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Meredith A. MacPherson. Alternative Careers for Graduates of Library Science Programs: Are Library Schools Doing Enough? A Master’s Paper for the M.S. in L.S degree. April, 2008. 60 pages. Advisor: Rita W. Moss
This study determined the extent to which library science (LS) programs prepare recent graduates for careers in non-library, or alternative, settings. A review of the literature indicated that the proliferation of information technology in private sector businesses has impacted the employment prospects for LS graduates. Qualitative data collected from job advertisements and LS course descriptions was analyzed and the extent of the overlap between the skills required by employers and the skills taught by LS programs was ascertained. Job advertisements were collected and the skills and qualifications required by employers were recorded, analyzed, and coded. These categories of skills were then compared to the skills mentioned in the online course catalogs of nine ALA-accredited LS programs. The results of this content analysis revealed that employers most often require communication skills (67.27%), analytical skills (54.55%), and knowledge of industry concepts and terminology (63.64%) and industry resources (63.64%). The researcher concluded that the nine programs examined in this study adequately address these skills and knowledge areas. This work contributes to studies of the impact of technology on the profession of librarianship, the emergent job market for LS graduates, and the educational trends of LS programs.
Headings:
Content analysis -- job advertisements
Content analysis -- course descriptions
Alternative careers -- librarians
Alternative Careers for Graduates of Library Science Programs: Are Library Schools Doing Enough?
by
Meredith A. MacPherson
A Master’s paper submitted to the faculty of the School of Information and Library Science of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in
Library Science.
Chapel Hill, North Carolina
April 2008
Approved by
_______________________________________
Rita W. Moss
1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction......................................................................................................................... 2 Research Problem, Objectives, and Questions ............................................................... 2 Definitions of Terms ....................................................................................................... 3 Purpose of the Study ....................................................................................................... 4
Literature Review................................................................................................................ 5 Impact on the Profession................................................................................................. 5 Skills Essential for Success............................................................................................. 8 LS Education and the Job Market................................................................................. 10 Trends in LS Education ................................................................................................ 14
Methodology..................................................................................................................... 17 Justification of Method Selection ................................................................................. 17 Limitations of the Method ............................................................................................ 18 Data Collection and Treatment ..................................................................................... 19 Instruments.................................................................................................................... 23
Results............................................................................................................................... 25 Job Advertisements....................................................................................................... 25 LS Programs.................................................................................................................. 36 LS Course Offerings ..................................................................................................... 40
Importance and Implications of the Study........................................................................ 46
Summary and Conclusions ............................................................................................... 48
References......................................................................................................................... 50
Appendix A: Vocabulary List........................................................................................... 53
Appendix B: Data Collection Sheet for Job Advertisements............................................ 54
Appendix C: Codebook for Job Advertisements .............................................................. 55
Appendix D: Data Collection Sheet for LS Programs ...................................................... 58
2
INTRODUCTION
The proliferation of digital information and technology has transformed how
people locate, access, and use information. In the private business sector, the use of
digitized information and computer-based research, communication, and management
tools has spawned a new breed of librarian, one who is "connected to librarianship but
outside the library" (Williams, 1994, p. 43). Trained to find, evaluate, organize, and
present information, librarians "…are in an excellent position to take advantage of the
expanded opportunities created by the digital revolution" (Fagerheim, 1999).
Pharmaceutical companies, consulting firms, publishing houses, and other private sector
businesses need competent librarians to manage this abundance of information and
technology. Consequently, many practicing librarians and recent library school graduates
are re-purposing their credentials and transitioning to careers in alternative, non-library
settings.
RESEARCH PROBLEM, OBJECTIVES, AND QUESTIONS
As the information needs of private sector businesses continue to evolve, the job
market for library science graduates will continue to change; however, the extent to
which library science programs are adapting to this fluctuating terrain is uncertain. A
preliminary review of the literature revealed that employment-related research tends to
focus on "the emergent market for information professionals" (Cronin, 1993), "personal
transferable skills for the modern information professional" (Gash, 1988), "graduate
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employment outcomes" (Genoni, 2000), and "alternative careers for graduates of LIS
schools" (Weech, 2007), rather than on the extent to which library science programs are
preparing their students for non-traditional careers.
In response to this research deficiency, the present study has developed two
objectives. First, the study will survey the relevant LS literature and job postings to
identify the skills essential for LS graduates interested in pursuing alternative careers.
The study will then apply this rubric to several library science programs in order to
evaluate the extent to which these selected programs prepare students for non-library
positions. These objectives directly inform the present study's research questions: first,
what skills and educational backgrounds are desired by employers in non-library settings;
and, second, to what extent are library science programs preparing students for careers in
these alternative settings?
DEFINITIONS OF TERMS
To ensure successful communication of the research objectives, it is necessary to
articulate the present study's understanding of two of the concepts supporting this
research: the term "alternative career" and the term "preparing." For a position to qualify
as an alternative career, it must satisfy the three conditions provided by Weech and
Konieczny (2007) in their examination of employment destinations for library and
information science graduates. First, the position must involve work in an area that does
not typically require a professional degree in library science (p. 68). Second, the position
must not act as a direct liaison to libraries and/or librarians, such as a book jobber or
database vendor (p. 68). Finally, the position must have a majority of employees with
academic and professional backgrounds other than LS (p. 68). Ultimately, the criteria for
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an alternative career "turns on the recognition of the preference or requirement of an
LIS degree for qualification" (p. 68). Unlike Weech and Konieczny's study, however, the
present study only considered the requirement of a LS degree (rather than a library and/or
information science degree) when analyzing job advertisements.
Like the phrase "alternative career," the term “preparing” will be used repeatedly
throughout this study and requires an explanation of its intended meaning. Defining this
term, however, is a difficult task, for individuals have different understandings,
perceptions, and standards of preparedness. Course offerings certainly contribute to an
individual's preparedness for an alternative career, but so too does an individual's
personality, interests, and previous degrees and employment experiences. This study,
then, will determine the extent of a program's preparation of its students by examining the
overlap of the skills enumerated in its course descriptions with the skill preferences and
requirements of employers.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of the present study is to determine the extent to which LS programs
prepare students for alternative careers. This study conducted a content analysis of job
advertisements and course descriptions to ascertain the degree of overlap between the
skills taught in LS programs and the skills desired by employers. Ideally, the results of
this study will encourage LS faculty and administrators to revisit and, if necessary,
modify the curricula of their programs in order to prepare their students for successful
careers in alternative settings.
5
LITERATURE REVIEW
The impact of information technology on the profession of librarianship is a
foremost concern for many LS researchers, practitioners, and educators. Several essays
(Koenig, 1993; Hunt, 1995) report that the proliferation of digital information and
electronic research, communication, and management tools and systems has spawned a
new breed of librarian. This trend toward alternative employment destinations has
generated additional research aimed at ascertaining the skills essential for success in
alternative careers (Gash & Reardon, 1988; Intner 1998; Lai, 2005). Finally, because the
profession and the employment landscape continue to evolve, many studies have
undertaken an assessment of LS education, evaluating the extent to which specific
programs have prepared students for the job market (Cronin, Stiffler & Day, 1993;
Genoni, Exon & Farrelly, 2000) and have modified their curricula (Irwin, 2002; Markey,
2004). All of these essays and empirical studies contribute to the present study's research
question: to what extent are library science programs preparing students for alternative
careers?
IMPACT ON THE PROFESSION
As previously mentioned, the transition from paper to electronic formats, tools,
and systems has impacted the profession of librarianship. Patrick J. Hunt (1995)
describes this transition from paper to electronic mediums as a "structural
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transformation," one that has fundamentally altered the role of librarians in private
sector businesses (p. 5). Pharmaceutical companies, publishing firms, and various other
private sector companies seek and generate immense quantities of information and,
consequently, they look for employees that possess "knowledge-intensive" skills, such as
data interpretation, information mediation, and knowledge management (p. 5).
Professionally trained, information literate professionals have thus been able to re-
purpose their LS credentials and to pursue careers outside of the traditional library. The
unique skill set and interdisciplinary education generally acquired through graduate-level
LS programs (p. 6) has enabled many recent graduates and practicing librarians to secure
non-library, information-intensive positions (p. 5).
Michael E.D. Koenig (1993) corroborates this assessment of the profession in his
analysis of LS educational requirements. Given the nature of private sector businesses
and the type of work increasingly performed by information professionals, "it is no
longer sufficient for such education to focus on the operation of libraries and the
provision of information services; it is now requisite that there also be a focus on the
design and creation of information systems" (p. 2). The increased use of technology in
the workplace and the "convergence of… [academic and professional]…fields and
disciplines" (p. 5) has expanded the employment opportunities for LS graduates. To
serve the needs of their students, LS programs must modify their curricula and broaden
their understanding of librarianship. Similarly, professional bodies should update their
accreditation standards to accommodate the emerging educational requirements of LS
students.
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Written at least ten years ago, these two essays underscore the persistence of this
shift toward alternative employment destinations. The Occupational Outlook Handbook,
a publication distributed by the U.S. Department of Labor’s Bureau of Labor Statistics,
confirms the assessments provided by Hunt and Koening. The 2008-2009 edition of the
report notes that, despite a "slower-than-average projected employment growth,"
employment prospects for librarians will most likely still be favorable due to the large
number of practicing librarians expected to retire in the next ten years (BLS, 2008, p. 1).
Employment growth in traditional library environments, such as academic, public,
corporate, special, or government settings, will be curbed by budget constraints and less-
costly library technicians and assistants may replace many librarians in these traditional
environments (p.3). Furthermore, the increased use of electronic resources will lessen the
demand for professional librarians capable of maintaining the resources and instructing
the public on their use (p.3). As a result of these factors, opportunities for librarians
outside traditional settings are projected to grow the most between 2006 and 2016 (p. 3).
As Hunt and Koening noted, private corporations and organizations generate
immense quantities of information and, consequently, they are turning to LS graduates to
fill these information-intensive positions. Recent graduates and practicing librarians can
analyze, evaluate, and organize raw data and manage tangible and virtual information and
knowledge. This proliferation of information and technology in the for-profit sector has
created a niche for LS graduates, but the response of LS programs to this trend has yet to
be adequately addressed in the literature.
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SKILLS ESSENTIAL FOR SUCCESS
The changing employment trajectories of LS graduates requires clarification of
the skills considered essential for success in alternative careers. To identify the personal
transferable skills vital for information professionals, Gash and Reardon (1988) analyzed
the skill preferences of employers and the recommendations of two professional bodies,
the Institute of Information Scientists (IIS) and the Library and Information Services
Council (LISC). Based on their literature review, the authors posited that
communication, teamwork, and interpersonal skills would be most preferred by
employers.
To test their hypothesis, the researchers compared the skills listed in job
advertisements to the skills recommended by two professional institutions. They grouped
these specific skills into 23 categories and they compiled a three-column chart indicating
the type and source of the skill (job ad, IIS, or LISC). If a skill appeared in all three
columns, the researchers deemed it a personal transferable skill, an essential work skill
not specific to any subject or profession and easily transferable to another context (p.
285). Nine of the 23 identified skills appeared in all three columns: analytical,
computing, effective presentation of information, numeracy, publishing, research, use of
English, verbal/listening, and writing (p. 288). Five of these skills are communication-
based, so the researchers partly confirmed their initial hypothesis; however, they fail to
disclose the specifics of their classification scheme and their methodology, so it is
difficult to gauge the reliability of their results. Nevertheless, by identifying these
transferable skills, Gash and Reardon contribute to the present study's establishment of a
preliminary profile of the skills essential for success in alternative careers.
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The empirical study conducted by Ling-Ling Lai (2005) further develops this
preliminary profile. Lai, interested in the skills necessary for careers in knowledge
management (KM), performed a content analysis of KM job postings. From December 8,
2000 to April 13, 2001, using Lycos, Alta Vista, and Google as well as the websites of
headhunters, job banks, and professional organizations, Lai found 27 job postings for
full-time, KM positions. For each advertisement, Lai noted the educational requirements,
work experience, knowledge and special skills, and software and IT knowledge preferred
or required by the employer (p. 353). Lai's analysis revealed that:
• 18.5% of employers prefer/require an advanced degree in LS; • 48.2% prefer/require an advanced degree in an IT-related discipline or in
business (p. 354); • 63% require several years of work experience in KM, LS, consulting,
investment banking, or other IT or business fields (p. 354); • 25.9% require team work experience; • 51.9% require excellent communication skills; • 48.2% require excellent writing skills; • 48.2% require excellent project management skills (p. 355); • 29.6% require the ability to "capture, analyze, disseminate and manipulate
data and information as it relates to business needs" as well as the ability to "organize, synthesize, and summarize raw information from diverse sources" (p. 356);
• 51.9% require knowledge of KM technical architecture; • 40.7% require knowledge of KM application development tools (p. 357); • 100% state that employees will need to "create and promote knowledge
sharing/links with knowledge professionals/initiatives" (p. 358); • 40.7% require "knowledge codification/classification" skills (p. 358).
Based on these results, Lai recommends that LIS programs, if they "would like to
react to the job market and prepare well-qualified graduates" (p. 361), should include
more technology-oriented courses in the curricula. Lai encourages students to hone their
information technology skills and to develop business-appropriate communication styles.
Additionally, students should expose themselves to current KM software and systems and
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they should understand basic business concepts (p. 361). Finally, like Koenig (1993),
Lai encourages LIS programs to develop and engage in inter-disciplinary relationships so
as to broaden the scope of LIS education and prepare students for careers in KM (p. 362).
As a supplement to these empirical studies, Sheila Intner (1998) provides an
anecdotally-informed description of the "good professional" (p. 48), outlining the skills
she considers necessary for librarians to succeed in the 21st century. Intner urges recent
LS graduates and practicing librarians to acquire and/or strengthen their ability to meet
deadlines, act objectively, shoulder responsibility, keep an open mind, empower staff,
and inspire trust (p. 49). Additionally, they should welcome learning from others, seek
new ideas, read widely, and experiment (p. 49). This corpus of skills is applicable to LS
students and practicing librarians in both traditional and alternative careers, for these
competencies are transferable. In her concluding remarks, Intner asserts that "few
programs educating new library and information science professionals are preparing their
students to function…" in the 21st century (p. 49), a failure that LS programs must
address in order to prepare their students for both traditional and alternative careers.
LS EDUCATION AND THE JOB MARKET
The literature examined thus far has informed the present study's research
question by confirming the changing nature of librarianship and outlining the set of skills
deemed necessary for LS graduates to possess. The next portion of this literature review
will consider the evolving employment landscape for LS graduates.
Cronin, Stiffler, and Day (1993) conducted an exploratory study of the emergent
job market for graduates of library and information science (LIS) programs. The
researchers collected qualitative and quantitative data and used this information to
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construct "an impressionistic profile" (p. 3) of the local and national job markets for
recent graduates of LIS programs, specifically Indiana University's School of Library and
Information Science (SLIS). To determine what alternative careers are available to LIS
graduates and what skills and characteristics are required by employers in this emergent
market, the researchers used three methods of data collection: they performed content
analysis of job ads; they interviewed 33 local, non-traditional information professionals;
and they distributed 256 mail surveys to the 1985 and 1988 graduates of Indiana
University's SLIS.
The content analysis portion of the study yielded the most generalizable set of
results. Over an 18-month period, the researchers tracked the job announcements listed
in several local and national newspapers, magazines, and online resources. They
identified 360 announcements for non-traditional job openings and they grouped these
listings according to standard industrial classification (SIC) code, job title, experience
level required or preferred, qualifications required or preferred, and desirable candidate
attributes. The researchers discovered that more than half of the employers required or
preferred a graduate-level LS (or its equivalent) degree from an accredited institution.
The majority of employers also required several years of related work experience and
preferred candidates to possess excellent communication and leadership skills and to be
flexible, enthusiastic, self-motivating, and team-oriented (p. 7).
To supplement these findings, the researchers interviewed 33 individuals who
either occupied alternative positions or who placed others in those types of positions.
The content gleaned from the interview sessions indicated that the job market for
information professionals is expanding (p. 8). However, "there are significant structural,
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manpower, historical, and image problems that will have to be overcome" before LIS
programs can place a substantial number of students in these types of positions (p. 9).
Ultimately, the researchers concluded that LIS education is not preparing students
for this emergent job market. Careers in non-library settings require a different set of
skills, attributes, and orientations than those traditionally emphasized in LIS programs.
To succeed in this market, information professionals must possess "subject expertise and
business savvy" (p. 11), client-centered attitudes, and more expansive visions of their
profession (p. 16). The researchers recommend that LIS programs rework their curricula,
combining subject specialty courses with non-library-oriented information management
courses (p. 15). As professional opportunities for LS graduates continue to move into the
for-profit realm, "experiences and values other than those of academia need to be instilled
in students who are considering working in the emerging market" (p. 16).
In addition to the requirements and preferences of employers, the perceptions of
LS graduates should also be considered. To elucidate the relationship between LS
education and employment satisfaction, Genoni, Exon and Farrelly (2000) mailed 367
surveys to recent graduates of Curtin University of Technology's Department of
Information Studies (p. 246). The researchers received 157 completed surveys and 44
uncompleted surveys; 166 mail surveys were not returned. The survey of recent
graduates was divided into three sections: demographic information—age, type of degree
obtained; employment history—continuity and type of work; and current employment
situation—type of work, type of contract, contribution of the LS degree to their present
employment, and the usefulness of the skills acquired during the program (p. 254).
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Eighty-seven respondents described the nature of their current work as
"librarianship" (p. 249). Seventeen respondents described their current situation as "other
information work" and 13 respondents described it as "non-information work."
Interestingly, the categories of "other information" and "non-information" work reported
the second and third highest numbers of respondents. The researchers did not
operationalize the definitions of "other" and "non-information work," so it is difficult to
determine the reliability and consistency of the responses; they did, however, ask
respondents who selected these categories to describe their work. Six of the 17
respondents who perceived their work as "other information work" actually did work in
libraries, "but in positions that did not meet their definition of 'librarianship'" (p. 250).
The job descriptions found in this category included knowledge management,
information consultant, and youth resource and information broker (p. 250). Similarly, in
the "non-information work" category, several of the provided job descriptions suggested
that, contrary to the respondents' perceptions of their work, many "were working in areas
which would be expected to have a substantial component of information related tasks,"
such as editing and heritage consulting (p. 250).
In addition to questions about the type of work performed by recent LS graduates,
the researchers inquired about the contribution of the LS degree to the obtainment of their
current position (p. 254). 64.8% of the respondents described their degree as "essential"
to their current work; 15.5% of the respondents described their degree as "not essential,
but helped"; and 12.7% described their degree as "irrelevant" (p. 254). To flesh out the
respondents' assessment of their degree, the researchers asked about the usefulness of the
skills acquired during the program to their current position. Fifty-three respondents
14
replied that the skills they acquired, which neither the researchers nor the respondents
enumerated, were "very useful" to their current work; fifty-three respondents replied that
their skills were "moderately useful;" twenty-nine respondents replied that their skills
were "occasionally useful;" and four respondents replied that their skills were "irrelevant"
(p. 255).
Given the results of their data analysis, Genoni et al. concluded that "respondents
continue to report that both their qualification and their skills are relevant to their current
employment" (p. 257). The researchers do not breakdown their data sets according to the
type of work selected—librarianship, records management, archives, computing and
information science, other information work, non-information work (p. 249)—so it is
impossible to determine the attitudes of the individuals who classified their work as
"other" or "non-information." Despite this limitation, the very inclusion of these
categories on the survey suggests that LS researchers recognize the trend toward
alternative careers for graduates.
TRENDS IN LS EDUCATION
As evidenced in several of the articles previously discussed, the career
opportunities for LS graduates continue to increase and diversify, yet few studies have
addressed the extent to which the LS curricula have paralleled these changes. Ray Irwin
(2002) and Karen Markey (2004) both tackle this important topic in their assessments of
LS educational trends.
Irwin (2002) performed a content analysis of LS course descriptions and titles in
order to discern the educational priorities of LIS programs. He compared the online
catalog descriptions of 217 mandatory LIS courses to the 12 subjects recommended by
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the International Federation of Library Associations (IFLA) in 1976. Irwin identified
course themes and concepts and concluded that "mandatory course work in library and
information science covers quite well the twelve subjects recommended by IFLA" (p.
179). Irwin's method of analysis, however, assumes that course titles and descriptions
accurately reflect course content; that identifiable boundaries exist between all of the
subject areas; and that the extent to which a class matches one of the IFLA categories can
be consistently determined (p. 178-9).
The course titles and/or descriptions of the 217 classes selected for analysis either
implicitly or explicitly referenced each of the twelve subjects, with the concept of
"library/librarian(s)/librarianship/libraries" appearing most frequently in course titles (56
times) and course descriptions (166 times) (p. 180). This representation of IFLA's
tradition-oriented subject areas seems to demonstrate that LS programs are "holding
tightly to roughly the same required course work that sustained…[them]…for a
century…" (p. 182), an educational tendency that minimizes the evolving face of
librarianship and the changing needs of students.
Like Irwin, Markey (2004) analyzed the websites of 56 ALA-accredited library
schools in an effort to identify educational trends, including the "inroads programs are
making into new areas and the unique content that programs offer to their students…" (p.
317-318). Markey examined the websites of 56 LS programs, gathering information
about courses (descriptions, requirements, electives, and concentrations), degree variety
and requirements (courses and credit hours), and dual degree programs (p. 318-319). She
found that 41 schools offer certifications in school media; three programs offer
certifications in archives and records management; two programs offer endorsements in
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medical librarianship; and seven schools offer "other" certifications, such as
competitive intelligence, conservation studies, health sciences, information management,
law librarianship, museum studies, and new media (p. 329). Competitive intelligence,
cultural heritage information, knowledge management, information design, and electronic
commerce have all emerged as new themes in the LS curricula (p. 333).
These programs are also re-working the focus of their conventional courses,
transforming them into digitally-oriented classes. Information organization courses, for
instance, "go beyond the organization of print materials using well-known cataloging
standards" to include the organization of digital materials using controlled vocabularies,
metadata, and HTML (p. 330). Furthermore, courses dealing with network-based
information and systems have begun to supplant courses emphasizing print collections
and online databases (p. 331). This tendency mirrors the changes in both traditional
libraries and alternative settings. Programs are gradually offering more courses, degrees,
and specializations in these non-traditional areas, but LS curricula tend to maintain their
adherence to "traditional coursework that seeks greater understanding of users, their
information-seeking behavior, and the sources and services that libraries provide to users
generally and to specific populations" (p. 338). In contrast to Irwin's study (2002),
Markey's examination of LS educational trends suggests that these LS programs are
addressing the changing needs of their students.
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METHODOLOGY
To answer the research questions posed by this study, the method of content
analysis was selected. An unobtrusive research method, content analysis involves the
systematic coding and categorization of words, phrases, or concepts according to the
parameters of a pre-established and well-defined conceptual framework (Robinson, 2006,
p. 1; Babbie, 2004, p. 318). Typically used to analyze social artifacts and human
communications (Babbie, 2004, p. 314), this technique allows for the examination of the
manifest, or "visible, surface content," as well as the latent, or "underlying meaning," of
an artifact or communication (Babbie, 2004, p. 319). Content analysis requires the
formulation of operational and conceptual definitions for the words, phrases, or concepts
under examination, an activity that generally results in the development of a coding
scheme, a codebook, and a coding form (Neuendorf, 2002, p. 50). The effectiveness of
this method depends on the researcher's ability to develop a conceptual framework,
classify the raw data into the appropriate categories, and conduct a meaningful
interpretation and evaluation of the results (Robinson, 2006, p. 1).
JUSTIFICATION OF METHOD SELECTION
The present study selected the method of content analysis for several reasons.
First, since job advertisements act as the "relatively accessible indicators of the
knowledge, skills and competencies required…by employers" (Kennan, 2006, p. 179),
this study concluded that an examination of job postings would highlight the skills
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essential for LS graduates interested in alternative careers. An analysis of LS course
catalogs would likewise underscore the knowledge, skills, and competencies considered
valuable to students by the degree-granting program. Second, the fiscal and human
resources needed to survey and interview LS graduates currently working in alternative
positions would exceed the scope of this study. Third, qualitative methods, such as face-
to-face interviews and surveys, would likely ascertain the individual's perception of the
relationship between the knowledge acquired during the program and employment
outcome (Genoni, 2000, p. 245), rather than the employer's assessment of the individual's
competence. Finally, these qualitative methods could produce un-representative results,
since currently unemployed LS graduates might be unwilling to participate or respond
(Genoni, 2000, p. 247).
LIMITATIONS OF THE METHOD
Like any research method, content analysis has advantages and disadvantages.
The technique is unobtrusive, so the subjects of the study—usually inanimate objects—
are rarely affected by the research (Babbie, 2004, p. 324). Content analysis costs less to
conduct, since staff and equipment requirements are minimal and study subjects do not
require compensation. It generally requires less time to execute content analysis than to
perform other types of research and the technique allows for longitudinal, comparative,
and cumulative studies (Babbie, 2004, p. 323-324; Robinson, 2006, p. 2). Furthermore,
this technique is flexible in its application; it often "extracts further or different findings
from material" (Robinson, 2006, p. 2); and the researcher can collect and interpret data
when convenient. Finally, because the objects being analyzed can be coded and recoded,
the reliability and consistency of the results is increased (Babbie, 2004, p. 324).
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Many of these advantages, however, double as disadvantages. The lack of
human subjects, for instance, may reduce the financial and human resources needed to
conduct the study, but the analysis of artifacts and communications is limited by the
subjects' existence and accessibility (Babbie, 2004, p. 324). Since content analysis is
restricted to the "examination of recorded communications" (Babbie, 2004, p. 324) and is
dependent upon the accurate coding of data, the validity of the results may be
questionable. Finally, the identification of an appropriate sample and the development of
appropriate categories can be surprisingly difficult tasks.
The researcher does recognize that course offerings constitute only a portion of
what LS programs can offer to their students; course content, teaching methods, and
access to technologies and professionals are equally valuable contributions (Fisher &
Matarazzo, 1993, p. 2). The researcher also acknowledges that job advertisements may
not fully articulate the hiring organization's requirements and that catalog descriptions
may not accurately reflect the course's content (Irwin, 2004, p. 178-179). Finally, the
limited number of job advertisements considered in this study and the small number of
states represented render the results of this study extremely-specific and non-
generalizable.
DATA COLLECTION AND TREATMENT
Two types of data were collected and analyzed in this study: job advertisements
for non-library positions and course descriptions from nine LS programs. The contents of
these documents were coded, categorized, and analyzed in order to determine the extent
to which LS programs prepare students for alternative careers. The following two
20
sections of this report describe the methods that were used to locate, code, and interpret
these data.
Job Advertisements
To identify a substantial number of relevant job advertisements, the researcher
consulted several employment websites and searched for position announcements using a
pre-determined vocabulary list (Appendix A). This dictionary of search terms was
derived exclusively from the present study's literature review and the researcher's
exploratory examination of job advertisements. The variety of job titles and terms
precluded the creation of an exhaustive search vocabulary, so this dictionary functioned
as a starting point and reference tool. Relevant postings that contained terms similar to
those enumerated in the vocabulary list were included in the study.
From February 1 to February 29, 2008, the researcher used the vocabulary terms
listed in Appendix A to search the following websites for full-time position
announcements:
• American Library Association's JobList (http://joblist.ala.org/) • Career Builder (http://www.careerbuilder.com) • Career Site (http://www.careersite.com) • LIS Jobs (http://www.lisjobs.com) • MSN Careers (http://msn.careerbuilder.com/) • Special Libraries Association (http://www.sla.org) • Wall Street Journal Careers (http://www.careerjournal.com/) • Washington Post (http://www.washingtonpost.com)
These websites have been used by several other researchers to locate specific types of job
postings (Brimsek, 1991; Cali, 2000; Dellenback, 1999). They cover many employment
industries and all regions of the United States, thus ensuring a diverse sample of
advertisements, and they are well-populated and frequently visited sites.
21
For a job announcement to be included in this study, the position advertised had
to be a full-time, non-library position in the United States. The position could not require
a master's degree in LS, it could not function as a liaison to a public, academic, school, or
special library or information center, and it could not use the term "librarian" in the
position title or description. If any of these conditions could not be confirmed, the
posting was eliminated from the sample population. Duplicate postings, such as ads
posted across websites or posted continuously for several weeks, were only counted once.
Once an advertisement had been identified, it was copied into another document
and assigned a unique, three-digit identification number. The researcher read through
each announcement and highlighted the employer-required degrees, qualifications, skills,
knowledge areas, and experiences; the data collection sheet for job advertisements
(Appendix B) was used to capture this information. During this process of data
collection, ideas about appropriate categories were inductively developed and refined.
The researcher formulated a list of tentative categories and referred to several previous
studies (Dellenback, 1999; Gash & Reardon, 1988; Glackin, 1999; Guise et al., 1997) to
assist with the development of appropriate titles. Using this technique, the researcher
developed four categories of skills: interpersonal, LS-degree related, technical, and
transferable. These skill categories were defined as follows:
• Inter-personal: category of personal skills dealing with the interactions between individuals
• LS-degree related: category of skills dealing with the functions traditionally associated with the profession of librarianship
• Technical: category of skills dealing with the development, administration, and use of information technology
• Transferable: category of skills dealing with general, context-independent, business functions
22
The researcher iteratively developed these categories and created a codebook to
assist with the coding of job advertisements (Appendix C). Once all of the postings had
been examined and coded at least once, the researcher revisited the job ads to ensure that
all data had been captured and appropriately and completely classified and coded. These
categories were then transferred to a spreadsheet so as to facilitate comparison with the
LS course descriptions.
LS Programs
Due to time and resource constraints, the researcher could not conduct an
exhaustive analysis of the course catalog of every ALA-accredited LS program in the
United States. Therefore, the researcher used the 2008 graduate school rankings
published by U.S. News and World Report as the starting point for the development of
this study’s list of programs to consider. Twelve programs are included in this ranking;
the researcher currently attends the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, so this
program was eliminated from the sample population. To determine the suitability of the
remaining 11 programs, the researcher visited each program’s website to confirm that (1)
it offered a master’s degree in library science, not a specialization or concentration; (2) it
provided detailed descriptions of its courses online; and (3) it somehow addressed,
through its curriculum, issues and trends emergent in the field of library science. Using
these criteria, the researcher selected for inclusion in this study the LS programs offered
by the following institutions:
• Catholic University • Florida State University • Rutgers University • Syracuse University • University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
23
• University of Maryland • University of Texas at Austin • University of Washington • University of Wisconsin at Madison
The course catalogs for these nine LS programs were retrieved from each
program's website. The description of every full credit, graduate-level, LS course was
read and analyzed and the skills and competencies mentioned in each description were
highlighted and, if necessary, annotated. The availability of dual-degree programs,
degree specializations and concentrations, inter-disciplinary coursework, and field studies
was noted on the data collection sheet for LS programs (Appendix D). The researcher
coded the course descriptions using the categories of skills iteratively developed for the
job advertisements; the number of courses mentioning each skill was then tallied on a
spreadsheet.
INSTRUMENTS
Two data collection sheets were created to collect and organize the data and
standardize the coding process. Appendices B and D are the data collection sheets for the
job advertisements and the LS programs. Cali's thesis (2000) and Gash and Reardon's
(1988) study were used to develop these forms.
Appendix B – Data Collection Sheet for Job Postings
The job advertisement collection sheet was completed for each posting included
in this study. To ensure that duplicate postings were only counted once, the first section
of the sheet captured the source information of the announcement, including the website
that provided the posting as well as the date of the posting. The second section recorded
the name of the hiring organization as well as its location and type (for-profit, non-profit,
24
or cannot be determined). The third section of the sheet recorded the position title as
well as the industry of the hiring organization. The five remaining sections of the sheet
captured the position requirements: the level and subject area of the degree(s) required;
the degree specializations, concentrations, or certifications required; the years and types
of experience required; the knowledge areas required; and the types of skills required by
the employer.
As previously mentioned, the skill requirements were sub-divided into four
categories: inter-personal, LS-degree related, technical, and transferable. Within these
categories, the skills were arranged alphabetically and assigned a number, starting with 1
and progressing upward to 54. The researcher developed these categories to assist with
the organization of data; furthermore, the classification of skills into these broader
categories allowed for a more general analysis of the data.
Appendix D – LS Program Information
This sheet captured information regarding each LS program. More specifically,
the sheet recorded the name of the program, the name of the university offering the
program, and the URL address for the program’s website. The sheet also captured the
name of the degree, the types of dual-degree programs offered, the types of degree
specializations, concentrations, or certifications offered, and the availability of field
experiences. The researcher gathered this information in order to develop a more holistic
understanding of each LS program, since course offerings constitute only a portion of
what LS programs can offer to their students.
25
RESULTS
The present study undertook an examination of 55 job advertisements and 488
course descriptions in order to determine the extent to which LS programs prepare
students for alternative careers. The following sections present the results of this
analysis.
JOB ADVERTISEMENTS
Fifty-five job advertisements were collected. Of this total, 44 advertisements
were posted by for-profit organizations, 6 were posted by non-profit organizations, and 5
were posted by organizations of unknown profit status. Organizations in the business
industry (e.g., accounting and consulting firms) posted the highest number of
advertisements (16), followed by science (8), healthcare (6), and law (5). Table 1 (p. 26)
shows the industry distribution of hiring organizations. These statistics seem to support
the Bureau of Labor Statistics' projection that opportunities for librarians outside of
traditional settings will grow the most between 2006 and 2016 (Occupational Outlook
Handbook, 2008, p. 3).
26
Table 1 – Industry Distribution Industry Number of advertisements Business 16 Science 8 Healthcare 6 Legal 5 Government 3 Public relations 2 Academic 1 Engineering 1 Information technology 1 Insurance 1 Marketing 1 Media 1 Museum 1 Publishing 1 Real Estate 1
The job postings included in this content analysis cover 16 states and the District
of Columbia. Organizations in the Washington, D.C. metropolitan area posted the
highest number of job advertisements (13), followed by New York (6) and Massachusetts
(5). Table 2 (p. 26-27) shows the geographic distribution of the postings. Given the
study’s small sample population, however, the researcher cannot claim any correlation
between geographic location and employment opportunities.
Table 2 – Geographic Distribution Geographic Location Number of advertisements Washington, D.C. metropolitan area 13 New York 6 Massachusetts 5 Illinois 3 Connecticut 2 Florida 2 Maryland 2 North Carolina 2 Wisconsin 2 California 1 Michigan 1 Minnesota 1 Missouri 1
27
New Jersey 1 New Mexico 1 Ohio 1
The position titles provided in the 55 job advertisements tend to be general, rather
than industry- or company-specific. Position titles encountered in this content analysis
include:
• Competitive intelligence director • Database specialist • Knowledge management analyst • Information specialist • Records manager • Research assistant/associate/coordinator
More specific position titles include:
• Coding research analyst • Health information management director • Investigative research analyst • Market research and competitive intelligence analyst • Media research analyst • Tax information specialist
The term "specialist" occurs most often (12 times), followed by "manager" (10
times), "analyst" (8 times), and "associate" (5 times) (Table 3, p. 28). Position types
often include information-related terms; "research," for instance, is listed in 12
advertisements, "information" is listed in 7 advertisements, and "competitive
intelligence" and "knowledge management" are each mentioned in 4 advertisements. The
presence of these information-specific terms in almost one-half (27) of the job postings
indicates that organizations in these alternative settings are looking to hire individuals
with "knowledge-intensive" skills (Hunt, 1995, p. 5).
28
Table 3 – Frequency of Occurrence, Position Functions Term Frequency of Occurrence Specialist 12 Manager 10 Analyst 8 Associate 5 Assistant 3 Director 3 Researcher 3 Administrator 2 Coordinator 1 Designer 1 Developer 1 Indexer 1 Technician 1
Educational Requirements
Educational requirements are specified in 44 of the 55 job advertisements: 39
postings require a bachelor's degree and 5 postings require a master's degree (Figure 1, p.
29). Twelve of these 44 postings prefer, but do not require, a master's degree in library
science.
29
Figure 1: Degrees
39
5
0 0 0
11
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
BA/BS MA/MS JD PhD Other Not specified
Level of Degree
Num
ber
of P
ostin
gs
Business (7 postings), information and library science (5 postings), and science (4
postings) are the three most frequently required degree subject areas. Computer science,
engineering, mathematics, and social science are each required in 2 job advertisements
(total of 8 postings); communications, education, health information management,
information systems, journalism, and music are each required in 1 job advertisement
(total of 4 postings). In total, 21 advertisements require a subject-specific degree, 7
advertisements require an information-specific degree, and 27 postings do not specify the
degree level or type. These results suggest that LS graduates would most likely satisfy
the educational requirements listed for these positions.
30
Experience Requirements
Of the 55 job advertisements selected, 28 do not require industry-specific
experience, 20 do require industry-specific experience, and 7 do not specify. Figure 2
shows the number of years of experience (industry and non-industry) required by
employers. These results indicate that most employers prefer the range of 3 to 5 or more
years of experience; however, since only 27 postings specify an experience requirement,
it is difficult to form any conclusions.
Figure 2: Years of Experience
5
7
10
4
1
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
1 or more years 3 or more years 5 or more years 7 or more years 9 or more years
Number of Years
Num
ber
of P
ostin
gs
31
Knowledge Area Requirements
Knowledge of industry concepts and terminology (35 job postings), industry
resources (35 job postings), and industry trends (12 postings) are the three most
frequently required knowledge areas. As Figure 3 shows, knowledge of intellectual
property (1 posting) and knowledge of a foreign language (2 postings) are the two least
frequently required knowledge areas. These results indicate that organizations are
looking to hire graduates with industry-specific knowledge.
Figure 3: Knowledge Areas
2 4
35 35
12
1
10
05
10152025303540
Foreign
lang
uage
Inform
ation
ethic
s
Indust
ry co
ncep
ts and
term
inolog
y
Indust
ry res
ource
s
Indust
ry tre
nds
Intell
ectua
l prop
erty
Researc
h meth
ods
Knowledge Areas
Num
ber
of P
ostin
gs
32
Skill Requirements
At the category level, transferable skills are required most often (247 times),
followed by interpersonal skills (159 times), LS-degree related skills (80 times), and
technical skills (67 times). More specifically, communication skills are required most
often (67.27% of employers), followed by analytical skills (54.55% of employers) and
proficiency with personal computer applications (50.91% of employers).
As previously noted, communication skills are the most frequently required
interpersonal skill; 37 of the 55 postings explicitly require excellent written and verbal
communication skills. In general, the more external, demonstrable skills—
communication, teamwork, customer service-orientation—are required more often than
the internal, individually-based skills—dedication, integrity, creativity, and quick
learning speed. Figure 4 presents these results.
Figure 4: Interpersonal Skills
9
2116
37
52
12
1
10
2
12
1
9 10 10
205
10152025303540
Ability
to w
ork in
depe
nden
tly
Ability
to w
ork w
ith ot
hers
Ability
/willi
ngne
ss to
colla
borat
e
Commun
icatio
n
Confid
ent
Creativ
e, res
ource
ful
Custom
er ser
vice-o
riente
d
Dedica
ted
Detail-o
riente
d
Energe
tic
Flexibl
e
Integ
rity
Leaders
hip
Motiva
ted
Willi
ng to
take
initia
tive
Quick l
earne
r
Skills
Num
ber
of P
ostin
gs
33
In the LS-degree related skills category, database searching skills (19 postings)
and internet searching skills (17 postings)—perhaps the most transferable skills in this
category—are required most often. Records management (3 postings), collection
development and maintenance (5 postings), and literature searching (5 postings) are the
least frequently required skills. Figure 5 shows the distribution of these skills.
Figure 5: LS-Degree Related Skills
10
5
19
8
5
17
3
13
02468
101214161820
Catalog
ing &
class
ificati
on
Collect
ion dv
lp. &
main
tenan
ce
Databa
se sea
rching
Instru
ction
Lit. sea
rching
, eva
l., & re
trieva
l
Intern
et sea
rching
Records
mgt.
Referen
ce
Skills
Num
ber
of P
ostin
gs
34
Not surprisingly, given the continued proliferation of information technology,
28 of the 55 job postings require candidates to be proficient in the use of basic computer
applications. Figure 6 presents these results.
Figure 6: Technical Skills
7
1214
28
6
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Database design Database admin.& maintenance
Internetapplications
Proficiency withcomputer
applications
Website design &admin.
Skills
Num
ber
of P
ostin
gs
35
In the category of transferable skills, employers most often require strong
analytical skills (30 postings), followed by research (20 postings), writing (20 postings),
and project management (18 postings). The ability to multi-task is required in 16
advertisements and the ability to present information effectively is required in 15
advertisements. The least frequently required skills include fundraising and development
(1 posting), networking (1 posting), and policy development (2 postings). Figure 7 shows
the distribution of transferable skills.
Figure 7: Transferable Skills
16
8
13
30
59
3
10
31
6 5
106
31
14
62
1511
1820
12
20
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Multi-ta
sk
Synthe
size d
ata
Fast-pa
ced en
viron
ment
Analyt
ical
Consul
ting
Docum
ent m
gt.
Editing
Evalua
tive
Financ
ial m
gt.
Fundra
ising
& dv
lp.
Knowled
ge m
gt.
Marketi
ng
Manag
erial
Needs a
ssessm
ent
Negoti
ation
Network
ing Org.
Plannin
g
Policy
dvlp.
Presen
tation
Problem
-solvi
ng
Project
mgt.
Researc
h
Trainin
g
Writi
ng
Skills
Num
ber
of P
ostin
gs
The present study’s content analysis of job advertisements indicates that the
majority of employers are looking to hire individuals who possess:
• a bachelor's degree in an applicable subject area; • 3 to 5 or more years of experience; • knowledge of industry concepts and terminology and industry resources; • excellent oral and written communication skills; • strong analytical skills; and
36
• proficiency in the use of personal computer applications.
LS PROGRAMS
In addition to conducting a content analysis of job advertisements, the present
study examined the online course catalogs of nine ALA-accredited LS programs. The
data collection sheet for LS programs (Appendix D) collected information about the
program awarding the degree, including the degree name, the types of dual-degree
programs offered, the types of degree specializations, concentrations, or certifications
offered, and the availability of field experiences. This information is presented in Table 4
(p. 38-39).
Degree Names
Four programs use the more encompassing phrase "library and information
science" in the degree title, three programs use the traditional term "library science," one
program (the University of Texas at Austin) uses the more expansive term "information
studies," and one program (the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign) uses the
general term "science." This diversity of degree names perhaps stems from each
program's attempt to address the continued expansion of the practice of librarianship.
Dual-Degree Programs
The availability of dual-degree programs at 6 of the 9 universities seems to
suggest a more inter-disciplinary approach to LS education. Five programs offer joint
degrees in traditional subject areas, such as law, history, and the humanities. Two
programs offer unique dual-degree programs: the University of Washington offers a LS
program for lawyers and other individuals already in possession of a law degree and the
37
University of Texas at Austin offers degrees in information studies and women's and
gender studies or Middle Eastern studies.
Degree Specializations
All 9 programs offer degree specializations, concentrations, and/or certifications.
Rutgers University, for instance, offers a certification in information security and
management; the University of Maryland offers a concentration in e-government; and the
University of Wisconsin at Madison offers a specialization in digital libraries and
resources. The availability of these degree concentrations seems to serve as an
acknowledgement of the increasing need for area specializations and subject expertise.
38
Table 4 – LS Program Information Program Degree Dual-degree programs Degree Specializations Field
ExperiencesCatholic (42 coded courses)
MLS • JD/MLS • MA/MS in history, biology,
musicology, english, or religious studies
• School library and media services Yes
FSU (46 coded courses)
MLS • JD/MLS • School library media specialist certification
• Concentrations in (1) information needs and services, (2) youth information needs and services, (3) information architecture and technology, and (4) general librarianship
• Certifications in (1) leadership and management, (2) museum studies, (3) reference services, (4) school library media leadership, (5) web design, and (6) youth services
Yes
Rutgers (50 coded courses)
MLIS None • School library media Yes
Syracuse (48 coded courses)
MLIS None • Certifications in (1) school media, (2) information systems and telecommunications management, (3) information security management, and (4) digital libraries
Yes
39
Table 4 – LS Program Information Program Degree Dual-degree programs Degree Specializations Field
ExperiencesUIUC (93 coded courses)
MS None • Specializations in (1) biological informatics, (2) digital curation, (3) community informatics
• Certifications in (1) K-12 library information, (2) digital libraries, (3) special collections, (4) advanced study
Yes
UMD (57 coded courses)
MLS • MA/MS in history • Specializations in (1) archives, records, and information management and (2) school library media
• Concentrations in (1) e-government and (2) lifelong access
Yes
UT at Austin (72 coded courses)
MSIS • MA/MSIS in Women's and Gender Studies
• MA/MSIS in Middle Eastern Studies
• Certificate of advanced study in (1) conservation of library and archives materials and (2) preservation administration of library and archive materials
• Certification in school library media
Yes
U of Washington (46 coded courses)
MLIS • Law MLIS • Library media endorsement • Certification in law librarianship
Yes
UW at Madison (40 coded courses)
MLIS • JD/MLIS • Open to pursuance of other joint
degrees
• Specializations in (1) school library media, (2) archives administration, and (3) digital libraries and resources
Yes
40
LS COURSE OFFERINGS
A total of 488 course descriptions were collected, analyzed, and coded. The
results of this analysis indicate that LS course descriptions most frequently address the
knowledge areas of industry resources (70 courses) and industry trends (47 courses) and
the category of transferable skills (mentioned 513 times). These results largely
correspond to the requirements listed in the 55 job advertisements.
41
Knowledge areas
LS programs provide the greatest number of courses on the topic of industry
resources (70 courses). Industry trends is addressed in 47 courses and industry concepts
and terminology—the knowledge area most frequently required by employers—is
mentioned in 15 course descriptions. As Figure 8 (p. 41) demonstrates, the course
descriptions adequately cover the topics of research methods, intellectual property,
industry trends, industry resources, and information ethics.
Figure 8: Comparison of Knowledge Areas
0
14
15
70
47
20
29
2
4
35
35
12
1
10
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Foreign language
Information ethics
Industry concepts &terminology
Industry resources
Industry trends
Intellectual property
Research methods
Kno
wle
dge
Are
as
Number of Postings/Courses
Job adsCourses
Skills
LS course descriptions address the category of transferable skills most often (513
times), a result that corresponds to employers' requirements. Not surprisingly, LS-degree
related skills are the second most frequently addressed skill area (236 times), followed by
technical skills (86 times) and interpersonal skills (44 times).
42
In the category of interpersonal skills, communication skills are mentioned
most frequently in LS course descriptions (18 out of 488 courses; 3.69%) (Figure 9, p.
42). Because interpersonal skills are usually acquired and honed through experience,
rather than taught or learned directly, the researcher concludes that a truly accurate
assessment of this skill area would require qualitative surveys of current LS students and
recent LS graduates.
Figure 9: Comparison of Interpersonal Skills
918
5
39
921
1637
52
121
102
121
91010
2
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Ability to work independentlyAbility to work with others
Ability/willingness to collaborateCommunication
ConfidentCreative, resourceful
Customer service-orientedDedicated
Detail-orientedEnergetic
FlexibleIntegrity
LeadershipMotivated
Willing to take initiativeQuick learner
Skill
s
Number of Postings/Courses
Job adsCourses
43
All 9 LS programs provide ample coverage of each LS-degree related skill
(Figure 10, p. 43). The most frequently mentioned skills include cataloging and
classification (57 courses), collection development and maintenance (42 courses), and
reference (32 courses). The least frequently addressed skill is literature searching,
evaluation, and retrieval; only mentioned in 1.43% of courses (7), the skill is still more
than adequately covered.
Figure 10: Comparison of LS-Degree Related Skills
57
42
24
25
7
27
22
32
10
5
19
8
5
17
3
13
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Cataloging & classification
Collection dvlp. & maintenance
Database searching
Instruction
Lit. searching, eval., & retrieval
Internet searching
Records mgt.
Reference
Skill
s
Number of Postings/Courses
Job adsCourses
44
Figure 11 (p. 44) compares the number of job advertisements requiring the
specific technical skill and the number of courses mentioning the topic. Figure 11 seems
to indicate that LS programs adequately address four of the five skill areas and fail to
provide sufficient course coverage of the most frequently required skill—proficiency
with computer applications. The researcher notes, however, that this skill is a
prerequisite for all of the advanced technical courses; therefore, the researcher concludes
that LS programs adequately address all of these technical skills.
Figure 11: Comparison of Technical Skills
17
14
37
5
13
7
12
14
28
6
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Database design
Database admin. & maintenance
Internet applications
Proficiency with computer applications
Website design & admin.
Skill
s
Number of Postings/Courses
Job adsCourses
45
In the category of transferable skills, evaluative skills are addressed most
frequently in course descriptions (112 courses). Managerial (66 courses), needs
assessment (65 courses), analytical (49 courses), and organizational skills (41 courses)
are also frequently mentioned (Figure 12, p. 45).
Figure 12: Comparison of Transferable Skills
1
491
6
11221
79
2366
655
4128
1819
38
202
9
168
1330
59
310
31
65
106
31
146
215
1118
2012
20
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Multi-taskSynthesize data
Fast-paced environmentAnalytical
ConsultingDocument mgt.
EditingEvaluative
Financial mgt.Fundraising & dvlp.
Knowledge mgt.Marketing
ManagerialNeeds assessment
NegotiationNetworking
Org.Planning
Policy dvlp.Presentation
Problem-solvingProject mgt.
ResearchTrainingWriting
Skill
s
Number of Postings/Courses
Job adsCourses
The results of this content analysis indicate that the nine LS programs examined
in this study are addressing the knowledge areas and skills required by employers and,
thus, are preparing students for employment in alternative settings.
46
IMPORTANCE & IMPLICATIONS OF THE STUDY
As mentioned in the introduction, the proliferation of digital technology in the
workplace has impacted the employment destinations of LS graduates. In today's
information-intensive society, private sector businesses seek and generate enormous
amounts of digital information; consequently, many employers are looking to hire
information literate individuals who can find, synthesize, and manage information and
knowledge. LS graduates have begun to fill this employment niche, but few studies have
assessed the extent to which LS programs prepare students for these alternative positions.
In response to this research deficiency, the present study conducted a content analysis of
job advertisements and LS course descriptions in order to determine the extent of the
overlap between employer preferences and LS courses. By highlighting the skills
required by employers and the courses offered by selected programs, this study aims to
generate discussion about the evolution of the profession and, in the process, to
contribute to a more informed understanding of the emergent job market for LS
graduates.
More specifically, by encouraging discourse about employer requirements and LS
curricula, this research topic hopes to have implications for students, practitioners,
professional bodies, LS educators, and program administrators. By ascertaining the skills
required by employers, recent graduates can better prepare themselves for employment in
this emergent job market. Furthermore, this profile of preferred skills will perhaps
motivate practicing librarians to assess the practical worth of their LS degree and
47
encourage professional bodies to update their accreditation standards so as to reflect
the evolving nature of librarianship (Irwin 2002).
This research topic will also affect LS educators and program administrators, who
have a responsibility to prepare students for employment. If, as Markey (2004) notes,
"faculty are the key to making change" (p. 336), it is imperative that LS educators and
administrators empirically assess the extent to which their individual programs prepare
students for alternative careers. By consulting the published literature, conducting
empirical research, and "maintaining a current awareness of job trends…" (Weech &
Konieczny, 2007, p. 74), LS faculty and administrators can promote change and, in the
process, provide a first-rate education to LS students and prepare graduates for careers in
both traditional and alternative settings.
48
SUMMARY & CONCLUSIONS
The proliferation of information technology in private sector businesses has
increased and diversified the employment opportunities for graduates of LS programs;
however, few published studies have undertaken empirical assessments of the reaction of
LS programs to this employment trend. In response to this deficiency, the present study
conducted a content analysis of job advertisements and course descriptions in order to
ascertain the skills required by employers in alternative settings and to determine the
extent to which LS programs are preparing recent graduates for alternative careers.
During a one-month period, the researcher collected 55 job advertisements from
eight employment websites. For each advertisement, the employers' requirements were
identified and recorded (Appendix B), appropriate skill categories were iteratively
developed, and the job postings were analyzed, classified, and coded. The skills
extracted from these advertisements were transferred to a spreadsheet and compared to
the skills mentioned in the 488 course descriptions retrieved from the online course
catalogs of nine ALA-accredited LS programs. The skills mentioned in each collection
of artifacts were then compared in order to determine the extent of the overlap between
the skills required by employers and the skills addressed by LS programs.
In conducting this content analysis, the researcher determined that LS programs
are offering more courses, degrees, and specializations in emerging and non-traditional
subject areas. However, as Karen Markey discovered in her content analysis of course
descriptions, LS programs tend to maintain their curricular adherence to "traditional
49
coursework that seeks greater understanding of users, their information-seeking
behavior, and the sources and services that libraries provide to users generally and to
specific populations" (Markey, 2004, p. 338). The present study, like Markey's
examination of LS educational trends, concludes that these LS programs are beginning to
address the changing needs of their students and are adequately preparing graduates for
employment in alternative settings.
By performing an empirical assessment of job advertisements and course
descriptions, the present study has contributed to a more holistic understanding of the
changing employment landscape, the needs of employers and students, and the
educational offerings of LS programs. The present study's limited sample populations
and time and resource restraints render the results of this content analysis extremely
specific and non-generalizable. Therefore, the researcher recommends that a qualitative
analysis of the students' and practitioners' perspective be conducted in order to
supplement the results of the present study and, by inspiring discourse, better prepare
students for both alternative and traditional careers.
50
REFERENCES
American Library Association. Alphabetical listing of institutions with ALA-accredited programs. Retrieved November 10, 2007 from http://www.ala.org/ala/accreditation/lisdirb/alphaaccred.cfm
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APPENDIX A: VOCABULARY LIST
The following terms were used to locate relevant job postings:
• administrator • analyst • architect • broker • consultant • developer • director
• leader • liaison • manager • professional • researcher • specialist • supervisor
The following terms were used in combination with the terms listed above to narrow search results:
• biotech • business • clinical • competitive intelligence • content • database • health • information • intelligence • IT
• knowledge • legal • market • medical • pharmaceutical • project • records • research • science • systems
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APPENDIX B: DATA COLLECTION SHEET FOR JOB ADVERTISEMENTS
Position ID number: 0xx
SOURCE INFORMATION
Website supplying the posting: Date of the posting: MM/DD/YY
EMPLOYER INFORMATION
Name of hiring organization:
Location of the position:
Type of organization: For-profit Non-profit Unable to determine
POSITION INFORMATION
Position title:
Industry:
DEGREE REQUIREMENTS
Level of degree required:
BA/BS MA/MS JD PhD Other Not specified
Subject area of degree required:
Required degree specializations, concentrations, or certifications:
MLS degree preferred: Yes No
EXPERIENCE REQUIREMENTS
Number of years:
Industry-specific experience: Yes, please specify: No Not specified
KNOWLEDGE AREA REQUIREMENTS
Foreign language Information ethics
Industry concepts and terminology Intellectual property
Industry resources Research methods
Industry trends
SKILL REQUIREMENTS
Interpersonal (numbers 1 to 16):
LS-degree related (numbers 17 to 24):
Technical (numbers 25 to 29):
Transferable (numbers 30 to 54):
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APPENDIX C: CODEBOOK FOR JOB ADVERTISEMENTS Unit of Data Collection: Individual job advertisements for full-time positions in non-library settings.
Position ID: Fill in the advertisement's ID number, beginning with 001 and proceeding upward.
Source Information: Provide the name of the website supplying the posting as well as the date the advertisement was posted.
Employer Information: Provide the name of the hiring organization, the location of the position (city and state), and the type of organization (for-profit, non-profit, unable to determine).
Position Information: Give the position title and organizational setting (industry).
Degree Requirements: Indicate the level and subject area of the degree required by the employer.
1. BA/BS: candidate must have a bachelor's degree. 2. MA/MS: candidate must have a master's degree. 3. JD: candidate must have a law degree. 4. PhD: candidate must have a PhD. 5. Other: candidate must have a type of degree not included in this list (please
specify). 6. Not specified: employer does not specify the type of degree required.
Also, indicate the level and type of any degree concentrations, specializations, or certifications required by the employer.
Finally, indicate whether the employer prefers that the candidate has a master's degree in library science.
Experience Requirements: Indicate the number of years of experience required by the employer as well as the type of experience required.
1. Industry experience: candidate must have employment experience in a specific industry, environment, or setting (please specify).
2. Non-industry experience: candidate does not need employment experience in a specific industry, environment, or setting.
3. Not specified: employer does not specify the type of employment experience required.
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Knowledge Area Requirements: Indicate the type of knowledge required by the employer.
1. Foreign language: candidate must be proficient in a foreign language. 2. Information ethics: candidate must have knowledge of confidentiality and
privacy issues as they relate to information access and use. 3. Industry concepts and terminology: candidate must be familiar with industry-
specific concepts, subjects, processes, and terminology. 4. Industry resources: candidate must be familiar with industry-specific
documents and information resources (i.e., websites, databases). 5. Industry trends: candidate must have knowledge of emerging developments
and trends in a specific industry. 6. Intellectual property: candidate must have knowledge of copyright, patent,
and/or trademark law and its implications for information use. 7. Research methods: candidate must have knowledge of research methods and
techniques.
Skill Requirements: Indicate the types of skills required by the employer.
Interpersonal: category of personal skills dealing with the interactions between individuals. The following phrases indicate interpersonal skills:
1. ability to work independently 2. ability to work with others 3. ability/willingness to collaborate 4. communication (written and oral) 5. confident 6. creative, resourceful 7. customer service-oriented (support and engage customers; maintain client
relationships; strong customer bias) 8. dedicated 9. detail-oriented 10. energetic 11. flexible 12. integrity (committed to ethical standards) 13. leadership (ability to motivate others; decision-making) 14. motivated 15. willing to take initiative 16. quick learner
LS-degree related: category of skills associated with the LS degree and the practice of librarianship. The following phrases indicate library-specific skills:
17. cataloging and classification 18. collection development and maintenance 19. database searching 20. instruction (instructional design)
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21. literature searching, evaluation, and retrieval 22. internet searching 23. records management 24. reference
Technical: category of skills related to the development, maintenance, and use of information technology. The following phrases indicate library-specific skills:
25. database design 26. database administration and maintenance 27. internet applications 28. proficiency with personal computer applications 29. website design and maintenance
Transferable: category of context-independent skills dealing with general business functions. The following phrases indicate transferable skills:
30. ability to multi-task 31. ability to synthesize data and concepts 32. ability to work in a fast-paced environment 33. analytical 34. consulting 35. document management 36. editing 37. evaluative 38. financial management 39. fundraising and development 40. knowledge management 41. marketing/outreach/promotion 42. managerial (ability to manage and supervise others; program development;
staffing; strategic planning; workload distribution and outsourcing) 43. needs assessment 44. negotiation 45. networking 46. organizational (ability to prioritize tasks; time management) 47. planning 48. policy development 49. presentation 50. problem-solving 51. project management (ability to execute projects to timeline and budget
targets) 52. research (demonstrated/proven research ability; primary and secondary
research) 53. training 54. writing (preparation of proposals and reports; preparation of newsletters;
technical writing)
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APPENDIX D: DATA COLLECTION SHEET FOR LS PROGRAMS
PROGRAM INFORMATION Program ID number: 00x
Program name:
University name:
Program website:
DEGREE INFORMATION
Degree name:
Dual-degree programs offered:
Degree specializations, concentrations, and/or certifications offered:
Field experiences offered or allowed:
Yes No Cannot determine