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Aluminium, 13Al

Spectral lines of aluminium

General properties

Name, symbol aluminium, Al

Appearance silvery gray metallic

Pronunciation UK i/ˌæljʉˈmɪniәm/AL­ew­MIN­ee­әmUS i/әˈljuːmɨnәm/ә­LEW­mi­nәm

Alternativename

aluminum (US)

Aluminium in the periodic table

B↑Al↓Ga

magnesium ← aluminium → silicon

Atomic number 13

Standard atomicweight (±) (Ar)

26.9815385(7)[1]

Elementcategory

post­transition metal,sometimes considered ametalloid

Group, block group 13, p­block

Period period 3

Electronconfiguration

[Ne] 3s2 3p1

per shell 2, 8, 3

AluminiumFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the metallic element. For other uses, see Aluminium (disambiguation).

Aluminium (or aluminum; see different endings) is achemical element in the boron group with symbol Aland atomic number 13. It is a silvery­white, soft,nonmagnetic, ductile metal. Aluminium is the thirdmost abundant element (after oxygen and silicon) inthe Earth's crust, and the most abundant metal there. Itmakes up about 8% by weight of the crust, though it isless common in the mantle below. Aluminium metalis so chemically reactive that native specimens arerare and limited to extreme reducing environments.Instead, it is found combined in over 270 differentminerals.[7] The chief ore of aluminium is bauxite.

Aluminium is remarkable for the metal's low densityand for its ability to resist corrosion due to thephenomenon of passivation. Structural componentsmade from aluminium and its alloys are vital to theaerospace industry and are important in other areas oftransportation and structural materials. The mostuseful compounds of aluminium, at least on a weightbasis, are the oxides and sulfates.

Despite its prevalence in the environment, no knownform of life uses aluminium salts metabolically. Inkeeping with its pervasiveness, aluminium is welltolerated by plants and animals.[8] Owing to theirprevalence, potential beneficial (or otherwise)biological roles of aluminium compounds are ofcontinuing interest.

Contents

1 Characteristics1.1 Physical1.2 Chemical1.3 Isotopes1.4 Natural occurrence

2 Production and refinement2.1 Recycling

3 Compounds3.1 Oxidation state +3

3.1.1 Halides3.1.2 Oxide and hydroxides3.1.3 Carbide, nitride, and relatedmaterials

3.2 Organoaluminium compounds and

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Physical properties

Phase solid

Melting point 933.47 K (660.32 °C, 1220.58 °F)

Boiling point 2743 K (2470 °C, 4478 °F)

Density near r.t. 2.70 g/cm3

when liquid,at m.p.

2.375 g/cm3

Heat of fusion 10.71 kJ/mol

Heat ofvaporization

284 kJ/mol

Molar heatcapacity

24.20 J/(mol·K)

vapor pressureP (Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k

at T (K) 1482 1632 1817 2054 2364 2790

Atomic properties

Oxidation states 3, 2,[2] 1[3], −1, −2 (anamphoteric oxide)

Electronegativity Pauling scale: 1.61

Ionizationenergies

1st: 577.5 kJ/mol2nd: 1816.7 kJ/mol3rd: 2744.8 kJ/mol(more)

Atomic radius empirical: 143 pm

Covalent radius 121±4 pm

Van der Waalsradius

184 pm

Miscellanea

Crystal structure face­centered cubic (fcc)

Speed of soundthin rod

(rolled) 5000 m/s (at r.t.)

Thermalexpansion

23.1 µm/(m·K) (at 25 °C)

Thermalconductivity

237 W/(m·K)

Electricalresistivity

28.2 nΩ·m (at 20 °C)

Magneticordering

paramagnetic[4]

Young'smodulus

70 GPa

3.2 Organoaluminium compounds andrelated hydrides3.3 Oxidation states +1 and +2

3.3.1 Aluminium(I)3.3.2 Aluminium(II)

3.4 Analysis4 Applications

4.1 General use4.2 Aluminium compounds

4.2.1 Alumina4.2.2 Sulfates4.2.3 Chlorides4.2.4 Niche compounds

4.3 Aluminium alloys in structuralapplications

5 History5.1 Hall­Heroult process: availability ofcheap aluminium metal

6 Etymology6.1 Different endings

7 Biology8 Health concerns

8.1 Occupational safety8.2 Alzheimer's disease

9 Effect on plants10 Biodegradation11 See also12 References13 External links

Characteristics

Physical

Aluminium is a relatively soft, durable, lightweight,ductile and malleable metal with appearance rangingfrom silvery to dull gray, depending on the surfaceroughness. It is nonmagnetic and does not easilyignite. A fresh film of aluminium serves as a goodreflector (approximately 92%) of visible light and anexcellent reflector (as much as 98%) of medium andfar infrared radiation. The yield strength of purealuminium is 7–11 MPa, while aluminium alloys haveyield strengths ranging from 200 MPa to 600 MPa.[9]Aluminium has about one­third the density andstiffness of steel. It is easily machined, cast, drawnand extruded.

Aluminium atoms are arranged in a face­centeredcubic (fcc) structure. Aluminium has a stacking­faultenergy of approximately 200 mJ/m2.[10]

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Shear modulus 26 GPa

Bulk modulus 76 GPa

Poisson ratio 0.35

Mohs hardness 2.75

Vickers hardness 160–350 MPa

Brinell hardness 160–550 MPa

CAS RegistryNumber

7429­90­5

History

Prediction Antoine Lavoisier[5] (1787)

First isolation Hans Christian Ørsted[6]

(1825)

Named by Humphry Davy[5] (1807)

Most stable isotopes

iso NA half­life DM DE (MeV) DP

26Al trace 7.17×105 y

β+ 1.17 26Mg

ε – 26Mg

γ 1.8086 –27Al 100% 27Al is stable with 14 neutrons

"Red mud" storage facility in Stade,Germany. The aluminium industrygenerates about 70 million tons ofthis waste annually.

Aluminium is a good thermal and electricalconductor, having 59% the conductivity of copper,both thermal and electrical, while having only 30% ofcopper's density. Aluminium is capable of being asuperconductor, with a superconducting criticaltemperature of 1.2 kelvin and a critical magnetic fieldof about 100 gauss (10 milliteslas).[11]

Chemical

Corrosion resistance can be excellent due to a thinsurface layer of aluminium oxide that forms when themetal is exposed to air, effectively preventing furtheroxidation.[12] The strongest aluminium alloys are lesscorrosion resistant due to galvanic reactions withalloyed copper.[9] This corrosion resistance is alsooften greatly reduced by aqueous salts, particularly inthe presence of dissimilar metals.

In highly acidic solutions aluminium reacts with waterto form hydrogen, and in highly alkaline ones to formaluminates— protective passivation under theseconditions is negligible. Also, chlorides such ascommon sodium chloride are well­known sources ofcorrosion of aluminium and are among the chiefreasons that household plumbing is never made fromthis metal.[13]

However, owing to its resistance to corrosion generally,aluminium is one of the few metals that retain silvery reflectancein finely powdered form, making it an important component ofsilver­colored paints. Aluminium mirror finish has the highestreflectance of any metal in the 200–400 nm (UV) and the 3,000–10,000 nm (far IR) regions; in the 400–700 nm visible range it isslightly outperformed by tin and silver and in the 700–3000 (nearIR) by silver, gold, and copper.[14]

Aluminium is oxidized by water at temperatures below 280 °C toproduce hydrogen, aluminium hydroxide and heat:

2 Al + 6 H2O → 2 Al(OH)3 + 3 H2

This conversion is of interest for the production of hydrogen. Challenges include circumventing theformed oxide layer, which inhibits the reaction, and the expenses associated with the storage of energyby regeneration of the Al metal.[15]

Isotopes

Main article: Isotopes of aluminium

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Aluminium has many known isotopes, whose mass numbers range from 21 to 42; however, only 27Al(stable isotope) and 26Al (radioactive isotope, t1∕2 = 7.2×105 y) occur naturally. 27Al has a natural

abundance above 99.9%. 26Al is produced from argon in the atmosphere by spallation caused by cosmic­ray protons. Aluminium isotopes have found practical application in dating marine sediments,manganese nodules, glacial ice, quartz in rock exposures, and meteorites. The ratio of 26Al to 10Be hasbeen used to study the role of transport, deposition, sediment storage, burial times, and erosion on 105 to106 year time scales.[16] Cosmogenic 26Al was first applied in studies of the Moon and meteorites.Meteoroid fragments, after departure from their parent bodies, are exposed to intense cosmic­raybombardment during their travel through space, causing substantial 26Al production. After falling toEarth, atmospheric shielding drastically reduces 26Al production, and its decay can then be used todetermine the meteorite's terrestrial age. Meteorite research has also shown that 26Al was relativelyabundant at the time of formation of our planetary system. Most meteorite scientists believe that theenergy released by the decay of 26Al was responsible for the melting and differentiation of someasteroids after their formation 4.55 billion years ago.[17]

Natural occurrence

See also: List of countries by bauxite production

Stable aluminium is created when hydrogen fuses with magnesium, either in large stars or insupernovae.[18] It is estimated to be the 14th most common element in the Universe, by mass­fraction.[19]However, among the elements that have odd atomic numbers, aluminium is the third most abundant bymass fraction, after hydrogen and nitrogen.[20]

In the Earth's crust, aluminium is the most abundant (8.3% by mass) metallic element and the third mostabundant of all elements (after oxygen and silicon).[21] The Earth's crust has a higher prevalence ofaluminium than the rest of the planet, due to aluminium silicates in the crust. In the Earths mantle, whichis only 2% aluminium by mass, these aluminium silicate minerals are largely replaced by silica andmagnesium oxides. Overall, the Earth is about 1.4% aluminium by mass (eighth in abundance by mass).In the Earth as a whole, aluminium gains in abundance as compared with the Solar system and Universe,due to Earth's loss of a number of elements which are common in the universe, but which are volatiles atthe Earth's distance from the Sun (hydrogen, helium, neon, nitrogen, carbon as hydrocarbon).

Because of its strong affinity to oxygen, aluminium is almost never found in the elemental state; insteadit is found in oxides or silicates. Feldspars, the most common group of minerals in the Earth's crust, arealuminosilicates. Native aluminium metal can only be found as a minor phase in low oxygen fugacityenvironments, such as the interiors of certain volcanoes.[22] Native aluminium has been reported in coldseeps in the northeastern continental slope of the South China Sea and Chen et al. (2011)[23] haveproposed a theory of its origin as resulting by reduction from tetrahydroxoaluminate Al(OH)4− to

metallic aluminium by bacteria.[23]

It also occurs in the minerals beryl, cryolite, garnet, spinel and turquoise. Impurities in Al2O3, such aschromium or iron yield the gemstones ruby and sapphire, respectively.

Although aluminium is an extremely common and widespread element, the common aluminiumminerals are not economic sources of the metal. Almost all metallic aluminium is produced from the orebauxite (AlOx(OH)3–2x). Bauxite occurs as a weathering product of low iron and silica bedrock in

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Bauxite, a major aluminium ore. Thered­brown color is due to thepresence of iron minerals.

tropical climatic conditions.[24] Large deposits of bauxite occur in Australia, Brazil, Guinea and Jamaicaand the primary mining areas for the ore are in Australia, Brazil, China, India, Guinea, Indonesia,Jamaica, Russia and Suriname.

Production and refinement

See also: Category:Aluminium minerals and List of countries by aluminium production

Bauxite is converted to aluminium oxide (Al2O3) via the Bayer

process.[8] Relevant chemical equations are:

Al2O3 + 2 NaOH → 2 NaAlO2 + H2O2 H2O + NaAlO2 → Al(OH)3 + NaOH

The intermediate sodium aluminate, given the simplified formulaNaAlO2, is soluble in strongly alkaline water, and the othercomponents of the ore are not. Depending on the quality of thebauxite ore, twice as much waste ("red mud") as alumina isgenerated.

The conversion of alumina to aluminium metal is achieved by theHall­Héroult process. In this energy­intensive process, a solution of alumina in a molten (950 and980 °C (1,740 and 1,800 °F)) mixture of cryolite (Na3AlF6) with calcium fluoride is electrolyzed to givethe metal:

Al3+ + 3 e− → Al(l)

At the anode, oxygen is formed:

2 O2− + C → CO2(g) + 4 e−

The aluminium liquid metal then sinks to the bottom of the solution and is tapped off, usually cast intolarge blocks called aluminium billets for further processing. The carbon anode is consumed by reactionwith oxide to form carbon dioxide gaz. A small quantity of fluoride compounds flow with this gaz. Inmodern smelters, this hot carbon dioxide gaz are filtered trough alumina to remove fluoride compoundsand return fluorine as aluminium fluoride to electrolytic cells. The anodes in a reduction cell musttherefore be replaced regularly, since they are consumed in the process. The cathodes do erode, mainlydue to electrochemical processes and liguid metal movement induced by intense electrolytic currents.After five to ten years, depending on the current used in the electrolysis, a cell must be rebuilt because ofcathode wear.

Aluminium electrolysis with the Hall­Héroult process consumes a lot of energy. The worldwide averagespecific energy consumption is approximately 15±0.5 kilowatt­hours per kilogram of aluminiumproduced (52 to 56 MJ/kg). The most modern smelters achieve approximately 12.8 kW·h/kg (46.1MJ/kg). (Compare this to the heat of reaction, 31 MJ/kg, and the Gibbs free energy of reaction, 29MJ/kg.) Reduction line currents for older technologies are typically 100 to 200 kiloamperes; state­of­the­art smelters operate at about 350 kA. Trials have been reported with 500 kA cells.

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World production trend of aluminium

Aluminium spot price 1987–2012

Aluminium recyclingcode

The Hall­Heroult process produces aluminium with a purity ofabove 99%. Further purification can be done by the Hoopesprocess. The process involves the electrolysis of moltenaluminium with a sodium, barium and aluminium fluorideelectrolyte. The resulting aluminium has a purity of99.99%.[8][25]

Electric power represents about 20% to 40% of the cost ofproducing aluminium, depending on the location of the smelter.Aluminium production consumes roughly 5% of electricitygenerated in the U.S.[26] Aluminium producers tend to locatesmelters in places where electric power is both plentiful andinexpensive—such as the United Arab Emirates with its large natural gas supplies,[27] and Iceland[28]

and Norway[29] with energy generated from renewable sources. The world's largest smelters of aluminaare located in the People's Republic of China, Russia and the provinces of Quebec and British Columbiain Canada.[26][30][31]

In 2005, the People's Republic of China was the top producer ofaluminium with almost a one­fifth world share, followed byRussia, Canada, and the US, reports the British GeologicalSurvey.

Over the last 50 years, Australia has become the world's topproducer of bauxite ore and a major producer and exporter ofalumina (before being overtaken by China in 2007).[30][32]

Australia produced 77 million tonnes of bauxite in 2013.[33] TheAustralian deposits have some refining problems, some beinghigh in silica, but have the advantage of being shallow andrelatively easy to mine.[34]

Recycling

Main article: Aluminium recycling

Aluminium is theoretically 100% recyclable without any loss of its naturalqualities. According to the International Resource Panel's Metal Stocks inSociety report, the global per capita stock of aluminium in use in society(i.e. in cars, buildings, electronics etc.) is 80 kg (180 lb). Much of this is inmore­developed countries (350–500 kg (770–1,100 lb) per capita) ratherthan less­developed countries (35 kg (77 lb) per capita). Knowing the percapita stocks and their approximate lifespans is important for planningrecycling.

Recovery of the metal via recycling has become an important use of thealuminium industry. Recycling was a low­profile activity until the late1960s, when the growing use of aluminium beverage cans brought it to the public awareness.

Recycling involves melting the scrap, a process that requires only 5% of the energy used to producealuminium from ore, though a significant part (up to 15% of the input material) is lost as dross (ash­likeoxide).[35] An aluminium stack melter produces significantly less dross, with values reported below

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1%.[36] The dross can undergo a further process to extract aluminium.

In Europe aluminium experiences high rates of recycling, ranging from 42% of beverage cans, 85% ofconstruction materials and 95% of transport vehicles.[37]

Recycled aluminium is known as secondary aluminium, but maintains the same physical properties asprimary aluminium. Secondary aluminium is produced in a wide range of formats and is employed in80% of alloy injections. Another important use is for extrusion.

White dross from primary aluminium production and from secondary recycling operations still containsuseful quantities of aluminium that can be extracted industrially.[38] The process produces aluminiumbillets, together with a highly complex waste material. This waste is difficult to manage. It reacts withwater, releasing a mixture of gases (including, among others, hydrogen, acetylene, and ammonia), whichspontaneously ignites on contact with air;[39] contact with damp air results in the release of copiousquantities of ammonia gas. Despite these difficulties, the waste has found use as a filler in asphalt andconcrete.[40]

Compounds

See also: Category:Aluminium compounds.

Oxidation state +3

The vast majority of compounds, including all Al­containing minerals and all commercially significantaluminium compounds, feature aluminium in the oxidation state 3+. The coordination number of suchcompounds varies, but generally Al3+ is six­coordinate or tetracoordinate. Almost all compounds ofaluminium(III) are colorless.[21]

Halides

All four trihalides are well known. Unlike the structures of the three heavier trihalides, aluminiumfluoride (AlF3) features six­coordinate Al. The octahedral coordination environment for AlF3 is related

to the compactness of fluoride ion, six of which can fit around the small Al3+ center. AlF3 sublimes(with cracking) at 1,291 °C (2,356 °F). With heavier halides, the coordination numbers are lower. Theother trihalides are dimeric or polymeric with tetrahedral Al centers. These materials are prepared bytreating aluminium metal with the halogen, although other methods exist. Acidification of the oxides orhydroxides affords hydrates. In aqueous solution, the halides often form mixtures, generally containingsix­coordinate Al centers, which are feature both halide and aquo ligands. When aluminium and fluorideare together in aqueous solution, they readily form complex ions such as [AlF(H2O)5]

2+, AlF3(H2O)3,

and [AlF6]3−. In the case of chloride, polyaluminium clusters are formed such as

[Al13O4(OH)24(H2O)12]7+.

Oxide and hydroxides

Aluminium forms one stable oxide, known by its mineral name corundum. Sapphire and ruby are impurecorundum contaminated with trace amounts of other metals. The two oxide­hydroxides, AlO(OH), areboehmite and diaspore. There are three trihydroxides: bayerite, gibbsite, and nordstrandite, which differ

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Structure of trimethylaluminium, acompound that features five­coordinate carbon.

in their crystalline structure (polymorphs). Most are produced from ores by a variety of wet processesusing acid and base. Heating the hydroxides leads to formation of corundum. These materials are ofcentral importance to the production of aluminium and are themselves extremely useful.

Carbide, nitride, and related materials

Aluminium carbide (Al4C3) is made by heating a mixture of the elements above 1,000 °C (1,832 °F).The pale yellow crystals consist of tetrahedral aluminium centers. It reacts with water or dilute acids togive methane. The acetylide, Al2(C2)3, is made by passing acetylene over heated aluminium.

Aluminium nitride (AlN) is the only nitride known for aluminium. Unlike the oxides it featurestetrahedral Al centers. It can be made from the elements at 800 °C (1,472 °F). It is air­stable materialwith a usefully high thermal conductivity. Aluminium phosphide (AlP) is made similarly, andhydrolyses to give phosphine:

AlP + 3 H2O → Al(OH)3 + PH3

Organoaluminium compounds and related hydrides

Main article: Organoaluminium compound

A variety of compounds of empirical formula AlR3 and

AlR1.5Cl1.5 exist.[41] These species usually feature tetrahedral Alcenters, e.g. "trimethylaluminium" has the formula Al2(CH3)6(see figure). With large organic groups, triorganoaluminium existas three­coordinate monomers, such as triisobutylaluminium.Such compounds are widely used in industrial chemistry, despitethe fact that they are often highly pyrophoric. Few analoguesexist between organoaluminium and organoboron compoundsexcept for large organic groups.

The important aluminium hydride is lithium aluminium hydride(LiAlH4), which is used in as a reducing agent in organic

chemistry. It can be produced from lithium hydride and aluminium trichloride:

4 LiH + AlCl3 → LiAlH4 + 3 LiCl

Several useful derivatives of LiAlH4 are known, e.g. sodium bis(2­methoxyethoxy)dihydridoaluminate.The simplest hydride, aluminium hydride or alane, remains a laboratory curiosity. It is a polymer withthe formula (AlH3)n, in contrast to the corresponding boron hydride with the formula (BH3)2.

Oxidation states +1 and +2

Although the great majority of aluminium compounds feature Al3+ centers, compounds with loweroxidation states are known and sometime of significance as precursors to the Al3+ species.

Aluminium(I)

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Etched surface from a high purity(99.9998%) aluminium bar, size 55×37mm

AlF, AlCl and AlBr exist in the gaseous phase when the trihalide is heated with aluminium. Thecomposition AlI is unstable at room temperature with respect to the triiodide:[42]

3 AlI → AlI3 + 2 Al

A stable derivative of aluminium monoiodide is the cyclic adduct formed with triethylamine,Al4I4(NEt3)4. Also of theoretical interest but only of fleeting existence are Al2O and Al2S. Al2O is made

by heating the normal oxide, Al2O3, with silicon at 1,800 °C (3,272 °F) in a vacuum.[42] Such materialsquickly disproportionates to the starting materials.

Aluminium(II)

Very simple Al(II) compounds are invoked or observed in the reactions of Al metal with oxidants. Forexample, aluminium monoxide, AlO, has been detected in the gas phase after explosion[43] and in stellarabsorption spectra.[44] More thoroughly investigated are compounds of the formula R4Al2 which contain

an Al­Al bond and where R is a large organic ligand.[45]

Analysis

The presence of aluminium can be detected in qualitative analysis using aluminon.

Applications

General use

Aluminium is the most widely used non­ferrous metal.[46]Global production of aluminium in 2005 was 31.9 milliontonnes. It exceeded that of any other metal except iron(837.5 million tonnes).[47] Forecast for 2012 is 42–45million tonnes, driven by rising Chinese output.[48]

Aluminium is almost always alloyed, which markedlyimproves its mechanical properties, especially whentempered. For example, the common aluminium foils andbeverage cans are alloys of 92% to 99% aluminium.[49] Themain alloying agents are copper, zinc, magnesium,manganese, and silicon (e.g., duralumin) and the levels of these other metals are in the range of a fewpercent by weight.[50]

Some of the many uses for aluminium metal are in:

Transportation (automobiles, aircraft, trucks, railway cars, marine vessels, bicycles, spacecraft,etc.) as sheet, tube, castings, etc.Packaging (cans, foil, frame of etc.)Construction (windows, doors, siding, building wire, etc.).[51]

A wide range of household items, from cooking utensils to baseball bats, watches.[52]Street lighting poles, sailing ship masts, walking poles, etc.Outer shells of consumer electronics, also cases for equipment e.g. photographic equipment,

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Household aluminium foil

Aluminium­bodied Austin "A40Sports" (c. 1951)

Aluminium slabs being transportedfrom a smelter

MacBook Pro's casingElectrical transmission lines for power distributionMKM steel and Alnico magnetsSuper purity aluminium (SPA, 99.980% to 99.999% Al), used in electronics and CDs, and also inwires/cabling.Heat sinks for electronic appliances such as transistors and CPUs.Substrate material of metal­core copper clad laminates used in high brightness LED lighting.Powdered aluminium is used in paint, and in pyrotechnics such as solid rocket fuels and thermite.Aluminium reacts with hydrochloric acid or with sodium hydroxide to produce hydrogen gas.Aluminium is used to make food containers, because of itsresistance to corrosion.Aluminium with magnesium [alloy] is used to make bodyof aircraft.Aluminium with other metals, used to make railway tracks.Aluminium is used to make cooking utensils, because it isresistant to corrosion, and light­weight.A variety of countries, including France, Italy, Poland,Finland, Romania, Israel, and the former Yugoslavia, haveissued coins struck in aluminium or aluminium­copperalloys.[53][54]Some guitar models sport aluminium diamond plates onthe surface of the instruments, usually either chrome orblack. Kramer Guitars and Travis Bean are both known forhaving produced guitars with necks made of aluminium,which gives the instrument a very distinctive sound.

Aluminium is usually alloyed – it is used as pure metal onlywhen corrosion resistance and/or workability is more importantthan strength or hardness. Aluminium­based alloys abruptlyincrease their strength characteristics with small additions ofscandium, as well as zirconium and hafnium.[55] A thin layer ofaluminium can be deposited onto a flat surface by physical vapordeposition or (very infrequently) chemical vapor deposition orother chemical means to form optical coatings and mirrors.

Aluminium compounds

Because aluminium is abundant and most of its derivativesexhibit low toxicity, the compounds of aluminium enjoy wideand sometimes large­scale applications.

Alumina

Main article: Aluminium oxide

Aluminium oxide (Al2O3) and the associated oxy­hydroxides andtrihydroxides are produced or extracted from minerals on a largescale. The great majority of this material is converted to metallic aluminium. In 2013 about 10% of thedomestic shipments in the United States were used for other applications.[56] A major use is as anabsorbent. For example, alumina removes water from hydrocarbons, which enables subsequentprocesses that are poisoned by moisture. Aluminium oxides are common catalysts for industrialprocesses, e.g. the Claus process for converting hydrogen sulfide to sulfur in refineries and for the

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alkylation of amines. Many industrial catalysts are "supported", meaning generally that an expensivecatalyst (e.g., platinum) is dispersed over a high surface area material such as alumina. Being a very hardmaterial (Mohs hardness 9), alumina is widely used as an abrasive and the production of applicationsthat exploit its inertness, e.g., in high pressure sodium lamps.

Sulfates

Several sulfates of aluminium find applications. Aluminium sulfate (Al2(SO4)3·(H2O)18) is produced onthe annual scale of several billions of kilograms. About half of the production is consumed in watertreatment. The next major application is in the manufacture of paper. It is also used as a mordant, in fireextinguishers, as a food additive (E number E173), in fireproofing, and in leather tanning. Aluminiumammonium sulfate, which is also called ammonium alum, (NH4)Al(SO4)2·12H2O, is used as a mordant

and in leather tanning.[8] Aluminium potassium sulfate ([Al(K)](SO4)2)·(H2O)12 is used similarly. Theconsumption of both alums is declining.

Chlorides

Aluminium chloride (AlCl3) is used in petroleum refining and in the production of synthetic rubber andpolymers. Although it has a similar name, aluminium chlorohydrate has fewer and very differentapplications, e.g. as a hardening agent and an antiperspirant. It is an intermediate in the production ofaluminium metal.

Niche compounds

The many aluminium compounds with niche applications include aluminium acetate, a salt used insolution as an astringent, aluminium borate (Al2O3·B2O3) and aluminium fluorosilicate (Al2(SiF6)3)which are used in the production of glass and ceramics and synthetic gemstones and aluminiumphosphate (AlPO4) used in the manufacture of glass, ceramic, pulp and paper products, cosmetics, paintsand varnishes and in making dental cement. Aluminium hydroxide (Al(OH)3) is used as an antacid, as amordant, in water purification, in the manufacture of glass and ceramic and in the waterproofing offabrics. Lithium aluminium hydride is a powerful reducing agent used in organic chemistry.Organoaluminiums are used as Lewis acids and cocatalysts. For example, methylaluminoxane is acocatalyst for Ziegler­Natta olefin polymerization to produce vinyl polymers such as polyethene.Aqueous aluminium ions (such as found in aqueous aluminium sulfate) are used to treat against fishparasites such as Gyrodactylus salaris. In many vaccines, certain aluminium salts serve as an immuneadjuvant (immune response booster) to allow the protein in the vaccine to achieve sufficient potency asan immune stimulant.

Aluminium alloys in structural applications

Main article: Aluminium alloy

Aluminium alloys with a wide range of properties are used in engineering structures. Alloy systems areclassified by a number system (ANSI) or by names indicating their main alloying constituents (DIN andISO).

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Aluminium foam

The strength and durability of aluminium alloys vary widely, not only as a result of the components ofthe specific alloy, but also as a result of heat treatments and manufacturing processes. A lack ofknowledge of these aspects has from time to time led to improperly designed structures and gainedaluminium a bad reputation.

One important structural limitation of aluminium alloys is their fatigue strength. Unlike steels,aluminium alloys have no well­defined fatigue limit, meaningthat fatigue failure eventually occurs, under even very smallcyclic loadings. This implies that engineers must assess theseloads and design for a fixed life rather than an infinite life.

Another important property of aluminium alloys is theirsensitivity to heat. Workshop procedures involving heating arecomplicated by the fact that aluminium, unlike steel, meltswithout first glowing red. Forming operations where a blow torchis used therefore require some expertise, since no visual signsreveal how close the material is to melting. Aluminium alloys,like all structural alloys, also are subject to internal stressesfollowing heating operations such as welding and casting. Theproblem with aluminium alloys in this regard is their low meltingpoint, which make them more susceptible to distortions fromthermally induced stress relief. Controlled stress relief can bedone during manufacturing by heat­treating the parts in an oven,followed by gradual cooling—in effect annealing the stresses.

The low melting point of aluminium alloys has not precludedtheir use in rocketry; even for use in constructing combustion chambers where gases can reach 3500 K.The Agena upper stage engine used a regeneratively cooled aluminium design for some parts of thenozzle, including the thermally critical throat region.

Another alloy of some value is aluminium bronze (Cu­Al alloy).

History

Ancient Greeks and Romans used aluminium salts as dyeing mordants and as astringents for dressingwounds; alum is still used as a styptic. In 1761, Guyton de Morveau suggested calling the base alumalumine. In 1808, Humphry Davy identified the existence of a metal base of alum, which he at firsttermed alumium and later aluminum (see etymology section, below).

The metal was first produced in 1825 in an impure form by Danish physicist and chemist Hans ChristianØrsted. He reacted anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium amalgam, yielding a lump of metallooking similar to tin.[57] Friedrich Wöhler was aware of these experiments and cited them, but afterredoing the experiments of Ørsted he concluded that this metal was pure potassium. He conducted asimilar experiment in 1827 by mixing anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium and yieldedaluminium.[57] Wöhler is generally credited with isolating aluminium (Latin alumen, alum). Further,Pierre Berthier discovered aluminium in bauxite ore. Henri Etienne Sainte­Claire Deville improvedWöhler's method in 1846. As described in his 1859 book, aluminium trichloride could be reduced bysodium, which was more convenient and less expensive than potassium used by Wöhler.[58] In the mid­1880s, aluminium metal was exceedingly difficult to produce, which made pure aluminium more

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The statue of the Anteros inPiccadilly Circus, London, was madein 1893 and is one of the first statuescast in aluminium.

valuable than gold.[59] So celebrated was the metal that bars of aluminium were exhibited at theExposition Universelle of 1855.[60] Napoleon III of France is reputed to have held a banquet where themost honored guests were given aluminium utensils, while the others made do with gold.[61][62]

Aluminium was selected as the material to use for the 100 ounces (2.8 kg) capstone of the WashingtonMonument in 1884, a time when one ounce (30 grams) cost the daily wage of a common worker on theproject (in 1884 about $1 for 10 hours of labor; today, a construction worker in the US working on sucha project might earn $25–$35 per hour and therefore around $300 in an equivalent single 10­hourday).[63] The capstone, which was set in place on 6 December 1884 in an elaborate dedication ceremony,was the largest single piece of aluminium cast at the time.[63]

The Cowles companies supplied aluminium alloy in quantity in the United States and England usingsmelters like the furnace of Carl Wilhelm Siemens by 1886.[64][65][66]

Hall­Heroult process: availability of cheap aluminium metal

Charles Martin Hall of Ohio in the U.S. and Paul Héroult ofFrance independently developed the Hall­Héroult electrolyticprocess that facilitated large­scale production of metallicaluminium. This process remains in use today.[67] In 1888, withthe financial backing of Alfred E. Hunt, the Pittsburgh ReductionCompany started; today it is known as Alcoa. Héroult's processwas in production by 1889 in Switzerland at AluminiumIndustrie, now Alcan, and at British Aluminium, now LuxferGroup and Alcoa, by 1896 in Scotland.[68]

By 1895, the metal was being used as a building material as faraway as Sydney, Australia in the dome of the Chief Secretary'sBuilding.

With the explosive expansion of the airplane industry duringWorld War I (1914­1917), major governments demanded largeshipments of aluminium for light, strong airframes. They oftensubsidized factories and the necessary electrical supplysystems.[69]

Many navies have used an aluminium superstructure for theirvessels; the 1975 fire aboard USS Belknap that gutted heraluminium superstructure, as well as observation of battledamage to British ships during the Falklands War, led to manynavies switching to all steel superstructures.

Aluminium wire was once widely used for domestic electrical wiring. Owing to corrosion­inducedfailures, a number of fires resulted.

Etymology

The various names all derive from its status as a base of alum. It is borrowed from Old French; itsultimate source, alumen, in turn is a Latin word that literally means "bitter salt".[70]

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Two variants of the metal's name are in current use, aluminium (pronunciation: /ˌæljʊˈmɪniәm/) andaluminum (/әˈluːmɪnәm/)—besides the obsolete alumium. The International Union of Pure and AppliedChemistry (IUPAC) adopted aluminium as the standard international name for the element in 1990 but,three years later, recognized aluminum as an acceptable variant. Hence their periodic table includesboth.[71] IUPAC internal publications use either spelling in nearly the same number.[72]

Different endings

Most countries use the ending "­ium" for "aluminium". In the United States and Canada, the ending "­um" predominates.[21][73] The Canadian Oxford Dictionary prefers aluminum, whereas the AustralianMacquarie Dictionary prefers aluminium. In 1926, the American Chemical Society officially decided touse aluminum in its publications; American dictionaries typically label the spelling aluminium as"chiefly British".[74][75] The earliest citation given in the Oxford English Dictionary for any word used asa name for this element is alumium, which British chemist and inventor Humphry Davy employed in1808 for the metal he was trying to isolate electrolytically from the mineral alumina. The citation is fromthe journal Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London: "Had I been so fortunate as tohave obtained more certain evidences on this subject, and to have procured the metallic substances I wasin search of, I should have proposed for them the names of silicium, alumium, zirconium, andglucium."[76][77]

Davy settled on aluminum by the time he published his 1812 book Chemical Philosophy: "Thissubstance appears to contain a peculiar metal, but as yet Aluminum has not been obtained in a perfectlyfree state, though alloys of it with other metalline substances have been procured sufficiently distinct toindicate the probable nature of alumina."[78] But the same year, an anonymous contributor to theQuarterly Review, a British political­literary journal, in a review of Davy's book, objected to aluminumand proposed the name aluminium, "for so we shall take the liberty of writing the word, in preference toaluminum, which has a less classical sound."[79]

The ­ium suffix conformed to the precedent set in other newly discovered elements of the time:potassium, sodium, magnesium, calcium, and strontium (all of which Davy isolated himself).Nevertheless, ­um spellings for elements were not unknown at the time, as for example platinum, knownto Europeans since the 16th century, molybdenum, discovered in 1778, and tantalum, discovered in1802. The ­um suffix is consistent with the universal spelling alumina for the oxide (as opposed toaluminia), as lanthana is the oxide of lanthanum, and magnesia, ceria, and thoria are the oxides ofmagnesium, cerium, and thorium respectively.

The aluminum spelling is used in the Webster's Dictionary of 1828. In his advertising handbill for hisnew electrolytic method of producing the metal in 1892, Charles Martin Hall used the ­um spelling,despite his constant use of the ­ium spelling in all the patents[67] he filed between 1886 and 1903. Hall'sdomination of production of the metal ensured that aluminum became the standard English spelling inNorth America.

Biology

Despite its widespread occurrence in nature, aluminium has no known function in biology. Aluminiumsalts are remarkably nontoxic, aluminium sulfate having an LD50 of 6207 mg/kg (oral, mouse), which

corresponds to 500 grams for an 80 kg (180 lb) person.[8] The extremely low acute toxicitynotwithstanding, the health effects of aluminium are of interest in view of the widespread occurrence ofthe element in the environment and in commerce.

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Schematic of Al absorption by human skin.[80]

There are five major Al forms absorbed by human body: thefree solvated trivalent cation (Al3+(aq)); low­molecular­

weight, neutral, soluble complexes (LMW­Al0(aq)); high­molecular­weight, neutral, soluble complexes (HMW­Al0(aq)); low­molecular­weight, charged, soluble complexes

(LMW­Al(L)n+/−(aq)); nano and micro­particulates(Al(L)n(s)). They are transported across cell membranes orcell epi­/endothelia through five major routes: (1)paracellular; (2) transcellular; (3) active transport; (4)channels; (5) adsorptive or receptor­mediatedendocytosis.[80]

Health concerns

Some toxicity can be traced to deposition in bone and the central nervous system, which is particularlyincreased in patients with reduced renal function. Because aluminium competes with calcium forabsorption, increased amounts of dietary aluminium may contribute to the reduced skeletalmineralization (osteopenia) observed inpreterm infants and infants with growthretardation. In very high doses, aluminium isassociated with altered function of theblood–brain barrier.[81] A small percentageof people are allergic to aluminium andexperience contact dermatitis, digestivedisorders, vomiting or other symptoms uponcontact or ingestion of products containingaluminium, such as antiperspirants andantacids. In those without allergies,aluminium is not as toxic as heavy metals,but there is evidence of some toxicity if it isconsumed in amounts greater than40 mg/day per kg of body mass.[82] Althoughthe use of aluminium cookware has not beenshown to lead to aluminium toxicity ingeneral, excessive consumption of antacidscontaining aluminium compounds andexcessive use of aluminium­containingantiperspirants provide more significantexposure levels. Studies have shown thatconsumption of acidic foods or liquids withaluminium significantly increases aluminiumabsorption,[83] and maltol has been shown toincrease the accumulation of aluminium innervous and osseous tissue.[84] Furthermore,aluminium increases estrogen­related geneexpression in human breast cancer cellscultured in the laboratory.[85] The estrogen­like effects of these salts have led to theirclassification as a metalloestrogen.

The effects of aluminium in antiperspirantshave been examined over the course ofdecades with little evidence of skinirritation.[8] Nonetheless, its occurrence inantiperspirants, dyes (such as aluminiumlake), and food additives has causedconcern.[86] Although there is little evidencethat normal exposure to aluminium presentsa risk to healthy adults,[87] some studiespoint to risks associated with increased

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exposure to the metal.[86] Aluminium in food may be absorbed more than aluminium from water.[88] It isclassified as a non­carcinogen by the US Department of Health and Human Services.[82]

In case of suspected sudden intake of a large amount of aluminium, deferoxamine mesylate may begiven to help eliminate it from the body by chelation.[89]

Occupational safety

Exposure to powdered aluminium or aluminium welding fumes can cause pulmonary fibrosis. TheUnited States Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set a permissible exposurelimit of 15 mg/m3 time weighted average (TWA) for total exposure and 5 mg/m3 TWA for respiratoryexposure. The US National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) recommendedexposure limit is the same for respiratory exposure but is 10 mg/m3 for total exposure, and 5 mg/m3 forfumes and powder. Fine aluminium powder can ignite or explode, posing another workplacehazard.[90][91]

Alzheimer's disease

Aluminium has controversially been implicated as a factor in Alzheimer's disease.[92] According to theAlzheimer's Society, the medical and scientific opinion is that studies have not convincinglydemonstrated a causal relationship between aluminium and Alzheimer's disease.[93] Nevertheless, somestudies, such as those on the PAQUID cohort,[94] cite aluminium exposure as a risk factor forAlzheimer's disease. Some brain plaques have been found to contain increased levels of the metal.[95]Research in this area has been inconclusive; aluminium accumulation may be a consequence of thedisease rather than a causal agent.[96][97]

Effect on plants

Aluminium is primary among the factors that reduce plant growth on acid soils. Although it is generallyharmless to plant growth in pH­neutral soils, the concentration in acid soils of toxic Al3+ cationsincreases and disturbs root growth and function.[98][99][100][101]

Most acid soils are saturated with aluminium rather than hydrogen ions. The acidity of the soil istherefore a result of hydrolysis of aluminium compounds.[102] This concept of "corrected limepotential"[103] to define the degree of base saturation in soils became the basis for procedures now usedin soil testing laboratories to determine the "lime requirement"[104] of soils.[105]

Wheat's adaptation to allow aluminium tolerance is such that the aluminium induces a release of organiccompounds that bind to the harmful aluminium cations. Sorghum is believed to have the same tolerancemechanism. The first gene for aluminium tolerance has been identified in wheat. It was shown thatsorghum's aluminium tolerance is controlled by a single gene, as for wheat.[106] This is not the case in allplants.

Biodegradation

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A Spanish scientific report from 2001 claimed that the fungus Geotrichum candidum consumes thealuminium in compact discs.[107][108] However, other reports on it always refer back to the 2001 Spanishreport and there is no supporting original research since that report. Better documented, the bacteriumPseudomonas aeruginosa and the fungus Cladosporium resinae are commonly detected in aircraft fueltanks using kerosene­based fuels (not AV gas), and can degrade aluminium in cultures.[109] However,this is not a matter of the bacteria or fungi directly attacking or consuming the aluminium, but rather aresult of the microbes' waste having a corrosive nature.[110]

See also

References

Aluminium: The Thirteenth ElementAluminium–air batteryAluminium alloyAluminium foilAluminium granulesAluminium hydroxideBeverage canInstitute for the History of AluminiumPanel edge stainingThe Aluminum AssociationQuantum clockList of countries by aluminium production

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Aluminium(http://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/013.htm) at ThePeriodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)CDC ­ NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards ­Aluminum (http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0022.html)Electrolytic production (http://electrochem.cwru.edu/encycl/art­a01­al­prod.htm)World production of primary aluminium, by country(http://www.indexmundi.com/en/commodities/minerals/aluminum/aluminum_table12.html)Price history of aluminum, according to the IMF (http://www.indexmundi.com/commodities/?commodity=aluminum&months=300)History of Aluminium (http://www.world­aluminium.org/About+Aluminium/Story+of/In+history)– from the website of the International Aluminium InstituteEmedicine – Aluminium (http://www.emedicine.com/med/topic113.htm)The short film ALUMINUM (1941) (https://archive.org/details/gov.archives.arc.38661) isavailable for free download at the Internet Archive

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