly rue where here is already a lack o resources. Here, humaniarian agencies can playan advocacy role: using each disaser response as an opporuniy o ampliy and reinorce he imporance oplanning o reduce risk.

4 . 2 R E T H I N K I N G P R E P A R E D N E S S

Te imporance o preparing or urban disasers was menioned repeaedly a he meeing, echoing manyrecen repors and evaluaions. A one level here was agreemen ha he sysem as a whole is no well preparedor urban disasers here are serious quesions as o wheher exising sandards, assumpions, and operaingprocedures are relevan in urban conexs. A anoher level, here was a general consensus ha individual ciies,and paricularly hose a high risk o disaser, should be beter prepared.

While preparedness is a cenral par o all humaniarian acion, i is paricularly imporan in he urban conex.Te poenial scale o need generaed in an urban disaser would overwhelm he human and maerial resources

4 See www.humaniarianinnovaion.org/projecs/large-grans/grram or more inormaion.


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o mos organisaions, unless hey have specic approaches in place o access addiional resources a shornoice. In addiion as we have seen in Haii and in he norh-eas Japan earhquake and sunami urbandisasers oen decapiae he governmenal and inernaional organisaions which would normally lead he

response, making access o aeced populaions difcul or impossible (he US PACOM esimaes ha, i anearhquake hi Kahmandu, he ciy would be cu o or wo weeks: Kahmandu Pos, 2011). I unprepared,he humaniarian response could easily be inadequae, uncoordinaed and suck a he docks. Unsurprisingly,hen, a growing body o evidence poins o he benecial impacs o preparedness in erms o lowered overallcoss o relie assisance, reduced loss o lie and livelihoods, greaer use o saer echniques, engagemen wihlocal capaciies and resilience, and enhanced capaciy o rebuild and recover aser (IASC, 2010).

Te rs, and perhaps mos crucial, elemen o preparedness highlighed a he meeing lies in building and clari-ying relaionships beween he organisaions which would be involved in a humaniarian response, poeniallyincluding developmen, diplomaic and miliary acors (HFP, 2008). Recen counry case sudies conduced

by he IASC ask Force (IASC, 2010) have shown ha humaniarian assisance is more eecive when clearand eecive sraegies or muli-sakeholder parnerships are developed beore a crisis his, or ailing ha, as

Box 4 UNISDR 10-poin checklis

As par o he Resilien Ciies campaign, UNISDR provides he ollowing 10-poin checklis or urbanDRR:1 Pu in place organisaion and coordinaion o undersand and reduce disaser risk, based on parici-

paion o ciizen groups and civil sociey. Build local alliances. Ensure ha all deparmens under-sand heir role in disaser risk reducion and preparedness.

2 Assign a budge or disaser risk reducion and provide incenives or homeowners, lowincomeamilies, communiies, businesses and he public secor o inves in reducing he risks hey ace.

3 Mainain upodae daa on hazards and vulnerabiliies, prepare risk assessmens and use hese ashe basis or urban developmen plans and decisions. Ensure ha his inormaion and he plans or

your ciys resilience are readily available o he public and ully discussed wih hem.4 Inves in and mainain criical inrasrucure ha reduces risk, such as ood drainage, adjused

where needed o cope wih climae change.

5 Assess he saey o all schools and healh aciliies and upgrade hese as necessary.6 Apply and enorce realisic, riskcomplian building regulaions and land use planning principles.

Ideniy sae land or lowincome ciizens and develop upgrading o inormal setlemens, wherevereasible.

7 Ensure educaion programmes and raining on disaser risk reducion are in place in schools andlocal communiies.

8 Proec ecosysems and naural buers o miigae oods, sorm surges and oher hazards o whichyour ciy may be vulnerable. Adap o climae change by building on good risk reducion pracices.

9 Insall early warning sysems and emergency managemen capaciies in your ciy and hold regular

public preparedness drills.10 Aer any disaser, ensure ha he needs o he surv ivors are placed a he cenre o reconsrucion

wih suppor or hem and heir communiy organisaions o design and help implemen responses,including rebuilding homes and livelihoods. (UNISDR, 2010)


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early as possible aerwards. Recen experience in he aermah o oods in Manila demonsraes ha joinimplemenaion plans wih hos governmens and service providers, including he privae secor, are moseecive i orged prior o an emergency (IASC, 2010: 4).

In developing hese parnerships, he IASC repor goes on o say ha inernaional acors need o recogniseha he hos governmen mus lead, or a he very leas coordinae, an emergency response. Tis poin, whileundamenal, is no new: in 2007 he sunami Evaluaion Coaliion (EC) repored ha agencies need omove away rom hinking how can we esablish parnerships wih local and naional acors o beter deliverour assisance, and insead inver he relaionship o consider how can we be beter parners and supporerso naional and ciy-level eors (EC, 2007). Te poin was echoed on several occasions a he meeing, byrepresenaives o naional disaser managemen auhoriies and by paricipans rom donor organisaions,INGOs, he UN and he Red Cross movemen. However, paricipans also recognised ha, in many cases, his

will require a signican change in organisaional atiudes and assumpions. As Zeter and Deikun (2010) wroe:

Perhaps he bigges challenge for humaniarian acors and also a major oppor-uniy is o develop ways of working wih he exising insiuional framework ofmunicipal and civil sociey organisaions which exiss in mos owns and ciies inhe developing world... (Zeter and Deikun, 20010: 6).

Working eecively wih municipal auhoriies may well be a challenge or naional governmens, as wellas inernaional acors. Paricipans a he meeing noed ha in many counries he sysem o governancegives municipal auhoriies only limied power, and ha cenral governmen eors migh eecively ignorehe poenial o municipal auhoriies o manage disaser response. For inernaional humaniarian organisa-

ions, working wih governmen naional or local migh also pose very real challenges o he humaniarianprinciple o neurali y in siuaions where he governmen is a combaan in an urban conic.

Paricipans made several concree and pracical suggesions in erms o srenghening and clariying relaion-ships beore hey were esed in an emergency. Te rs was o consider in advance, a a naional and municipallevel, how he cluser sysem can bes ariculae wih he varied minisries and ofces o naional and localgovernmens. Te cluser sysem, while recognised as a useul rs poin o conac by many naional disasermanagemen agencies (ALNAP, 2012) did no prove compaible wih local coordinaion srucures in Haii(Grunewald e al., 2010). More broadly, paricipans also suggesed ha agencies and governmen bodies

should, as a par o heir preparedness planning, clearly delineae heir roles wih respec o one anoher; usesmaller urban emergencies o es heir levels o preparedness; and esablish back up measures, alernaivesand redundancies o allow coninuiy o response even i key gures were kil led or incapaciaed.

Heareningly, Jeny Kirsch-Wood, in a presenaion explaining he aciviies o he Nepal Risk ReducionConsorium, ouline d how many o hese recommendaions are already being pu ino eec in K ahmandu,

whe re he Cen ral Naural Disaser Rescue Commiee (CNDRC), is he designaed govern men lin k ohe cluser sysem. he CNDRC also recenly appoin ed a muli-sakeholder eam ha has draed he irsEmergency Response Framework or Nepal, a criical sep in clariying roles and responsibiliies in heeven o an urban disaser. In Sierra Leone, he governmen, INGOs (including ACF) and naional NGOshave also learn he imporance o clearly deining roles when working on muli-secoral urban iniiaives(Sullivan, 2012).


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Anoher se o relaionships ha should be developed as par o a preparedness sraegy are hose wih civilsociey and communiy organisaions. In urban disasers (as in disasers more generally) he aeced popula-ion are invariably he rs responders (Grunewald e al., 2010), and hey remain as imporan providers osheler and suppor even when exernal acors arrive (IASC, 2010). Moreover, urban populaions oen haveskills and knowledge, including language skills, which inernaional acors lack. In he Philippines, as previouslynoed, communiy organisaions such as CDRC provide imporan early warning and response services ohe urban populaion (Padolina, 2012). Communiy organisaions can also suppor he populaion o prepareor disasers, hrough schools, youh groups, and oher neworks. In Nepal, he IFRC is building communiypreparedness hrough a programme o suppor o communiy organisaions (Kirsch-Wood, 2012). Whenconsidering working wih communiy bodies, he experience o CRS in Haii suggesed ha i is imporan odene wha we mean by communiy and communiy represenaives. Communiies are oen no based ongeography, raher hey are common purposes, neworks, livelihoods and where people gaher (Rogers, 2012).I is also imporan o recognise ha communiy acors, like all ohers, may have heir own agenda and, inconexs where here are high levels o violence and organised crime, hey may be involved in or subjec o he

inuence o illici groups such as gangs.

A second imporan elemen o preparedness is ensuring ha all acors expecing o engage in an urban responseare able o access he necessary number and prole o skilled personnel. Te Haii response showed hacerain skills such as eld managemen o injuries are in overall shor supply: his was an imporan deer-mining acor in he very high rae o ampuaions. In his and similar cases, he humaniarian and academicsysems may need o consider increasing he number o eaching courses o mee needs associaed wih urbandisasers. In oher cases, he skills exis, bu are no regularly used by humaniarian agencies. A he meeinghere was much discussion o urban experise. Urban planners were imporan in ensuring he success o early

waer, saniaion and hygiene (WASH) inervenions in Por-au-Prince (Grunewald, e al. 2010), and urbancommuniy developmen specialiss had been essenial o IFRCs needs assessmens in Haii (Sansberry,2012). Overall, paricipans agreed wih he IASCs sraegy or meeing humaniarian challenges in urbanareas, ha humaniarian agencies need o adap and upgrade he skills base o heir sa o address urban-basedchallenges (IASC, 2010). However, hey also noed ha i is no ye clear which skills need o be upgraded,and hey recognised ha, given he limiaions o unding and eam size, i will always be difcul o have all henecessary skills represened in any one eam.

A hird elemen o preparedness discussed a he meeing was perhaps unsurprisingly he creaion o

specic emergency plans. Discussion around planning ocused on our areas: scale, conen, he incorporaiono enry and exi sraegies, and he imporance o esing plans.

On he basis o experience in he norh-eas Japan earhquake and sunami, he JICA represenaive, sukasaKasube, cauioned ha planners should ideniy muliple and combined hazards as par o he planningexercise, and plan or he mos exreme cases. In Japan, he duy o care owed by he sae o he people, andhence he abiliy o he sae o respond o disasers, is an imporan elecoral issue. As a resul, here was a highlevel o preparedness or a sunami: warning sysems and seawalls were in place. However, he hree-mere

walls were over whelmed by he unexpeced size o he waves (Woodsome, 2011).

In erms o he conen o plans, paricipans recognised ha hey would dier signicanly rom one ciy oanoher. However, here were some issues idenied which will be common o mos urban conexs, all o which


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relae, in one way or anoher, o land and he ownership and use o land (wha Bearice Boyer calls he properylabyrinh (Boyer, 2011)) Tese issues include: idenicaion o areas or mass casualy managemen anddisposal o dead bodies; he allocaion o physical space rom which o launch response; and, in cerain circum-sances, ideniying suiable space o be used or emporary sheler. On he basis o experiences in Haii (andparicularly he Corail camp), several paricipans noed ha he idenicaion o physical space or emporarysheler should be conduced in collaboraion wih represenaives o he governmen urban planning auhoriy,o preven long-erm conics over land or he creaion o long-erm setlemens in hazardous locaions. DanLewis, o Habia, reminded he meeing ha plans should no auomaically deaul o emporary sheler, bushould rs consider opions or he rehabiliaion and consrucion o permanen housing.

Te oen high levels o chronic povery and conic in many urban environmens produces difculies in clas-siying wha is, and wha is no, a humaniarian emergency. Wih his in mind, paricipans agreed wih helesson oulined in he DEC evaluaion o he Haii response (DEC, 2011), ha agencies should, a he planningsage, ideniy clear objecives or heir inervenions, indicaors o progress, and predeermined exi sraegies.

Many paricipans also hough ha agencies should clari y heir posiion wih respec o he chronic emergen-cies aking place in he poorer pars o many ciies, and plan or humaniarian programmes even when here

was no clear rigger even.

Recognising he dangers inheren in a bad plan, paricipans idenied he imporance o esing and improvingplans hrough simulaion exercises. Several examples o successul simulaions were given a he meeing:he Indian Naional Disaser Managemen Division has conduced several ciy-wide simulaions involving arange o early responders (Dr Muzaar Ahmad, welcome address); ACF has conduced simulaions o choleraresponse aciviies in Guinea. In boh cases he simulaions idenied botlenecks and consrains, and helped

o improve he planning process. Te uiliy o simulaions, even quie small scale, able-op exercises, wasdemonsraed a he meeing, in an exercise aciliaed by David Sanderson o Oxord Brookes Universiy (seeCase Sudy 2).

Te ourh key elemen o preparedness discussed a he meeing was he pre-posiioning o emergency socks.Exising socks were an imporan elemen o he rapid response in he Haii earhquake (Bhatacharjee e al.,2011; Grunewald e al., 2010) and are one o several key preparedness measures advocaed by he IASC (IASC,2010). However, paricipans also noed he difculies o sockpiling or governmens wih limied unds oaddress pressing exising issues, and he imporance o esablishing clear crieria under which sockpiles would

be released paricularly given he requen lack o clari y around wha consiues a disaser in an urban seting.

4 . 3 R E T H I N K I N G R E S P O N S E

ALNAPs 2009 paper,Learning om urban disasers, poins o he clear need o adap exising inernaionalresponse mechanisms and processes in order o make hem more relevan o urban conexs (ALNAP, 2009).Te paper idenies areas such as mobilisaion, needs assessmen, argeing and monioring and evaluaion as

requiring reassessmen.


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Paricipans a he meeing ended o concur wih he ndings o he ALNAP paper. Based on he experienceso heir organisaions, hey provided a number o examples o how processes are currenly being reassessed.One guiding principle or his work seems o be ha urban responses should ollow an urban logic: in order o

be successul, urban response should look like he lie o he ciy isel . A simple bu elling illusraion o hisprinciple comes rom Haii, where agencies atemped o build larines (a sandard humaniarian response)despie he difculy o digging in concree and bedrock. Observaion o local pracice or disposal o human

wase would have led o an earlier and more widespread insiuion o more appropriae responses. For example,beore he 2010 earhquake in Por au Prince, many inhabians o inormal setlemens, who did no haveaccess o oiles, deecaed ino plasic bags which hey hen hrew away; he peepoo bags, which were uli-maely disribued widely, build on his idea (Bhatacharjee e al., 2011; Grunewald e al ., 2010).

Case Sudy 2 Simulaions or disaser preparedness

Te simulaionIn his meeing session, paricipans divided hemselves ino 13 groups, each represening dieren

organisaions involved in preparing or, and responding o, an earhquake in he (cional) Himalayanciy o Mishal. In par 1 o he simulaion, each organisaion was asked o develop a ve-par plan ordisaser preparedness in Mishal. A represenaive rom each organisaion hen atended a meeing, in

which he various groups atemped o creae a single, cross-organisaional ve-poin plan. In par 2 ohe simulaion, paricipans were old ha an earhquake and dam-burs had occurred in Mishal, and

were given inormaion abou he eecs o hese win disasers. Again, each organisaion was asked oprovide a ve-poin plan, and hen all organisaions me o discuss hese plans. Te exercise concluded

wih a debrieng, which aimed o ideni y main hemes. Tese divided ino process issues, good ideasand general challenges o address going orward.

Lessons om he processOn he process side, i was el ha governmens need o develop and srongly express heir prioriies orresponse and recovery. Te UN should suppor bu no subsiue or governmen leadership. A paric-ular area o good pracice was o srenghen local governmen in susainable ways. Tere were also elo be a number o pracical consideraions o allowing everyone a sea a he able. Tere are rade-os

beween meaningul coordinaion and inormaion sharing a high levels o he sysem where i issuccessul, coordinaion is a decenralised sysem.

Tere is a real need o use conrol, command and coordinaion in dieren ways as necessary. Te simu-laion highlighed how quickly a lack o awareness o ohers acions can develop, which highlighed heimporance o srong communicaions. Comprehensive preparaion and communicaions in advanceo disasers was considered essenial.

A number o paricipans concluded ha here were currenly very low levels o preparaion or hecomplexiy o urban disasers and ha here was an urgen need o work on coningency plans ordieren ciies a risk.


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Paricipans suggesed a variey o ways in which humaniarian organisaions were saring o apply he principleo making he response look like he ciy. Recognising he imporance o he marke and paricularly o localsmall-scale raders as a disribuion mechanism in urban areas, many agencies have already begun o providerelie assisance hrough marke channels. Urban bakeries were used or ood disribuion in Kabul rom 1996(WFP, 2004), and in Haii, agencies were able o ensure people me immediae ood needs by working wihexising local ood vendors (IASC, 2010). IFRC, realising ha, beore he earhquake, 80% o he populaiono Por-au-Prince were enans, decided o build renal shelers. Tey also engaged local privae secor conrac-ors o remove rubble (Sansberry, 2012). O course, a marke-based approach requires he disaser-aecedpopulaion o have access o cash, and many organisaions have re-oriened heir operaions rom provisiono goods o he provision o cash o beter engage wih markes. In urban areas o Sierra Leone, or example,

ACF used cash or work o suppor he rehabiliaion o he waer sysem (Sullivan, 2012) and in Haii, severalagencies provided cash o disaser-aeced people, oen hrough elecronic paymen sysems (Smih e al.,2011). W hile many o hese approaches are sill experimenal and would bene rom urher evaluaion, heyhave he poenial o provide aid rapidly, proec exising livelihoods, and by ting ino he local conex

have ewer negaive uninended consequences. Providing renal propery may, or example, preven dispuesover land righs and squating, while he use o sree vendors could in some circumsances obviae he need odisribue cooking uel.

In he same way, many relie providers have begun o recognise he ubiquiy o inormaion and communica-ions echnology in he urban seting, and o incorporae hese echnologies ino heir programming (Smihe al., 2011). Ciies are by no means he only conex where humaniarians are using mobile phones, GPSand cash ranser echnologies, bu hey are paricularly well adaped o heir use: high levels o mobile phoneownership, or example, make he use o cellular echnologies possible, while he very large numbers o people

requiring assisance and inormaion make heir use desirable. A he meeing, Padolina shared his experienceo using mobile phones as par o an early warning sysem in he Philippines, while Sansberry discussed IFRCsuse o ex messaging and o an Ineracive Voice Response (IRV) sysem, suppored by he HumaniarianInnovaion Fund, as approaches o communicaing wih urban beneciaries.

A hird area where humaniarians are beginning o adap responses o make hem more urban is in he under-sanding o urban social groups and populaion dynamics, and he implicaions o his or urban program-ming in general and or needs assessmen and argeing in paricular. Urban populaions are more diverse hanrural populaions, and needs may dier hugely in size and naure even wihin airly small geographical areas.

Paricular groups, such as reugees and recen migrans, oen have heighened levels o vulnerabiliy comparedo oher ciy dwellers ( Jacobsen, 2011). In addiion, hose secions o he populaion such as women, childrenand he elderly, who in many conexs suer rom heighened vulnerabiliy o disasers, may be vulnerable ospecic addiional risks in an urban conex: see Box 5 (Human Righs Wach, 2011; Graham, 2011).

However, while he need o rene vulnerabiliy and needs assessmens mehodologies or urban areas isincreasingly well undersood, ools o measure and assess urban vulnerabiliy are only now being developed. 5Te urban conex also challenges radiional approaches o aid argeing. As Rogers explained a he meeing,urban populaions, end o orm communiies around common ineress or pursuis, raher han co-locaion.

5 wo useul guides are: Cash ranser Programming in Urban Emergencies: A oolki or praciioners (Cross, . 2012)and he Proling oolki or Displaced People in Urban Areas ( Jacobsen, 2011).


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As a resul, models o aid argeing and delivery which involve a single large agency ofce working as a huband village commitees conducing aciviies or heir communiy may no be appropriae in many urbanenvironmens. Agencies may need o open a larger number o small ofces in dieren pars o he ciy, asCRS have done in Por-au-Prince (Rogers, 2012) and o make greaer use o sel-argeing mechanisms, raher

han communiy argeing. Te meeing heard how several agencies are exploring approaches o argeing inhe urban conex, including he members o he IASC reerence group on meeing challenges in urban areas,and Groupe URD, who are looking a how o adap hinking on communiy argeing mechanisms o makehem successul in urban environmens (Groupe URD, 2011). As wih assessmen, argeing appears o be anarea where he humaniarian sysem has some way o go in adaping o he urban conex: in general, he vasmajoriy o humaniarian assessmen and argeing ools appear sill o be geared or use in rural setings.

Te mobiliy and diversiy o urban populaions, and he lack o immediaely ideniable communiies alsocreaes paricular challenges or accounabiliy o disaser-aeced urban populaions. As Rogers noed, urban

6 Jacobsen, K. and Furs Nichols, R . (2011) Developing a Proling Mehodology or Displaced People in Urban Areas.Feinsein Inernaional Cener, us Universiy.

Box 5 Vulnerabiliy in urban areas

Recen research idenies how he vulnerabiliies o cerain pars o he populaion can be exacerbaedin an urban conex. In Haii, Human Righs Wach ound ha women and girls living in displacemencamps in pos-earhquake Por-au-Prince aced addiional risks o lie and healh, in addiion o hoseencounered by he populaion as a whole. Tese included decreased levels o reproducive and maernalhealh, and high levels o gender-based violence.

While hese issues are no unique o urban disasers, hey were exacerbaed by he urban conex. Teac ha he earhquake occurred in a densely populaed area mean ha i desroyed a large numbero clinics, and killed a large number o Creole-speaking medical sa. Te earhquake and subsequendisplacemen also desroyed he dispersed social neworks o which many women were a par. Once indisplacemen camps and unable o rely on hese neworks, many women el unable o leave o obaincare, as hey were concerned ha heir propery migh be solen in heir absence. Tey were also more

vulnerable o sexual violence, since hey lacked he securiy provided by heir neworks. Te displace-men also disruped he income-generaing aciviies on which many o he women, living in an urban,marke-based environmen, depended.

Urban conexs also pose specic and diverse challenges o reugees and migrans, who may lack herelaionships and cash needed o survive in a marke economy, and he skills suied o he urban labourmarke. In many cases, he specic vulnerabiliies o migrans can be easily ignored, paricularly wherehey wish o remain invisible, or are rendered eecively invisible by a lack o documenaion. Whereagencies recognise hese vulnerabiliies, hey may be emped o see all migrans as a single vulnerable

group, and ail o diereniae beween hem. A recen repor rom he Feinsein Inernaional Cenrea us Universiy suggess ha agencies should assess migran vulnerabiliy using livelihoods-basedcrieria such as employmen securiy, housing securiy, nancial securiy and physical saey.6


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setings do no challenge our deniion o accounabiliy bu hey do change how we achieve i. Tis is anoherarea where inormaion echnology oers some poenial soluions allowing large numbers o people oobain inormaion, provide eedback and regiser complains, and also providing access o media and ohermechanisms hrough which agencies can be held o accoun (Wall, 2011). I is also an area where we may need

o rehink he relaive roles o he agency and he sae. As Ahmad o he Indian Naional Disaser Manage-men Auhoriy suggesed during he meeing, accounabiliy is based on he duy o naional and municipalgovernmens o heir ciizens and here is a need o ake up he urban ciizens righ o saey and saer ciies.Tis means puting ciizens in he cenre, [ocusing on] his or her ideniy and digniy, and [developing] wayso make hem more acive in our ulimae sruggle o make he world a saer place rom humaniarian crises.

Te naure and scope o urban response means ha sandard ex-pos evaluaions may no always be sufcieno address learning and accounabiliy needs. Raher, here may need o be a more developed menu o evalu-aive opions. A he very leas, Grunewald suggesed, his should include new approaches o urban real-imeevaluaions, more paricipaory and inclusive orms o muli-sakeholder evaluaion, and conex-specic ways

o dealing wih impac assessmen in dy namic and uid environmens.

Overall, i we are o make responses look like he lie o he ciy, we will need o make hem as dynamic as heciies in which hey occur. Tis may mean designing responses around heories o change which encompasshe complexiy and diversiy o he ciy, and do no simply propose a linear logic beween an inpu and a resul(Ramalingam, 2009). Agencies will need o work hard o hink hrough how dieren inervenions migh

work, and be scepical abou heir abiliy o plan all resuls in advance (Boyer, 2011). Recognising ha iner-venions may no work as expeced, hey will need o monior he eecs o inervenions, and revisi heirlogic and expecaions on a regular basis so as o enable he necessary adapaions o ake place. Ulimaely,

agencies need o be more open o programmes ha end up looking very dieren o he original proposals. Tisidea o urban complexiy is inorming World Vision Inernaionals on-going work in adaping ha organisa-ion o he new challenges aced (Savage e al., 2011).

Box 6 Smar evaluaion in urban conexskey poins rom Francois Grunewalds presenaion

Evaluaion approach Ge urban specialiss on board early.

Engage wih emerging principles, raher han being wedded o exising ones. Be open o discarding old habis and blueprins.

Accep ha exising pracices may need o be reshaped and adjused or an urban seting.

Evaluaion ocus Ideniy how humaniarian acors have been working wih naional and municipal acors. Focus on he relevance o response, looking a how social, culural and economic sysems in

urban areas have been aken ino accoun and analysed. Assess wha level o preparedness pre-daed he crisis and he impac o his on he response. Adap evaluaion quesions according o he ype o urban disaser, and he dieren responses

ha were needed.


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4 . 4 R E T H I N K I N G D E V E L O P M E N T

Alhough no he primary ocus o he ALNAP meeing, i is also imporan o highligh he role ha develop-men acors mus play in miigaing he risk and vulnerabiliy o urban areas o disasers. Te laes hinking

rom he World Bank and ohers on urban developmen sraegies (World Bank, 2009) recommends hadeveloping counries ake a hree-pronged approach o urbanisaion, each elemen o which has relevance orhe issues covered already in his paper.

Design naional and municipal policies and insiuions ha anicipae urbanisaion and maximiseresilience. A he naional level his includes macro-economic policy rameworks ha promoe rade andcapial ows, naional rameworks or land and labour markes, and sound iner-governmenal scal sysems

which inuence how ciies manage heir nances and developmen (ibid).

Ensure ha appropriae mechanisms are in place o aciliae naional, regional and local policycoordinaion and decision-making or resilien developmen. Counries more successul in managing heurban ransiion have relied on dedicaed commissions, orums and oher such neworked insiuionalarrangemens ha link all levels o governmen and policy-makers wih urban planning insiuions, universi-ies, NGOs and he privae secor. I his approach is o work, i is especially imporan ha i is grounded insound daa collecion and analysis sysems and in robus means o designing and esing dieren resilienceapproaches (ibid).

Esablish closer collaboraion across all iers o governmen and he inernaional communiy.Urbanisaion is no exclusively a challenge or ciies. o be eecive, developing counries will need efcien,muli-iered coordinaion mechanisms o suppor policy ormulaion and coordinaed inervenions beweennaional, regional and local governmens and he inernaional sysem o acors. New echnologies have aconsiderable role o play here (ibid).

Research done on donor eors in urban developmen suggess some clear shis in hinking in he inerna-ional donor communiy on engagemen a he municipal level (Milber, 2004). During he 1990s, urbanprojecs were oen negoiaed a he naional level wih minimal engagemen o local governmen insiu-ions. Since hen, several donor counries have engaged in long-erm parnerships wih local governmens andhave been increasing suppor or inernaional and local NGOs engaged in urban areas. Such inervenions

recognise he key role o municipal and local auhoriies and civil sociey (Milber, 2004).

Perhaps he mos signican new area in developmen policy as i relaes o he urban environmen has beenhe growing atenion paid o ideas o resilience, an approach which encompasses Disaser Risk Reducionand Preparedness, and links hem more explicily o Developmen issues. Tis approach has developed rom,among oher areas: work on climae change; policy responses o global crises in ood and nance; and devel-opmens in social proecion. I is increasingly seen as a shared ramework or bridging he gaps beween previ-ously disparae areas o inernaional aid. Work done by he Rockeeller Foundaions Asian Ciies ClimaeChange Resilience Nework shows wha his kind o collaboraion migh look like in pracice. For example, in

Quy Nhon, Vienam, a muli-secoral working group composed o inernaional, naional, developmen and


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humaniarian acors is assessing he impacs o alernaive ood and inundaion scenarios on planned urbandevelopmen and building capaciy o preven and, i necessary, respond eecively.7

Tis coheren applicaion o a wide range o sraegies o reduce he risk and vulnerabiliy o hose mos arisk o shocks and sresses will, i i is o be eecive, require signican changes in he work o boh devel-opmen and humaniarian acors. Boh groups may be challenged o creae new relaionships, and o rehinkhe imerames and scope o heir work. A small, bu successul example o his has aken place in he NepalRisk Reducion Consorium, which has agreed o work around hree o ve-year ime rames. Tis has enabledclassic DRR agencies o engage wih he World Bank and oher developmen acors. Te Consorium has alsoound ha common acion is bes developed hrough ocusing on common indicaors, raher han on discreeprojecs, and by seting ambiious arges o which all members work. Approaches such as his, which allowmore coherence beween developmenal and humaniarian aciviies, may poin he way o broader collabora-ion around urban issues. I i does, his coordinaion will need o occur w ihin many (muli-mandae) agencies,as well as beween hem.

V N E X S E P S : A N E W U R B A N A G E N D A F O RH U M A N I A R I A N P O L I C Y A N D P R A C I C E

Te experience o he humaniarian organisaions represened a he ALNAP 27h Meeing suggess ha hereis a need or urgen and comprehensive acion across he inernaional humaniarian sysem in order o prepare

or uure urban disasers. As one paricipan pu i: a he momen, we are saring o undersand he problems,bu we do no have he soluions. And where we do have he soluions, hey are very difcul o pu ino eec.Tis senimen nds many echoes across he secor: according o Care Inernaionals Presiden Helen Gayle,

boh donors and NGOs have, o dae, ailed o co-evolve wih urbanisaion as quickly as i has happened (IRIN,2007). Te high risk o a massive urban disaser occurring very soon se agains his low level o readiness, is apowerul argumen or radically increasing atenion o his area.

Many o he challenges idenied in he lieraure and a he meeing are no new. Raher, as one panellisexplained: he realiy o he urban environmen means ha exising problems [in he humaniarian sysem] are

amplied. Our shorcomings are more obvious in an urban environmen. Responding eecively o disasersin ciies requires greaer invesmens in preparedness and capaciy building ; massively increased engagemenwih civil sociey; a recalibraion, in many conexs, o he de aco relaionships beween inernaional acorsand sovereign saes; and radically improved coordinaion. While hese challenges are long-running, and oenseem inracable, progress is being made in many areas a a sysem level, and here are examples o good pracicein individual operaions.

Te meeing also highlighed risks and opporuniies ha arise specically rom he urban environmen isel.Tese sugges ha as well as ackling some longsanding problems, he secor needs o hink hard abou specicchanges ha are required in order o work in urban disasers.

7 see htp://www.acccrn.org/


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Faced wih his requiremen o solve boh amiliar and new problems, he dieren consiuencies o acorsatending he meeing worked o develop a series o priori y acions or how hey should be changing o adapo he urban millennium.

Naional Disaser Managemen Auhoriies (NDMAs) el ha heir rs prioriy was o ideniycapaciies and capaciy gaps on a ciy-by-ciy basis, and use his exercise o begin capaciy building, o developand updae comprehensive coningency plans or major urban cenres. Tere was also a need o esablish beterearly working sysems, adaping exising sysems or urban conexs, and o pu eor ino mainsreaming DRRacross dieren agencies and minisries. NDMAs also el ha hey should develop urban emergency opera-ions cenres.

Donor represenaives el ha hey needed o encourage innovaive programming soluions or urbanareas, and o suppor agencies o ake measured risks, al lowing or pilos and ailures. More unding or researcho innovaive ideas or urban areas was seen as a useul sar. Tere was also a criical need o srenghen donorsown capaciy on urban issues in humaniarian and developmen eors as well as in enhancing resilience asa means o reducing he developmen-humaniarian divide. Tey suggesed ha esablishing a cross-donoragency working group on urban disasers would be a useul rs sep.

Represenaives o Unied Naions bodies recommended ha UN agencies need o criically examineall curren procedures, rameworks, and ools hrough an urban lens, updaing and improving hose which

were no well adaped o urban acion. Tey also el ha here was a need or ensuring greaer predicabili yrom he UN in erms o response which currenly diers grealy rom counry o counry. In he words o oneUN sa member: i needs o be more obvious who will do wha and who will lead. More work is required o

adap he cluser sysem o urban conexs. Finally, UN represenaives el ha he UN bodies as a whole alsoneed o inves more ime wih service delivery parners, and work more sysemaically wih local governmen.

NGOs el ha hey needed o pu more energy and resources ino undersanding he urban conexand he dieren kinds o vulnerabiliy ha exis, and use his undersanding o reconsider and, in somecases, redene heir mandaes wih respec o urban programming. Tis could mean, or example, devoinga percenage o unding o urban programming, including preparedness, response, DRR and developmenlinkages. Tere was, as wih he oher key acors, a clear need o sysemaically engage wih local urban parners,including local/municipal auhoriies and NDMAs. As wih he UN, hey saw a need o adap exising ools o

ensure applicabiliy in urban conexs, working closely wih local parners.

Te Red Cross and Red Crescen represenaives el ha hey needed o srenghen he operaionalcapaciies o naional socieies o respond o urban disasers. One key issue was he improvemen o daa collec-ion, analysis, and learning and evaluaion or urban conexs, o enable evidence-based decision-making. Over-coming inernal silos hrough cross-uncional working groups around urban issues was also seen as criical.

Academics and he Q&A iniiaives el ha hey should develop a handbook/good pracice reviewor urban conexs, and be more acive in building an evidence base or wha works in urban conexs. Tere

was room or such acors o become valuable parners in operaional learning, and o become more eecivea enabling research upake. For he universiies presen, here was an educaional challenge o ge urban


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issues more acively ino universiy eaching. For he Q&A iniiaives, a review o exising guidelines o ensurerelevance and uiliy in urban conexs was seen as key.

ogeher, hese prioriy acions poin o an agenda or he range o acors ha will be working on urban human-

iarian challenges in he uure. As noed above, hese may be more imminen han we imagine.

Paricipans a he meeing srongly endorsed he idea o collecive advocacy and learning, mobilising resourcesacross he sysem as a whole, and providing a ocal poin or shared eors. Te meeing issued a clear callor improved coordinaion around urban issues, and several consiuencies idenied similar prioriy acions.Paricipans called or agencies, governmens and he inernaional humaniarian sysem as a whole o placegreaer emphasis on he urban agenda: urbanisaion sill needs more urgen and sraegic atenion across allagencies, neworks and coaliions in he secor. Mobilisaion o leaders o inernaional and naional bodiesmay be one way o doing his perhaps wih he kind o high-level orum ha was esablished or he oodprice crisis in 2008, chaired by a high-prole gure. In erms o shared learning, paricipans suggesed pooling

o daa and lessons; sharing o innovaive and emerging bes pracice; join review o sandards and operaingprocedures; join raining and enhanced naional and ciy level dialogue. Paricipans el ha he dialogueesablished a he ALNAP meeing needed o be coninued and expanded.

For some, however, all o his poins o a massive and poenially dauning agenda. A he meeing, paricipansworked o develop a pragmaic se o nex seps, o help orien a shared way or ward. As one paricipan noed,urgency and perecion mus no be he enemy o he good. We canno do hings perecly overnigh, bu wealso need o keep some sense o urgency in wha we are doing. Te ollowing nex seps were iniiaed a hemeeing and have been rened and developed in he subsequen work done by ALNAP.

Sep 1Agencies, and poenially he sysem as a whole, should esablish clear deniions o urban crisis. Teyshould consider he rigger evens ha would lead o engagemen in an urban crisis, and ideniy in advance

wha would be heir general objecives and exi sraeg y in any crisis.

Sep 2 Each agency, as well as muli-agency bodies, should consider he poenial scale and urgency o he chal-lenges posed by urban crises. Tey should deermine wheher curren levels o resourcing (in erms o ime andmoney invesed, and he coordinaion archiecure) are appropriae, or need scaling up. In parallel, naional andmunicipal bodies should urgenly ideniy poenial risks and vulnerabiliies o urban cenres.

Sep 3Inernaional, naional and municipal organisaions should sress-es exising policies sandards andSandard Operaing Procedures o ensure ha hey are relevan and useul or urban disaser engagemen.Tis should include more inpu rom urban specialiss, rom planning, developmen, and oher disciplines. Inparallel, naional and municipal bodies should ensure ha coningency plans are in place, and ideniy gaps.

Where possible, auhoriies should ake he lead in esablishing relaionships wih oher key acors, and deningroles and responsibiliies as par o he coningency planning exercise.

Sep 4Where knowledge or skills gaps are idenied as a par o hese exercises, organisaions should move oensuring ha hese gaps can be lled by raining, recruimen, sraegic parnerships or sand-by agreemens.


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Sep 5 Te humaniarian sysem and organisaions wihin i should urgenly develop beter mehods and oolsor urban assessmen and analysis. Tese could poenially be par o on-going work on needs assessmen.Humaniarian acors should also inves in improved preparedness hrough shared risk assessmens.

Sep 6 Te humaniarian sysem should esablish a orum or sharing and disseminaion o bes praciceand ools relaed o urban crises: hose organisaions wih specic learning or experise should ensure haheir learning is disseminaed hrough his orum. Tis learning should be cenred on a common concepualramework which includes DRR, preparedness, response and developmen, and is open o emerging issuessuch as missing vulnerable groups; rural-urban linkages; land enure issues and urban violence.

Sep 7 Humaniarian acors should rial new innovaive approaches in small urban crises, in preparaionor larger crises in he uure. Donors and decision-makers in organisaions should encourage innovaiveapproaches/echnology o increase eeciveness. A paricular issue is he developmen o new mechanismsor eecive assessmen, response and coordinaion, on he undersanding ha hese may need o be adaped

or each ciy.

On a more immediae and pragmaic level, ALNAP and UN-Habia have already agreed o creae a sharedporal or urban iniiaives o be capured online. Tis poral could poenially serve as one ocus or he devel-opmen o a global communiy o pracice on urban humaniarian issues. A he same ime, many ALNAPmembers are working on improved ools, and in some cases specic urban policies, which can be more broadlyshared across he ALNAP Nework. Te size, complexiy and urgency o he urban challenge canno beaddressed by any one organisaion alone.


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pacic-ready-or-complex-urban-disasers/

ALNAP 2002 ALNAP Annual Review 2002:Humaniarian Acion: Improved Perormancehrough Improved Learning. London: ALNAP/Overseas Developmen Insiue (ODI).

ALNAP 2004 Review o Humaniarian Acion in2003: Field Level Learning. London: ALNAP/ODI.

ALNAP 2005 ALNAP Review o HumaniarianAcion in 2004: Insiuional capaciy building amidhumaniarian acion. London: ALNAP/ODI.

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Bhatacharjee, A., Wyner, A., Baker, J., Varghese,M. and Lowery, C. 2011 Independen Reviewo UNICEFs Operaional Response o he January2010 Earhquake in Haii. New York: UniedNaions Childrens Fund.

Boyer, B. 2011 Humaniarian programmes whichneed o be adaped o urban v ulnerabiliies inPor-au-Prince, Freeown, Charikar or Ulan Baor,Humaniarian Aid on he Move, Newsleter #8.Plaisians: Groupe URD.

Cohen, B. 2004 Urban Growh in DevelopingCounries: A Review o Curren rends and a CauionRegarding Exising Forecass, World Developmen32(1): 2351.

www.iussp.org/Aciviies/wgc-urb/cohen.pdCrane, P. and Kinzig, A. 2005 Naure in he

meropolis, Science 308(5726): 1225.

Cross, T. and Johnson, A. 2012 Cash ranserProgramming in Urban Emergencies: A oolkior praciioners . Oxord, UK : Cash LearningParnership.

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Por-au-Prince, Haii, January 2010.

www.dec.org.uk/download/856/DEC-Haii-urban-sudy.pd

DFID 2011 Te UK Governmen Response o heHumaniarian Emergency Response Review. London:DFID.

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Egal, F. 2011 Managing Crises in Urban Areas: Foodand Nuriional Securiy and Rural Urban Links,Humaniarian Aid on he Move, Newsleter #8.Plaisians: Groupe URD.

FAO 2008 Te Sae o Food Insecuriy in he World.Rome: FAO.

Frey, W.H. and Zimmer, Z. 2001 Dening he Ciyin R . Paddison (ed.) Handbook o Urban Sudies.London: Sage Publicaions.

Graham, C. and Duhamel, G. 2011 One year on: 1

in 5 older Haiians in camps going hungry.www.helpage.org/newsroom/laes-news/one-year-on-1-in-5-older-haiians-in-camps-going-hungry/

Groupe URD 2011Beyond Emergency Relie inHaii. Plaisians: Groupe URD.htp://haiiinnovaion.org/en/2011/01/29/beyond-emergency-relie-haii-groupe-urd

Grunewald, F. 2011 Ciies and Global RisksHumaniarian Aid on he Move, Newsleter #8.Plaisians: Groupe URD.

Grunewald, F., Binder, A. and Georges, Y. 2010Iner-agency real-ime evaluaion in Haii: 3 monhsaer he earhquake. Geneva: IASC.

HFP 2008HFP rends and Drivers Workbook:rends and drivers o change in humaniarian acionin 2025. London: HFP.

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York: Human Righs Wach.

IFPRI 2005Beyond Rural-Urban: Keeping up wihChanging Realiies.

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