altruism and consumer purchase behevior

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Altruism and ConsumerPurchase Behavior

Thomas L. PowersRaymond A. Hopkins

ABSTRACT.An important issue in the purchase of a product in the

global marketplace is the impact of that purchase on other individualswithinthat country. Thepurchase of a major and technologically complexproduct can have an effect on employment as well as other economic fac-tors that impact thewell-being of that country. This paper reports researchthat examines the relationship between altruism and consumer purchasebehavior involving domestic and foreign products. Three dimensions ofaltruism are measured: consumer ethnocentrism, cognitive moral devel-opment, and prosocial behavior. Consumer purchase behavior is exam-ined in the context of past automobile purchases based on method ofacquisition, region-of-origin, and purchase price. The results indicatethat consumer ethnocentrism varies based on region-of-origin and thatprosocial behavior varies based on method of acquisition and region-of-origin. Implications for policy makers and for the managers of global

products are also presented. [Article copies available for a fee from TheHaworth Document Delivery Service: 1-800-HAWORTH. E-mail address: Website: 2006 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.]

Thomas L. Powers is affiliated with the Graduate School of Management, The Uni-versity of Alabama, Birmingham, AL 35294 (E-mail: [email protected]). Raymond A.Hopkins is affiliated with TheBoeingCompany, Mesa, AZ 85215 (E-mail: [email protected]).

Address correspondence to Thomas L. Powers.

Journal of International Consumer Marketing, Vol. 19(1) 2006Available online at http://jicm.haworthpress.com

2006 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.doi:10.1300/J046v19n01_06 107
http://www.haworthpress.com/http://jicm.haworthpress.com/http://jicm.haworthpress.com/http://www.haworthpress.com/


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KEYWORDS. Altruism, cognitive moral development, consumerethnocentrism, global products, prosocial behavior, region-of-origin

INTRODUCTION

In todays global economy, environmental and humanitarian issuesare increasinglyimportant to consumers. Companiesandbrandsthat areperceived positively on these dimensions have a real chance to takeadvantage of peoples growing sense of altruism (Marketing Week,2005). Altruism provides a useful basis for understanding this motiva-tion that consumers may possess (Bendapudi, Singh, and Bendapudi,

1996; Goodhead, 1991; Goolsby and Hunt, 1992; Guy and Patton, 1989;Henry, 2000; Price, Feick, and Guskey, 1995; Rieck, 2000; Webb,Green, and Brashear, 2000). Research on altruistic behavior in the con-text of consumer purchasing behavior represents a new and excitingapplication of the research stream that has developed on altruism(Federouch, 1990; Olsen, Granzin, and Biswas, 1993). Altruism in-volves actions taken by an individual that voluntarily benefit anotherperson without the expectation of reward from external sources (Bar-Tal, 1976, p. 7; Berkowitz, 1972; Krebs, 1970; Macaulay and Berkowitz,1970; Turnerand Valentine, 2001). Although altruism has been investi-gated in much of the past research in a social or psychological context, ithas direct applicability to purchase decisions in an international context(Saffu and Mamman, 2000; Cleveland, Kalamas, and Laroche, 2005;

Guagnano, 2001; Rowlands, Scott, and Parker, 2003).Altruism is an increasingly seen topic in the ethics and business liter-

ature (Gassler, 1998; Kelly and Hoffman, 1997; Locke and Woiceshyn,1995; Mitchell, 1999; Turner and Valentine, 2001). The impact thataltruism has on purchase behavior is an important subject of ethicsresearch and it is also is relevant to business firms, policy makers, andthe economies of the countries that they operate in. Automobile manu-facturers are increasingly aggressive in marketing their products out-side of their home markets (Smith, 1997) and substantial portion oftrade deficits for countries such as the United States is in automobilesand automobile parts (Federal Reserve Bulletin, 1992).

The research presented here addresses how the elements of altruismimpacts actual purchase behavior. Consumer purchase behavior isexamined in the context of past automobile purchase characteristicsbased on method of acquisition (bought new or used), geographic regionof automobile origin, and purchase price. Altruistic intent is measured

108 JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL CONSUMER MARKETING


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on three dimensions: consumer ethnocentrism, cognitive moral devel-opment, and prosocial behavior. Although there are numerous elementsthat influence purchase decisions, altruism is considered to have animportant secondary effect (Simon, 1993; Weaver, Evans, and Luloff,1992). Theresults indicate that consumer ethnocentrism variesbased onregion-of-origin and that prosocial behavior varies based on method ofacquisition and region-of-origin. Altruism is discussed next, followedby a review of how altruism has been reported to impact purchasebehavior.

BACKGROUND

The problem of defining altruism is addressed by many authors.August Comte (1798-1857) (1875), credited with first use of the term,maintained some social behavior was unselfishly motivated to benefitothers (p. 556). Since Comte, there has been disagreement about theprecise definition of altruism,however, many authors agree that helpingbehavior voluntarily benefits another without the expectation of reward(Berkowitz, 1972; Krebs, 1970). Batson (1991) has most recently de-fined altruism as a motivational state with the ultimate goal of increas-ing anothers welfare (p. 6). Research into the construct is directlytraced to several theoretical sources: Gouldners (1960) propositionregarding the prevalence of the universal norm of reciprocity; Leeds(1963) suggestion regarding the prescription of the norm of giving;

Piagets (1932) and Kohlbergs (1958, 1969) approach toward thedevelopment of moral judgment; Aronfreeds (1970) conceptualizationof conscience development; and Rushton, Russell, and Wells (1984)genetic similarity theory suggesting a biological basis for ethno-centrism, the universal tendency for people to favor their own groupover others (Booth, 1979; Worchel and Cooper, 1979). These theoriesexplicitly discuss social conditions for helping behavior or implicitlyoffer a basis for such conduct.

This theoretical framework approaches the explanation of altruisticbehavior in terms of an interaction between cultural, cognitive, andbehavioral determinants (Bar-Tal, 1976, pp. 14-37). Based on thisframework, we examine altruism in terms of three dimensions:(1) ethnocentrismthe universal tendency for people to favor their owngroup over others (Rushton, Russell, and Wells, 1984) applied to con-sumer behavior by Shimp and Sharma (1987); (2) cognitive moraldevelopmentthe way in which individuals acquire, through time, an

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increasingly accurate understanding of their moral obligations (Rest,1979); and (3)prosocial behaviorthat behavior which is carried out tobenefit another without anticipation of external rewards and performedfor its own end and restitution (Bar-Tal, 1976, pp. 4, 14-37; Kohlberg,1969; Rushton, 1989). Ethnocentrism represents a cultural basis foraltruism. Cognitive moral development represents a cognitive basis,and prosocial behavior is a behavioral basis.

CONSUMER ETHNOCENTRISM

Consumer ethnocentrism is based on theuniversal tendency forpeople

to favor their own group over others (Booth, 1979; Levine and Campbell,1972; Sumner, 1906; Worchel and Cooper, 1979) and represents thebeliefs held by consumers about the propriety of purchasing foreignproducts (Shimp and Sharma, 1987). Ethnocentric consumers mayregard the purchase of imported products as being wrong as such pur-chases negatively impact the domestic economy, increase unemploy-ment, or are unpatriotic. Non-ethnocentric consumers may evaluateforeign products on their own merits without regard for the origin oftheir manufacture. Consumer ethnocentrism provides the individualwith a sense of identity and an understanding of what purchases areacceptable or unacceptable (Shimp and Sharma, 1987).

Social scientists have considered similarity in demographic, physical,and psychological characteristics to be an important factor in marriage,

attraction, friendship, and group cohesion (Byrne, 1971). It has beenreported that people are more likely to help members of their own raceor country than they are to help members of other races or foreigners(Cunningham, 1981; Rushton, 1989). As applied to consumer purchasebehavior, domestic products have historically provided the frame ofreference for the evaluation of foreign products (Shimp and Sharma,1987). Though large numbers of consumers now are willing to considerforeign products as alternatives to domestic items, some consumersstaunchly refuse to buy importedproducts andchastise fellowconsumersfor doing this. They claim buying foreign goods puts domestic workersout of work, hurts the economy, or is unpatriotic. However, they maymoderate this position when domestic products are judged as being oflower quality, or when they hold higherconspicuous consumption values(ChengandChen,2004).Other consumersareequally vocal in defendingtheir right to buy whatever products they wish, regardless of place ofmanufacture.



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COGNITIVE MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Cognitivemoraldevelopmentis defined as thewayinwhich individualsacquire, through time, an increasingly accurate understanding of the na-ture of their moralobligations (Rest,1979).Research hasdocumented theprocess of moral development to warrant generalizingtheprogressive na-ture of moral development hypothesized by Kohlberg (1969) acrossmany populations and cultures. For example, a recent study indicates thepotential influence of culture, education, sex, and gender in the cognitivemoral development of business professionals and graduate business stu-dents in India and the United States (Kracher, Chatterjee, and Lundquist,2002) (for reviews, seeBlasi, 1980; Brabeck,1984; Gibbs andWidaman,

1982; Krebs,1978; Snarey, 1985).Cognitive moral development may beconsidered a preliminary condition for the individual to exhibit pro-social behavior and consumer ethnocentrism.

In developing his theory of moral development, Kohlberg (1969)regarded cognitive moral development as a process of developmentthrough a maximum of six stages. In each stage moral reasoning be-comes more complex as individual thought patterns and structures be-come increasingly complex. At the preconventional level (stages 1 and2), simple immediate consequences to the individual (i.e., punishmentsand rewards) form the basis of moral judgment. Reasoning at the con-ventional level (stages 3 and4) emphasizes compliance with the roles ornorms of appropriate behavior established by peers, family, and society

at large. At the principal level (stages 5 and 6), moral judgment criteriatranscend group norms as the individual becomes decreasingly egocen-tric and develops an increasing strong personal commitment to self-se-lected universal principles.

Prosocial Behavior

Prosocialbehavior is defined as voluntary behavior that is carried outto benefit another without anticipation of external rewards and is per-formed under two circumstances: for its own end and as an act of resti-tution (Bar-Tal, 1976, pp. 4). Research has identified four variables thatinfluence prosocial behavior: (1) personality traits, (2) temporary psy-chological states, (3) social roles and demographic variables, and

(4) social norms. The personality traits of the socially responsible per-son are based on the discovery of a pattern of concern about broad ethi-cal and moral problems (Gough, McLosky, and Meehl, 1952).



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Temporary psychological states are influenced by positive andnegativeemotions, role models, and the interaction effects between characteristicsof benefactors and recipients (Berkowitz, 1983; Cialdini, Darby, andVincent, 1973; Clark and Isen, 1982; Isen and Simmonds, 1978; Kiddand Marshall, 1982). The level of responsibility individuals and bystand-ers in a group assume when they intervene in an emergency (Darley andLatane, 1968; Latane and Darley, 1968), and the role of empathy in mo-tivating witnesses to relieve the distress of another in need also influ-ence the temporary psychological state (Batson and Coke, 1981; Smith,Keating, and Stotland, 1989). Although a benefactor or recipient sharessimilar attributes or social roles such as sex, age, ordinal position, socialclass, and nationality, the resulting predisposition is nota guarantee that

prosocial behavior will result. Social norms are the fourth type of inde-pendent variable affecting the motivation to help. Although their pre-cise role in explaining and predicting human social behavior remainsunsettled, social norms as a determinant of prosocial behavior havebeen upheld (Berkowitz, 1972; Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975; McKirnan,1980; Pepitone, 1976).

Altruism and Purchase Behavior

As firms offer their products on the marketplace they expose con-sumers to multiple product cues (Chao and Rajendran, 1993). Amongthe cues is the made-in label identifying the goods as being of domestic

or foreign manufacture. The identification of this cue introduces thecountry-of-origin (COO) effect into the consumer decision-makingprocess. In the present research, COO is termed region-of-origin asindividual countries are not examined. Certain consumers are unawareof a products COO, while others search for such information (Reier-son, 1966; Hampton, 1977). Consumers may also develop stereotypesof countries and/or their products (Anderson and Cunningham, 1972;Bilkey and Nes, 1982; Gaedeke, 1973; Morello, 1984; Nagashima,1970, 1977; White, 1979; Wall and Heslop, 1986) and that these impacttheir purchase behavior (Graham, Shipley, and Krieger, 1988). Theinfluence of COO may be greater for some products than for others(Gaedeke, 1973; Lillis and Narayan, 1974). There is increasingly theinfluence of cosmopolitanism (Gouldner, 1957; Merton, 1957), where-

by consumers may transcend their local cultures using broadly basedstandards of quality and efficiency to make their choice of product (Can-non and Yaprak, 2002).



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Given that consumers may consider country-of-origin in their productconsideration process, altruism can be a motivating force in the purchaseof a product or service. This is particularly true in the context of earlyadopters of a product. It has been reported that altruism is a force behindthe purchase of renewable electricity for early adopters (Wiser, Fowlie,and Holt, 2001). The use of an altruistic appeal for early adopters wasused by Toyota in the marketing of its first gas-electric hybrid automo-bile (Child, 2003); since that time Toyota has endeavored to advertisethe product based on a more general appeal to potential customers. Sup-porting the strategy that Toyota has undertaken, purchase motivationshave been shown to shift from materialistic motivations to altruisticconcerns as an individual ages (Goodhead, 1991).

RESEARCH FRAMEWORK AND METHOD

The research framework seen in Figure 1 identifies the relationshipbetween consumer ethnocentrism, cognitive moral development, proso-cial behavior, and purchase behavior based on whether the automobilewas purchased new or used, the automobiles region-of-origin, and pur-chase price. The specific hypotheses tested are:

H1: Consumer ethnocentrism differs between individuals based onmethod of acquisition.

H2: Consumer ethnocentrism differs between individuals based onthe purchased vehicles region-of-origin.

H3: Consumer ethnocentrism differs between individuals based onthe vehicles purchase price.

H4: Cognitive moral development differs between individuals basedon method of acquisition.

H5: Cognitive moral development differs between individuals basedon the purchased vehicles region-of-origin.

H6: Cognitive moral development differs between individuals basedon the vehicle purchase price.

H7: Prosocial behavior differs between individuals based on methodof acquisition.

H8: Prosocial behavior differs between individuals based on the pur-chased vehicles region-of-origin.

H9: Prosocial behavior differs between individuals based on thevehicle purchase price.



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Sampling Frame and Measures

The study population consisted of a multistage cluster sampling ofhouseholds from six suburban towns located in Maricopa County, Ari-zona. Six street intersections were randomly chosen from standardmunicipal maps available from local political jurisdictions and a 40-ad-dress sampling frame was devised, based upon the 40 addresses nearestthe intersection. Thus, 1,440 (6 6 40) addresses made up the sam-pling frame. From this frame, 18 addresses were randomly selectedfrom each of the previously designated 36 intersections (Greene andPlank, 1994). This resulted in 648 addresses being selected. The studyutilized a drop-and-collect technique to collect survey data (Brown,1987). This methodology provided the best opportunity to increaseresponse rates attributable to personal contact with the lead author and

to explain the nature of the survey at length.Consumer ethnocentrism was measured using the CETSCALE

(Shimp and Sharma, 1987). The scale contains 17 items relevant to the


FIGURE 1. Research Framework


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beliefs held by consumers about the appropriateness of purchasing for-eign products. Respondents were instructed to respond to a 5-pointLikert-type scale format addressing seven facets of consumers orienta-tions toward foreign products: (1) consumer ethnocentric tendencies,(2) price-value perceptions, (3) self-interest concerns, (4) reciproc-ity norms, (5) rationalization-of-choice, (6) restrictions-mentality, and(7) freedom-of-choice views.

Rests (1986) Defining Issues Test was used to measure cognitivemoral development. The DIT has been used in over 100 studies involving5,000 subjects (Rest, 1976). Subjects were presented six social problemsand were asked to select a course of action and rate twelve issue state-ments on a five-point scale of importance determined to be the most

important in each ethical judgment. At the end they were asked to rankorder four issue statements in theorder of their importance.Theprimaryindex from the DIT used in analysis of the subject response was the P%score representing the relative importance given to principled consider-ations in determining ethical judgment. The P% score represented thepercentage of total possible scores (0-95) assigned to statements, withhigherscores indicating a higher level of cognitivemoraldevelopment.

The Self-Report Altruism Scale (SRAS), a 20-item test developedbyRushton, Chrisjohn, and Fekken (1981) was used to measure prosocialbehavior. This scale lists 20 everyday prosocial behaviors (e.g., makingdonations to charity, giving directions to a stranger) and asks its re-spondents to rate the frequency with which one has engaged in theseprosocial behaviors by specifying either Never, Once, More than once,

Often, or Very often. Multiple-choice single response questions wereused to generate a profile describing the distribution of respondents incategories addressing the method of vehicle acquisition, its region-of-origin and the vehicles purchase price. Vehicle acquisition was mea-sured by categories consisting of bought new, bought used, com-pany provided, and othera catch-all category for any/all remainingmethods of acquisition, for example, gift. Vehicle purchase price wasmeasured by categories corresponding to: less than $15,000, $15,000-$19,999, $20,000-$29,999, $30,000-$39,999, $40,000-$49,999.

Respondent heads of household were instructed to choose betweenan American or Japanese automobile product. The definition of for-eign for the purpose of this research was based on the location of theparent company. Automobile products were chosen as they represent avery important economicsector and historically account for a large por-tion of trade deficits between the United States and Japan (Baily, 1993).After being presented with the hypothetical problem that one of the cars



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they drive is no longer suitable and that they are about to purchase a newcar, respondents were asked to choose one of the two outcomes in aself-administered questionnaire, and the choice outcomes (Kerlinger,1986) were then coded as either 0 or 1.

RESULTS AND FINDINGS

A total of 252 questionnaires were returned and 212 responses wereusable for an effective response rate of 32.7%. The response rate wasconsidered acceptable and is consistent with previous studies using thedrop-and-return survey procedure (Brown, 1987). Of the 212 respon-

dents, 98 (46.2%) were male and 114 (53.8%) were female. The averageages of these individuals were 52 (range = 18-65). Seventy-four per-cent of the sample was married living in a household consisting of twoadults. The level of education ranged from having a high school educa-tion or less to having a postgraduate degree with the average respondenthaving attended college (M = 2.9; Standard Deviation = 1.3). The averagerespondents total household income was above average approaching$50,000 per year. A comparison of the demographic profiles (age, edu-cation, and household income) of the respondents revealed no differ-ence between the sample and the general population from which it wasdrawn.

Reliability and Validity

Reliability of thescalesused in this study was testedusing coefficientalpha and the split-half method. The internal consistency reliability ofthe 17-item CETSCALE was 0.9534 consistent with the 0.94-0.96range reported by Shimp and Sharma (1987) in the development of theirscale. Split-half coefficients yielded a correlation of 0.8318. Thesecoefficients exceed the 0.65 reliability coefficient that Mehrens andLehmann (1973) reported suggesting acceptable reliability. The internalconsistency reliability of the DITs six social problems was 0.7886,consistent with Rest (1986). Split-half coefficients yielded a correlationof 0.6280. Although the split-half coefficient was slightly less than 0.65suggested by Mehrens and Lehmann (1973), the marginal differencebetween them was not expected to jeopardize the reliability of thisinstrument, given its widespread use (Rest, 1976) and its reputation forreliability (Goolsby and Hunt, 1992). The coefficient alpha of the20-item Self-Report Altruism Scale (SRAS) was 0.8518, consistent



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with the 0.78-0.87 range for internal consistency reliability reported byRushton, Chrisjohn, and Fekken (1981). Split-half coefficients yieldeda correlation of 0.6770. Both of these coefficients exceeded the 0.65reliability coefficient that Mehrens andLehmann (1973,p. 122) suggestas acceptable reliability.

Validity of the scales used in this study was established with Pearsonproduct moment correlation coefficients computed using factor analysis.Estimates of the initial factors for the items, their loadings, and eigen-values within the scales were obtained from principal component anal-ysis. Factor analysis confirmed the multidimensional compositionof consumer ethnocentrism. Over 57.7% of the total variance of theCETSCALE was attributable to the first item. The remaining 16 items

together accounted for 42.3% of the variance. Factor analysis, as expect-ed, indicated factor 1 loaded heavily, that is, thescores were greater than0.6, in three clusters addressing orientations toward consumer ethno-centrism and self-interest concerns. Correlation coefficients generatedfor the DIT confirmed the multidimensional composition of moral de-velopment. Factor analysis, as expected, indicated heavy and moderateloading against the related constructs of general aptitude, comprehen-sion of moral issues, law and order orientation, and political tolerancewith moraldevelopment.Theresultant loadings reinforce thevalidity ofRests test as an objective measurement instrument for levels of cogni-tive moral development. Examination of variables comprising thesefactors indicates heavy and moderate loads against constructs of moralreasoning, nurturance, sensitive-attitude, social responsibility, empa-

thy, and prosocial values. The resultant loadings reinforce the discri-minant validity of the SRAS as means for demonstrating the broad baseof the prosocial behavior trait.

Correlations were run between the three elements of altruism. It wasfound that cognitive moral development was correlated to consumerethnocentrism and to prosocial behavior. Consumer ethnocentrism andprosocial behavior were not correlated, however. These results indicatethat as predicted by the literature, cognitive moral development is relatedto the two defined elements of altruism. However, consumer ethno-centrism and prosocial behavior are distinct from each other. The datain this research were analyzed using One-Way ANOVA performed totest the hypotheses that address the various relationships of constructsin the research framework (Table 1). One-Way ANOVA, the standardmethod for analyzing variation in means, most reasonably reflects amodel describing the relationship between a set of independent vari-ables and dependent variables (Kirk, 1982; Montgomery, 1984). The



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TABLE1.

ANOVARes

ultsPastPurchaseBehaviorversus

theDimensionsofAltruism

Hy

pothesis

Other

CompanyCar

BoughtUsed

BoughtNew

SS

F

Sig.

N

10

2

93

107

1

Consumer

Ethnocentrism

39.0000

42.5000

43.1613

43.7477

208.978

48151.268

0.301

0.825

4

CognitiveMoral

Development

0.37480

0.41600

0.35383

0.36150

0.012

4.306

0.195

0.899

7

ProsocialBehavior

62.800

79.500

63.1720

59.4393

1378.090

21263.702

4.493

0.004

118


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F-statistic, a statistic used to test the null hypothesis and explain vari-able variance, provided the basis for interpreting all one-way ANOVAresults obtained in this analysis. A post hoc test was performed usingGabriels pairwise comparison test where the null hypothesis was notrejected.

Results by Hypothesis

H1: Consumer ethnocentrism differs between individuals based onmethod of acquisition.The computed F-value of 0.301 in ANOVA isless than the critical value of 2.65 indicating that there are no significantdifferences (at the 0.05 level) between mean scores for vehicle pur-

chase. Since the hypothesis proposed consumer ethnocentrism differsbetween individuals based on a new or used vehicle purchase, thehypothesis is not supported.

H2: Consumer ethnocentrism differs between individuals based onthe purchased vehicles region-of-origin. The computed F-value of12.625 in ANOVA is greater than the critical value of 3.04 indicatingthat there are significant differences (at the 0.05 level) between themean scores for the region-of-origins of origin (Table 2). Since the hy-pothesis proposed consumer ethnocentrism differs based on the pur-chased vehicles regions-of-origin, the hypothesis is supported. Post hocanalysis using Gabriels test indicates that consumer ethnocentrism issignificantly higher for buyers of European and Domestic automobilescompared with Asian automobiles.

H3: Consumer ethnocentrism differs between individuals based onthe vehicles purchase price. The computed F-value of 0.315 inANOVA is less than the critical value of 2.26 indicating that there areno significant differences (at the 0.05 level) between the mean scores ofthe six purchase price groups (Table 3). Since the hypothesis proposedconsumer ethnocentrism differs based on vehicle purchase price, thenull hypothesis is therefore not supported.

H4: Cognitive moral development differs between individuals basedon method of acquisition. The computed F-value of 0.195 in ANOVA isless than the critical value of 2.65 indicating that there are no significantdifferences (at the 0.05 level) between the method of vehicle purchase(Table 1). Since the hypothesis proposed cognitive moral developmentdiffers between individuals based on new or used vehicle purchase, thehypothesis is not supported.

H5: Cognitive moral development differs between individuals basedon the purchased vehicles region-of-origin.The computed F-value of



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1.557 in ANOVA is less than the critical value of 3.04 indicating thatthere are no significant differences (at the 0.05 level) between the meanscores of the regions-of-origins (Table 2). Since the hypothesis pro-posed cognitive moral development differs based on the purchased vehi-cles region-of-origin, the hypothesis is not supported.

H6: Cognitive moral development differs between individuals basedon the vehicle purchase price. The computed F-value of 0.626 inANOVA is less than the critical value of 2.26 indicating that there areno significant differences (at the 0.05 level) between the six purchaseprice groups (Table 3). Since the hypothesis proposed cognitive moraldevelopment differs between individuals based on the vehicle purchase

price, the hypothesis is therefore not supported.H7: Prosocial behavior differs between individuals based on method

of acquisition. Thecomputed F-value of 4.493 is greater than thecriticalvalue of 2.65 indicating that there is a significant difference (at the 0.05level) between the mean scores for a new or used vehicle purchase(Table 1). Since the hypothesis proposed prosocial behavior differs be-tween individuals based on a new or used vehicle purchase, the hypoth-esis is supported. Post hoc analysis using Gabriels test indicates thatprosocial behavior is less for consumers that purchased a new automo-bile compared with those who acquired a previously owned automobile.

H8: Prosocial behavior differs between individuals based on the pur-chased vehicles region-of-origin.The computed F-value of 5.482 isgreater than thecritical value of 2.65 indicating that there is a significantdifference (at the 0.05 level) between the mean scores of the regions-of-origin (Table 2). Since the hypothesis proposed prosocial behavior dif-fers between individuals based on the purchased vehicles region-of-


TABLE 2. ANOVA Results Vehicle Region-of-Origin versus the Dimensions of

Altruism

Hypothesis Asian European Domestic SS F Sig.

N 50 13 149

2 ConsumerEthnocentrism

34.4600 42.6923 46.2550 5212.74743147.498

12.625 0.000

5 Cognitive MoralDevelopment

0.39036 0.35323 0.34937 0.0634.254

1.557 0.213

8 ProsocialBehavior

60.3400 70.3846 61.0067 1128.50221513.290

5.482 0.005


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TABLE3.

ANOVA

ResultsPurchasePriceversustheDimensionsofAltruism

Hy

pothesis

Unknown

$

15K

$15K-

$19.9K

$20K-

$29.9K

$30K-

$39.9K

$

40K-

$

49.9K

SS

Df

F

S

ig.

N

2

9

9

48

52

6

5

3

Consumer

Ethnocentrism

35.000

42.

767

42.937

44.865

40.666

4

5.600

367.185

47993.060

5206

0.315

0.903

6

CognitiveMoral

Development

0.33215

0.3

521

0.3619

0.3596

0.4571

0

.3660

.065

4.253

5206

0.626

.680

9

Prosocial

Behavior

63.500

61.

484

61.937

59.615

68.500

6

4.800

549.145

22092.647

5206

1.024

0.404

121


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origin, the hypothesis is supported. Post hoc analysis using Gabrielstest indicates that prosocial behavior is greater for consumers purchas-ing European vehicles compared with both Asian and Domestic auto-mobiles.

H9: Prosocial behavior differs between individuals based on thevehicle purchase price.The computed F-value of 1.024 in ANOVA isless than the critical value of 2.26 indicating that there are no significantdifferences (at the 0.05 level) between the mean scores of the six pur-chase price groups (Table 4). Since the hypothesis proposed prosocialbehavior differs between individuals based on thevehicle purchaseprice, the hypothesis is therefore not supported.

DISCUSSION

The results indicate that certain purchase characteristics are associ-ated with different levels of the dimensions of altruism. The researchcompared levels of consumer ethnocentrism, cognitive moral develop-ment, and prosocial behavior with method of acquisition, region-of-origin, and purchase price. Consumer ethnocentrism was found to varybased on region-of-origin and prosocial behavior varies based onmethod of acquisition and region-of-origin. The results further indicatethat consumer ethnocentrism, cognitive moral development, and pro-social behavior do not vary based on a vehicles purchase price.

Region-of-origin of an automobile purchase was found to have a sig-

nificant difference across two dimensions of altruism. It was found thatconsumer ethnocentrism was higher for buyers of Europeananddomes-tic automobiles compared with Asian automobiles. Prosocial behaviorwas found to be higher for buyers of European automobiles comparedwith both domestic and Asian automobiles. Cognitive moral develop-ment was not different across these dimensions. These findings arequite interesting as in both cases the European region buyer showed ahigher level of altruism relative to the consumer ethnocentrism compo-nent compared with the prosocial behavior component, despite the factthat they had purchased a foreign product. What is of even greater inter-est is that European automobile firms, much more so than their Asiancounterparts, do not attempt to create an image that they produce or em-ploy Americans in the domestic market. Asian firms by comparison goto great lengths to convey messages related to how their products areoften produced in the United States and that they are an integral part ofthe United States economy.



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TABLE4

Hy

pothesis

Issue

Investigated

Mean

Difference

Sign

ificant

Diffe

rence

DimensionofAltruism:ConsumerEthnoce

ntrism

H1

PastPurchase

Behavior

BoughtNew

Bou

ghtUsed

CompanyCar

Other

43.7477

43.1

613

42.5000

39,0000

No

H2

VehicleMake

Domestic

Asia

n

European

46.2550

34.4

600

42.6923

Yes

H3

PurchasePriceUnknown

altruism and consumer purchase behevior

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