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American bla

From Wikipedia, the free enc

American black bear

Temporal range: 2.60 MaPre

OSDCPTJKPgN

Late PlioceneHolocene

Found near Riding Mountain NatiPark, Manitoba, Canada

Conservation status

Least Concern(IUCN 3.1)[1]

Scientific classification

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

Class: Mammalia

Order: Carnivora

Family: Ursidae

Genus: Ursus

Species: U. americanus

k bear

clopedia

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Binomial name

Ursus americanus(Pallas, 1780)

Subspecies

16, see text

Synonyms

Euarctos americanus

The American black bear(UAmerica. It is the continent's sare omnivoreswith their diets

typically live in largely forestbecome attracted to human coAmerican black bear is the w

It is listed by the IUCNas a "llarge global population estimwith the brown bear, it is oneglobally threatened with extintheir teeth and claws as a formany species of bears.[1]

Contents

1 Taxonomy and evolo 1.1 Hybridso 1.2 Subspecies

2 Native names 3 Distribution and pop 4 Habitat 5 Description

o 5.1 Buildo

5.2 Sizeo 5.3 Pelage

rsus americanus) is a medium-sized bearnatmallest and most widely distributed bear spevarying greatly depending on season and loc

d areas, but do leave forests in search of foommunities because of the immediate availabirld's most common bear species.

east concern" species, due to its widespreadted to be twice that of all other bear speciesf only two of the eight modern bear speciestion by the IUCN. American black bears oftof communication with other bears, a behav

tion

ulation

ive to Northcies. Black bearsation. They

. Sometimes theylity of food. The

istribution and aombined. Alongnot considereden mark trees usingior common to


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6 Behavioro 6.1 Reproduction and developmento 6.2 Longevity and mortalityo 6.3 Hibernationo 6.4 Dietary habits

o

6.5 Interspecific predatory relationships 7 Relationships with humans

o 7.1 In folklore, mythology and cultureo 7.2 Attacks on humanso 7.3 Livestock and crop predationo

7.4 Bear awareness in townso 7.5 Hunting and exploitation

7.5.1 Hunting 7.5.2 Meat

8 See also 9 References

10 Bibliography 11 Further reading 12 External links

Taxonomy and evolution

Detail of head taken at the Cincinnati Zoo.

Cinnamon-colored black bear eating dandelions in Waterton Lakes National Park.

Despite living in North America, American black bears are not closely related to brown bearsand polar bears; genetic studies reveal that they split from a common ancestor 5.05 millionyears ago (mya).[3]Both American and Asian black bearsare considered sister taxa, and aremore closely related to each other than to other species of bear.[3][4]Reportedly, the sun bearisalso a relatively recent split from this lineage.[5]


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A small primitive bear called Ursus abstrususis the oldest known North American fossilmember of the genus Ursus, dated to 4.95 mya.[6]This suggests that U. abstrususmay be thedirect ancestor of the American black bear, which evolved in North America.[3][7]AlthoughWolverton and Lyman still consider U. vitabilisan "apparent precursor to modern blackbears",[8]it has also been placed within U. americanus.[7]

The ancestors of American black bears and Asiatic black bears diverged from sun bears4.58mya. The American black bear then split from the Asian black bear 4.08 mya.[3][9]The earliestAmerican black bear fossils, which were located in Port Kennedy, Pennsylvania, greatlyresemble the Asiatic species,[10]though later specimens grew to sizes comparable togrizzlies.[11]From the Holoceneto present, American black bears seem to have shrunk insize,[3]but this has been disputed because of problems with dating these fossil specimens. [8]

The American black bear lived during the same period as short-faced bears (Arctodus simusandA. pristinus) and the Florida spectacled bear (Tremarctos floridanus). These Tremarctinebears evolved from bears that had emigrated from Asia to North America 78 ma.[12]The

short-faced bears are thought to have been heavily carnivorous and the Florida spectacled bearmore herbivorous,[13]while the American black bears remained arboreal omnivores, like theirAsian ancestors. The black bear's generalist behavior allowed it to exploit a wider variety offoods and has been given as a reason why, of these three genera, it alone survived climate andvegetative changes through the last ice agewhile the other more specialized North Americanpredators became extinct. However, bothArctodusand Tremarctoshad survived several otherice ages. After these prehistoric ursids became extinct during the last glacial period10,000 years ago, black bears were probably the only bear present in much of North Americauntil the migration of brown bearsto the rest of the continent.[11]

Hybrids

American black bears are reproductively compatible with several other bear species, and haveoccasionally produced hybridoffspring. According to Jack Hanna'sMonkeys on the

Interstate, a bear captured in Sanford, Florida, was thought to have been the offspring of anescaped female Asian black bearand a male American black bear.[14]In 1859, a black bearand a Eurasian brown bearwere bred together in the London Zoological Gardens, but thethree cubsdied before they reached maturity. In The Variation of Animals and Plants under

DomesticationCharles Darwinnoted:

In the nine-year Report it is stated that the bears had been seen in the zoological gardens to

couple freely, but previously to 1848 most had rarely conceived. In the reports publishedsince this date three species have produced young (hybrids in one case), ... [15]

A black bear shot in autumn 1986 in Michiganwas thought by some to be a black bear/grizzlybearhybrid, due to its unusually large size and its proportionately larger braincase and skull.DNA testing was unable to determine whether it was a large black bear or grizzly.[16]

Subspecies

Listed alphabetically.[17]

American black bear sub-species


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Sub-species

nameCommon name Distribution Description

Ursusamericanusaltifrontalis

Olympic blackbear

Pacific Northwest coastfrom central BritishColumbiathrough

northern Californiaandinland to the tip ofnorthern IdahoandBritish Columbia

Ursusamericanusamblyceps

New Mexicoblack bear

Native to Colorado, NewMexico, west Texas, theeastern half of Arizonainto northern Mexico,and southeastern Utah

Ursus

americanusamericanus

Eastern black

bear

Eastern Montanato the

Atlantic coast, fromAlaskasouth and eastthrough Canadato theAtlantic and south toTexas. Thought to beincreasing in someregions.

Common to Eastern Canada and

U.S. wherever suitable habitat isfound. A large-bodiedsubspecies, almost all specimenshave black fur. May very rarelysport a white blaze on chest.

Ursusamericanuscaliforniensis

California blackbear

Mountain ranges ofsouthern California,north through the CentralValley to southern

Oregon

Able to live in varied climates:found in temperate rainforest inthe north and chaparral shrublandin the south. Small numbers may

feature a cinnamon brown fur.

Ursusamericanuscarlottae

Haida Gwaiiblack bear,Queen Charlotteblack bear

Haida Gwaii/QueenCharlotte IslandsandAlaska

Generally larger than itsmainland counterparts with ahuge skull and molars, and isfound only as a black colorphase[18]

Ursusamericanuscinnamomum

Cinnamon bear Colorado, Idaho, westernMontana, and Wyoming,eastern Washington andOregon, northeastern

Utah

Has brown or red-brown fur,reminiscent of cinnamon

Ursusamericanusemmonsii

Glacier bear Southeast Alaska. Stable. Distinguished by the fur of itsflanks being silvery gray with ablue luster[19]

Ursusamericanuseremicus

Mexican blackbear

Northeastern Mexico andUS borderlands withTexas. Very endangered.

Most often found in Big BendNational Park and the desertborder with Mexico. Numbersunknown in Mexico, butpresumed very low.

Ursus

americanusloridanus

Florida black

bear

Florida, southern

Georgia, and Alabama

Has a light brown nose and shiny

black fur. A white chest patch isalso common. An average male


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weighs 136 kg (300 lb).

Ursusamericanushamiltoni

Newfoundlandblack bear

Newfoundland Generally bigger than itsmainland relatives, ranging insize from 90 to 270 kg (200 to600 lb) and averaging 135 kg

(298 lb). It has one of the longesthibernation periods of any bear inNorth America.[20]Known tofavor foraging in fields ofVacciniumspecies.

Ursusamericanuskermodei

Kermode bear,spirit bear

Central coast of BritishColumbia

Approximately 10% of thepopulation of this subspecieshave white or cream-coloredcoats due to a recessive gene andare called "kermodes" or "spirit

bears". The other 90% appear asnormal-colored black bears.[21]

Ursusamericanusluteolus

Louisiana blackbear

Eastern Texas, Louisiana,southern Mississippi.Threatened (federal list).

Has relatively long, narrow, andflat skull, and proportionatelylarge molars[22]Prefers hardwoodbottom forests and bayous ashabitat

Ursusamericanusmachetes

West Mexicoblack bear

North-central Mexico

Ursusamericanusperniger

Kenai black bear Kenai Peninsula, Alaska

Ursusamericanus

pugnax

Dall black bear Alexander Archipelago,Alaska

Ursusamericanusvancouveri

Vancouver Islandblack bear

Vancouver Island, BritishColumbia

Found in the northern section ofthe island, but occasionally willappear in the suburbs of Victoriametropolitan area

Native names

Abenaki:awasos[23] Algonquin:makwa[24] Blackfoot:kiyo Carrier:ss Cree:maskwa Creek:nokose[25] Dene:tsah Ojibwe:makwaa

Crow:daxpitche Gwich'in:shooh-zhraii[26]


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Hopi:hoonaw Lakota(Sioux):mat Navajo: Nez Perce:yaka Sahaptin:yka

Shoshone:weda Tlingit:see[27] Tsalagi:gv-ni-ge-yo-na[28] Nahuatl:tecuantl Tarahumara:oju Guarijio:oho Kiliwa:kmkan Kickapoo:mahkwa Yoreme:jona O'odham:judumi Mohawk:ohkwri

The word baribalis used as a name for the black bear in French, Italian, German, Russian,Czechand Polish. Although the root wordis popularly written as being from an unspecifiedNative American language, there is no evidence for this.[29]

Distribution and population

Black bear at Grand Teton National Park

Historically, black bears occupied the majority of North America's forested regions. Today,they are primarily limited to sparsely settled, forested areas.[30]Black bears currently inhabitmuch of their original Canadian range, though they seldom occur in the southern farmlands ofAlberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba; they have been extinct in Prince Edward Islandsince

1937.[31]The total Canadian black bear population is between 396,000 and 476,000, [32]basedon surveys taken in the mid-1990s in seven Canadian provinces, though this estimate excludesblack bear populations in New Brunswick, Northwest Territories, Nova Scotia, andSaskatchewan. All provinces indicated stable populations of black bears over the lastdecade.[30]

The current range of black bears in the United States is constant throughout most of thenortheast, and down in the Appalachian Mountainsalmost continuously from Maineto northGeorgia, the northern midwest, the Rocky Mountain region, the west coastand Alaska.[31]However it becomes increasingly fragmented or absent in other regions. Despite this, blackbears in those areas seems to have expanded their range during the last decade, such as withrecent sightings in Ohio, though these probably do not represent stable breeding populationsyet.[31]Surveys taken from 35 states in the early 1990s indicate that black bears are either


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stable or increasing, except in Idaho and New Mexico. The overall population of black bearsin the United States has been estimated to range between 339,000 and 465,000, [33]though thisexcludes populations from Alaska, Idaho, South Dakota, Texas, and Wyoming, whosepopulation sizes are unknown.[30]In the state of California, there are an estimated 30,000black bears, making it the largest black bear population in the Contiguous United States.[34]

As of 1993, known Mexican black bear populations existed in four areas, though knowledgeon the distributions of populations outside those areas have not been updated since 1959.Mexico is the only country where the black bear is classified as "endangered". [30]

There have been several sightings quite far away from where the black bear is normallyfound, such as Union County, North Carolina[35][36]and western Nebraska.[37]

Habitat

Throughout their range, habitats preferred by American black bears have a few sharedcharacteristics. They are often found in areas with relatively inaccessible terrain, thickunderstory vegetation and large quantities of edible material (especially masts). Theadaptation to woodlands and thick vegetation in this species may have originally been due tothe black bear having evolved alongside larger, more aggressive bear species, such as theextinct short-faced bearand the still living grizzly bear, that monopolized more open habitats[38]and the historic presence of larger predators such as smilodonand the American lionthatcould have preyed on black bears. Although found in the largest numbers in wild, undisturbedareas and rural regions, black bears can adapt to surviving in some numbers in peri-urbanregions as long as they contain easily accessible foods and some vegetative coverage. [5]Inmost of the contiguous United States, black bears today are usually found in heavily vegetated

mountainous areas, from 400 to 3,000 m (1,300 to 9,800 ft). For bears living in the AmericanSouthwestand Mexico, habitat usually consists of stands of chaparraland pinyon juniperwoods. In this region, bears occasionally move to more open areas to feed on prickly pearcactus. At least two distinct, prime habitat types are inhabited in the Southeast United States.Black bears in the southern Appalachian Mountainssurvive in predominantly oak-hickoryandmixed mesophytic forests. In the coastal areas of the southeast (such as Florida, TheCarolinas, and Louisiana), bears inhabit a mixture of flatwoods, bays, and swampy hardwoodsites. In the northeast part of the range (United States and Canada), prime habitat consists of aforest canopy of hardwoodssuch as beech, maple, and birch, and coniferousspecies. Corncrops and oak-hickory mast are also common sources of food in some sections of thenortheast; small, thick swampy areas provide excellent refuge cover largely in stands of white

cedar. Along the Pacific coast, redwood, Sitka spruce, and hemlockspredominate as overstorycover. Within these northern forest types are early successional areas important for blackbears, such as fields of brush, wet and dry meadows, high tidelands, riparian areasand avariety of mast-producing hardwood species. The spruce-firforest dominates much of therange of the black bear in the Rockies. Important nonforested areas here are wet meadows,riparian areas, avalanche chutes, roadsides, burns, sidehill parks, and subalpine ridgetops. Inareas where human development is relatively low, such as stretches of Canadaand Alaska,American black bears tend to be found more regularly in lowland regions. [38]In parts ofnortheastern Canada, especially Labrador, black bears have adapted exclusively to semi-openareas that are more typical habitat in North America for brown bears (likely due to theabsence here of brown and polar bears as well as other large carnivore species). [5]


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Description

American black bears can be distinguished from brown bears by their smaller size, their lessconcave profiles, their shorter claws and the lack of a shoulder hump

Build

Some specimens may develop a white crescent moon mark on the chest. This white mark,

which is constant in Asian black bears, occurs in only 25% of American black bears[39]

Skull.

The skulls of American black bears are broad, with narrow muzzles and large jaw hinges. InVirginia, the total length of adult bear skulls was found to average 262 to 317 mm (10.3 to12.5 in).[38]Across its range, greatest skull length for the species has been reportedlymeasured from 23.5 to 35 cm (9.3 to 13.8 in). [5]Females tend to have more slender andpointed faces than males. Their claws are typically black or grayish brown. The claws areshort and rounded, being thick at the base and tapering to a point. Claws from both hind andfront legs are almost identical in length, though the foreclaws tend to be more sharply curved.The paws of the species are relatively sizeable, with a rear foot length of 13.7 to 22.5 cm (5.4

to 8.9 in), being proportionly larger than other medium-sized bear species but much smallerthan the paws of large adult brown and especially polar bears.[5]The soles of the feet are blackor brownish, and are naked, leathery and deeply wrinkled. The hind legs are relatively longerthan those of Asiatic black bears. The vestigal tail is usually 4.8 inches (12 cm) long. The earsare small and rounded, and are set well back on the head.

Black bears are highly dexterous, being capable of opening screw-top jars and manipulatingdoor latches. They also have great physical strength. They have been known to turn over flat-shaped rocks weighing 310 to 325 pounds (141 to 147 kg) by flipping them over with a singleforeleg.[40]They move in a rhythmic, sure-footedway and can run at speeds of 2530 mph(4050 km/h).[41]Black bears have good eyesight, and have been proven experimentally to beable to learn visual discrimination tasks based on color faster than chimpanzees and as fast as


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dogs. They are also capable of rapidly learning to distinguish different shapes, such as smalltriangles, circles and squares.[42]

Size

Cinnamon-colored black bear in Yellowstone National Park

Black bear weight tends to vary according to age, sex, health, and season. Seasonal variationin weight is very pronounced: in autumn, their pre-den weight tends to be 30% higher than inspring, when black bears emerge from their dens. Black bears on the East Coasttend to beheavier on average than those on the West Coast, although black bears follow Bergmann'sruleand bears from the northwest are often slightly heavier than the bears from the southeast.Adult males typically weigh between 57250 kg (126551 lb), while females weigh 33% lessat 41170 kg (90375 lb).[5][43]In the state of California, studies have indicated that theaverage mass is 86 kg (190 lb) in adult males and 58 kg (128 lb) in adult females.[38]Adultblack bears in Yukon Flats National Wildlife Refugein east-central Alaskawere found toaverage 87.3 kg (192 lb) in males and 63.4 kg (140 lb) in females, whereas on Kuiu Islandinsoutheast Alaska (where nutritious salmon are readily available) adult bears averaged an

estimated 115 kg (254 lb).[44][45]

In Great Smoky Mountains National Park, adult malesaveraged 112 kg (247 lb) and adult females averaged 47 kg (104 lb) per one study. [46]InYellowstone National Park, a population study found that adult males averaged 119 kg(262 lb) and adult females averaged 67 kg (148 lb).[47]In New York state, the two sexesreportedly average 135 kg (298 lb) and 74 kg (163 lb), respectively. [48]Adults typically rangefrom 120 to 200 cm (47 to 79 in) in head-and-body length, and 70 to 105 cm (28 to 41 in) inshoulder height. The typically small tail is 7.717.7 cm (3.07.0 in) long.[40][49][50][51]Althoughthey are the smallest species in North America, large males exceed the size of other bearspecies except the brown bearand polar bears.[40]The biggest wild American black bear everrecorded was a male from New Brunswick, shot in November 1972, that weighed 409 kg(902 lb) after it had been dressed, meaning it weighed an estimated 500 kg (1,100 lb) in life,

and measured 2.41 m (7.9 ft) long.[52]Another notably outsized wild black bear, weighing inat 408 kg (899 lb) in total, was the cattle-killer shot in December 1921 on the MoquiReservation in Arizona.[52]The record-sized bear from New Jerseywas shot in Morris CountyDecember 2011 and scaled 376.5 kg (830 lb).[53]Even larger, the most massive black bearrecorded in Pennsylvania(one of six weighing over 363 kg (800 lb) shot in the last 15 years inthe state) weighed in at 399 kg (880 lb) and was shot in November 2010 in Pike County.[54]The North American Bear Center, located in Ely, Minnesota, is home to the world's largestcaptive male and female black bears. Ted, the male, weighed 431453.5 kg (9501,000 lb) inthe fall of 2006.[55]Honey, the female, weighed 219.6 kg (484 lb) in the fall of 2007. [56]

Pelage


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White-furred Kermodeblack bear

The fur is soft, with dense underfur and long, coarse, thick guard hairs.[40]The fur is not asshaggy or coarse as that of brown bears.[57]American black bear skins can be distinguishedfrom those of Asiatic black bears by the lack of a white mark on the chin and hairierfootpads.[58]Despite their name, black bears show a great deal of color variation. Individualcoat colors can range from white, blond, cinnamon, or light brown to dark chocolate brown orto jet black, with many intermediate variations existing. Bluish tinged black bears occur alonga portion of coastal Alaska and British Columbia. White to cream colored black bears occur incoastal islands and the adjacent mainland of south-western British Columbia. Albinospecimens have also been recorded.[59]Black coats tend to predominate in moist areas such asNew England, New York, Tennessee, Michigan and western Washington. Approximately70% of all black bears are black, though only 50% of black bears in the Rocky Mountains are

black.[40]Many black bears in Northwestern North America are cinnamon, blond or lightbrown in color, and thus may sometimes be mistaken for grizzly bears. Grizzly (and othertypes of brown) bears can be distinguished by their shoulder hump, larger size and broader,more concave skull.[60]

In his book The Great Bear Almanac, Gary Brown summarized the predominance of black orbrown/blond specimens by location:[40]

Color variations of black bears by location

Location Color breakdown

Michigan 100% blackMinnesota 94% black, 6% brown

New England 100% black

New York 100% black

Tennessee 100% black

Washington(coastal) 99% black, 1% brown or blonde

Washington(inland) 21% black, 79% brown or blonde

Yosemite National Park 9% black, 91% brown or blonde

Behavior


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In his Great Bear Almanac, Gary Brown lists 20 different sounds in eight different contexts.Sounds expressing aggression include growls, woofs, snorts, bellows and roars. Soundsexpressing contentment include mumbles, squeaks and pants.[41]A black bear has bettereyesight and a better sense of hearing compared to humans. Their keenest sense is the sense ofsmell, which is about seven times greater than a dog's.[61]American black bears tend to be

territorial and non-gregarious in nature. However, at abundant food sources (i.e. spawningsalmonor garbage dumps) black bears may congregate and dominance hierarchies form, withthe largest, most powerful males dominating the most fruitful feeding spots. [62]They marktheir territoriesby rubbing their bodies against trees and clawing at the bark. Annual rangesheld by mature male black bears tend to be very large but there is some variation. On LongIslandoff the coast of Washington, ranges average 5 sq mi (13 km2), whereas on the UngavaPeninsulain Canadaranges can average up to 1,000 sq mi (2,600 km2), with some malesbears travelling as far as 4,349 sq mi (11,260 km2) in times of food shortages.[5][62]Blackbears are excellent and strong swimmers, doing so for pleasure and to feed (largely on fish).Black bears climb trees regularly to feed, escape enemies and to hibernate. Half of bearspecies are habitually arboreal (the most arboreal species, the American and Asian black bears

and the sun bear, being fairly closely related).[5]Their arboreal abilities tend to decline withage.[41]Black bears may be active at any time of the day or night, although mainly forage bynight. Bears living near human habitations tend to be more extensively nocturnaland bearsliving near brown bears tend to be more extensively diurnal.[5][38]

Newborn black bear cubs

Reproduction and development

Sows usually produce their first litter at the age of 35 years.[41]Sows living in moredeveloped areas tend to get pregnant at younger ages. [63]The breeding period usually occursin the JuneJuly period, though it can extend to August in the species' northern range. Thebreeding period lasts for 23 months. Both sexes are promiscuous. Males try to mate with

several females but large, dominant ones may violently claim a female if another mature malecomes near.[38]Sows tend to be short tempered with their mates after copulating. Thefertilized eggs undergo delayed development and do not implant in the females womb untilNovember. The gestation period lasts 235 days, and litters are usually born in late January toearly February. Litter size is between one and six cubs; typically two or three.[64]At birth,cubs weigh 280450 g (0.620.99 lb), and measure 20.5 cm (8.1 in) in length. They are bornwith fine, gray, downlike hair, and their hind quarters are underdeveloped. They typicallyopen their eyes after 2840 days, and begin walking after 5 weeks. Cubs are dependent ontheir mother's milk for 30 weeks, and will reach independence at 1618 months. At the age ofsix weeks, they attain 900 g (2.0 lb), by 8 weeks they reach 2.5 kg (5.5 lb) and by the age of6 months they weigh 18 to 27 kg (40 to 60 lb). They reach sexual maturity at the age of three

years, and attain their full growth at 5 years.[41]


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Play mediaFemale with cubs in Parc Omega, Quebec

Longevity and mortality

The average lifespan in the wild is 18 years, though it is quite possible for wild specimens tosurvive for more than 23 years.[60]The record age of a wild specimen was 39 years, [65]whilethat in captivity was 44 years.[40]Average annual survival rates for adult bears is variable,ranging from 86% in Floridato 73% in Virginiaand North Carolina.[38]In Minnesota, 99% ofwintering adult bears were able to survive the hibernation cycle in one study. [38]Remarkably,

a study of black bears in Nevadafound that the amount of annual mortality of a population ofbears in wilderness areas was 0%, whereas in developed areas in the state this figure rose to83%.[5]Survival in subadults is generally less assured. In Alaska, only 1417% of subadultmales and 3048% of subadult females were found in a study to survive to adulthood. [38]Across the range, the estimated amount of cubs who survive past their first year is 60%.[5]

With the exception of the rare confrontation with an adult brown bearor gray wolfpack, adultblack bears are not usually subject to natural predation.[38]Black bear cubs tend to be morevulnerable to predation than adults. Known predators of bear cubs have included bobcats,coyotes, cougars, wolves, brown bearsand other bears of their own species.[5][38]Many ofthese will stealthily snatch small cubs right from under the sleeping mother. There is a singlerecord of a golden eaglesnatching a yearling cub.[5]Once out of hibernation, mother bearsmay be able to fight off most potential predators.[38]Even cougars will be displaced by anangry mother bear if they are discovered stalking the cubs. [66]Flooding of dens after birth mayalso occasionally kill newborn cubs. However, in current times, American black bearsfatalities are overwhelmingly attributable to human activities. Seasonally, tens of thousands ofblack bears are hunted legally across North America, with many more being illegally poachedor trapped. Auto-collisions also may claim many black bear lives annually. [5][38]

Hibernation

Mother black bear and cubs, hibernating


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Black bears were once not considered true or "deep" hibernators, but because of discoveriesabout the metabolic changes that allow black bears to remain dormant for months withouteating, drinking, urinating, or defecating, most biologists have redefined mammalianhibernation as "specialized, seasonal reduction in metabolism concurrent with scarce food andcold weather". Black bears are now considered highly efficient hibernators.[67][68]

Black bears enter their dens in October and November. Prior to that time, they can put on upto 14 kg (30 lb) of body fat to get them through the seven months during which they fast.Hibernation in black bears typically lasts 38 months, depending on regional climate.[18][69]During this time, their heart rate drops from 4050 beats per minute to 8 beats per minute andmetabolic rate can drop to a quarter of a bears (nonhibernating) basal metabolic rate (BMR).Many of the physiological changes a bear exhibits during hibernation are retained slightlypost-hibernation. Upon exiting hibernation, bears retain a reduced heart rate and basalmetabolic rate. The metabolic rate of a hibernating bear will remain at a reduced level for upto 21 days after hibernation.[70]Reductions in metabolic rate and heart rate do not appear todecrease the bear's ability to heal injuries during hibernation.[71]They spend their time in

hollowed-out dens in tree cavities, under logs or rocks, in banks, caves, or culverts, and inshallow depressions. Females, however, have been shown to be pickier in their choice ofdens, in comparison to males.[72]Although naturally-made dens are occasionally used, mostdens are dug out by the bear itself.[60]The hibernating American black bear does not displaythe same rate of muscle and bone atrophy relative to other nonhibernatory animals that aresubject to long periods of inactivity, due to ailment or old age.[73][74]A hibernating black bearloses approximately half the muscular strength to that of a well-nourished, inactive human.The bears bone mass does not change in geometry or mineral composition duringhibernation, this implies that the bears conservation of bone mass during hibernation is due toa biological mechanism.[75]During hibernation bears retain all excretory waste,and a specialhormone, leptinis released into the black bear's systems, to suppress appetite.The retention ofwaste during hibernation (specifically in minerals such as calcium) may play a role in thebears resistance to atrophy.[73]The body temperature of the American black bear does notdrop significantly, like other mammalian hibernators (staying around 35 degrees Celsius) andthey remain somewhat alert and active. If the winter is mild enough, they may wake up andforage for food. Females also give birth in February and nurture their cubs until the snowmelts.[76]During winter, black bears consume 2540% of their body weight.[77]The footpadspeel off while they sleep, making room for new tissue. In the most southernly areas (i.e.Florida, Mexico, the Southeastern United States) of the black bear's distribution only pregnantfemales and mothers with yearling cubs will enter hibernation. [5]The physiology of Americanblack bears in the wild is closely related to that of bears in captivity. Understanding the

physiology of bears in the wild is vital to the bear's success in captivity.

[78]

After emergingfrom their winter dens in spring, they wander their home ranges for two weeks so that theirmetabolism accustoms itself to the activity. In mountainous areas, they seek southerly slopesat lower elevations for forage and move to northerly and easterly slopes at higher elevationsas summer progresses. Black bears use dense cover for hiding and thermal protection, as wellas for bedding.

Dietary habits


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Black bear feeding on a bush

Black bear taking a dead chum salmonnear Hyder, Alaska

Generally, American black bears are largely crepuscularin foraging active, though mayactively feed at any time.[62]Up to 85% of the black bear's diet consists of vegetation,[41]though they tend to dig less than brown bears, eating far fewer roots, bulbs, cormsand tubersthan the latter species.[59]When initially emerging from hibernation, they will seek to feed oncarrion from winter-killed animals and newborn ungulates. As the spring temperature warms,black bears seek new shoots of many plant species, especially new grasses, wetland plants andforbs.[77]Young shoots and budsfrom trees and shrubs during the spring period are alsoespecially important to black bears emerging from hibernation, as they assist in rebuildingmuscle and strengthening the skeleton and are often the only digestible foods available at thattime.[79]During summer, the diet is comprised largely by fruits, especially berriesand softmasts such as buds and drupes. During the autumn hyperphagia, feeding becomes pretty much

the full-time task of black bears. Hard mastsbecome the most important part of the blackbear's diet in autumn and may even partially dictate the species distribution. Favored mastssuch as hazelnuts, oak acornsand whitebark pine nutsmay be consumed by the hundreds eachday by a single black bear during fall.[5][38]During the fall period, American black bears mayalso habitually raid the nut caches of tree squirrels.[77]Also extremely important in fall areberries such as huckleberriesand buffalo berries.[5]Black bears living in areas near humansettlements or around a considerable influx of recreational human activity often come to relyon foods inadvertently provided by humans, especially during summertime. These includerefuse, birdseed, agricultural productsand honeyfrom apiaries.[60]

The majority of the black bear's animal diet consists of insectssuch as bees, yellow jackets,

antsand their larvae.[77]Black bears are also fond of honey, and will gnaw through trees ifhives are too deeply set into the trunks for them to reach them with their paws. Once the hive


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is breached, black bears will scrape the honeycombs together with their paws and eat them,regardless of stings from the bees.[52]Black bears that live in northern coastal regions(especially the Pacific coast) will fish for salmonduring the night, as their black fur is easilyspotted by salmon in the daytime. However, the white furred black bears of the islands ofwestern Canada have a 30% greater success rate in catching salmon than their black furred

counterparts.[80]

Other fish including suckers, troutand catfishare readily caught whenpossible.[81]Although black bears do not often engage in active predation of other largeanimals for much of the year, the species will also regularly prey on muleand white-taileddeerfawns in spring given the opportunity.[82][83][84]In addition they have been recordedsimilarly preying on elkcalves in Idaho[85]and moosecalves in Alaska.[86]

Black bear with pink salmon.

Black bear predation on adult deer is rare but has been recorded.[87][88][89]They may even huntprey up to the size of adult female moose, which are considerably larger than themselves, byambushing them.[90]There is at least one record of a male black bear killing two bull elkoverthe course of six days by chasing them into deep snow banks where their movement isimpeded. In Labrador, black bears are exceptionally carnivorous, living largely off of caribou,usually sickly, young or dead specimens, and rodentssuch as voles. This is believed to be due

to a paucity of edible plant life in this sub-Arctic region and a local lack of competing largecarnivores (including other bear species).[60]Like brown bears, black bears try to use surpriseto ambush their prey and target the sickly animals in herds. Once a deer fawn is captured, it isfrequently torn apart alive while feeding.[83]If able to capture a mother deer in spring, the bearfrequently begins feeding on the udder of lactating females, but generally prefer meat fromthe viscera. Black bears often drag their prey to cover, preferring to feed in seclusion. Theskin of large prey is stripped back and turned inside out with the skeleton usually left largelyintact. Unlike wolves and coyotes, black bears rarely scatter the remains of their kills.Vegetation around the carcass is usually matted down by black bears and their droppings arefrequently found nearby. Black bears may attempt to cover remains of larger carcasses,though they do not do so with the same frequency as cougarsand grizzly bears.[91]They willreadily consume eggs and nestlings of various birdsand can easily access many tree nests,even the huge nest of the bald eagle.[41]Black bears have been reported stealing deer and otheranimals from human hunters.

Interspecific predatory relationships

Over much of their range, black bears are assured scavengers that can intimidate, using theirlarge size and considerable strength, and if necessary dominate other predators inconfrontations over carcasses. However, in occasions where they encounter the Kodiakor thegrizzlybears, the larger two brownsub-speciesdominate them. Black bears tend to escape

competition from brown bears by being more active in the daytime, and living in more


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densely forested areas. Violent interactions resulting in the deaths of black bears have beenrecorded in Yellowstone National Park.[92][93]

Black bears do compete with cougarsover carcasses. Like brown bears, they will sometimessteal kills from cougars. One study found that both bear species visited 24% of cougar kills in

Yellowstone and Glacier National Parks, usurping 10% of carcasses.[94][95]

Fights between thetwo species are rare, though they can be violent. Cougars occasionally kill adult bears, abehavior reportedly witnessed in the 19th century.[96]There are also 19th and early 20thcentury records of bears killing cougar, either in defense or in territorial disputes, andoccasional fights, which ended in both combatants fatally wounded.[97]

Black bear interactions with wolvesare much rarer than with brown bears, due to differencesin habitat preferences. The majority of black bear encounters with wolves occur in the species northern range, with no interactions being recorded in Mexico. Despite the black bear beingmore powerful on a one to one basis, packs of wolves have been recorded to kill black bearson numerous occasions without eating them. Unlike brown bears, black bears frequently lose

against wolves in disputes over kills.[98]Wolf packs typically kill black bears when the largeanimals are in their hibernation cycle.[43]

There is at least one record of a black bear killing a wolverinein a dispute over food inYellowstone National Park.[99]Anecdotal cases of alligator predation on bears have beenreported, though such cases may involve assaults on cubs.[100]

Relationships with humans

In folklore, mythology and culture

Harry Colebournand Winnie, the bear from which Winnie the Poohderives his name

Black bears feature prominently in the stories of some of America's indigenous peoples. Onetale tells of how the black bear was a creation of the Great Spirit, while the grizzly wascreated by the Evil Spirit.[101]In the mythology of the Haida, Tlingit, Tsimshianpeople of theNorthwest Coast, mankind first learned to respect bears when a girl married the son of black

bear Chieftain.[102]

In Kwakiutlmythology, black and brown bears became enemies whenGrizzly Bear Woman killed Black Bear Woman for being lazy. Black Bear Woman's children,


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in turn, killed Grizzly Bear Woman's own cubs.[103]The Navajobelieved that the Big BlackBear was chief among the bears of the four directions surrounding Sun's house, and wouldpray to it in order to be granted its protection during raids.[104]

Morris Michtom, the creator of the teddy bear, was inspired to make the toy when he came

across a cartoon of Theodore Rooseveltrefusing to shoot a black bear cub tied to a tree.[105]

Winnie the Poohwas named after Winnipeg, a female black bear cub that lived at LondonZoofrom 1915 until her death in 1934.[106]A black bear cub who in the spring of 1950 wascaught in the Capitan Gap firewas made into the living representative of Smokey Bear, themascot of the United States Forest Service.[107]

The American black bear is the mascot of The University of Maineand Baylor University,where the university houses two live black bears on campus.

Sleeping Bear Dunesis named after a Native American legend, where a female bear and hercub swam across Lake Michigan. Exhausted from their journey, the bears rested on the

shoreline and fell sound asleep. Over the years, the sand covered them up, creating a hugesand dune.

Attacks on humans

See also: Bear attackand Bear danger

Although an adult bear is quite capable of killing a human, American black bears typicallyavoid confronting humans when possible. Unlike grizzly bears, which became a subject offearsome legend among the European settlers of North America, black bears were rarely

considered overly dangerous, even though they lived in areas where the pioneers had settled.Black bears rarely attack when confronted by humans, and usually limit themselves to makingmock charges, emitting blowing noises and swatting the ground with their forepaws. Thenumber of black bear attacks on humans is higher than those of the brown bearin NorthAmerica, though this is largely because the black species considerably outnumbers the brownrather than greater aggressiveness.

The incidence of bear attacks in parks and campgrounds declined after the introduction ofbear-resistant garbage cans and other reforms

Compared to brown bear attacks, aggressive encounters with black bears rarely lead to serious

injury. However, the majority of black bear attacks tend to be motivated by hunger rather thanterritoriality, and thus victims have a higher probability of surviving by fighting back rather


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than submitting. Unlike grizzlies, female black bears do not display the same level ofprotectiveness to their cubs, and seldom attack humans in their vicinity. [59]However,occasionally, attacks by protective mothers do occur.[38]The worst recorded fatality incidentoccurred in May 1978, in which a black bear killed three teenagers who were fishing inAlgonquin Park in Canada.[108]Another exceptional, spree-like attack occurred in August

1997 in Liard River Hot Springs Provincial Parkin Canada, when an emaciated black bearattacked a child and mother, killing the mother as well as an adult man who tried to intervene.This bear was shot while mauling a fourth victim.[109][110]

The majority of attacks happened in national parks, usually near campgrounds, where thebears had become habituatedto close human proximity and food conditioned.[59]Out of1,028 incidents of black bears acting aggressively toward people, 107 resulted in injury, wererecorded from 1964 to 1976 in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, and occurredmainly in tourist hotspots where people regularly fed the bears handouts.[108]In almost everycase where open dumps or handouts that had previously attracted black bears were ceased, theamount of aggressive encounters with bears have decreased precipitously over time.[38]

However, in the aforementioned case of the spree attack in Liard River Hot Springs, theattacking bear was believed to have been previously almost fully dependent on a localgarbage dump that had closed and was starving as a result of the loss of that food source.[109]Attempts to relocate bears are typically unsuccessful, as black bears seem to be able to returnto their home range even without familiar landscape cues.[38]

Livestock and crop predation

A limitation of food sources in early spring and wild berry and nut crop failures duringsummer months may be contributing factors to black bears regularly feeding from commercialhuman-based food sources. Crops are frequently eaten by these bears, especially duringautumn hyperphagia when natural foods are scarce. Favored crops may include apples, oatsand corns.[5]Black bears can do extensive damage in some areas of the northwestern UnitedStates by stripping the bark from trees and feeding on the cambium. Livestock depredationsby black bears occur mostly in spring. Though black bears have the capacity to (andoccasionally do) hunt adult cattleand horses, they seem to prefer smaller, more easilyoverwhelmed prey such as sheep, goats, calves, and pigs. They normally kill by biting theneck and shoulders, though they may break the neck or back of prey with blows from thepaws. Evidence of a bear attack includes claw marks and is frequently found on the neck,back, and shoulders of larger animals. Surplus killingof sheep and goats are common. Bearshave been known to frighten livestock herds over cliffs, causing injuries and death to many

animals; whether or not this is intentional is not known.[91]

Occasionally, pets, especiallydogs, which are most prone to harass a bear, are killed by black bears.[111]It is notrecommended to use unleashed dogs as a deterrent from bear attacks. Although large,aggressive dogs sometimes cause a bear to run, if pressed, angry bears frequently turn thetables and end up chasing the dog in return. A bear in pursuit of a pet dog has the potential tothreaten both canid and human lives.[112][113]

Bear awareness in towns

In an effort to help prevent conflicts with bears, many towns in British Columbia developedbear aware programs. The main premise of these programs is to teach humans to manage

foods that attract bears. Keeping garbage securely stored, harvesting fruit when ripe, securinglivestock behind electric fences, and storing pet food indoors are all measures promoted by


20/25

bear aware programs. Revelstoke, British Columbia is a community that demonstrates thesuccess of this approach. Before the community had an education program, an average of 27bears were killed in Revelstoke each year; after the program began, the average mortality hasdropped to just 7 bears per year.[114]See Revelstoke Bear Awarefor more information.

Hunting and exploitation

Hunting

Historically, black bears were hunted by both Native Americans and European settlers. SomeNative American tribes,[which?]in admiration for the black bear's intelligence, would decoratethe heads of bears they killed with trinkets, and place them on blankets. Tobacco smokewould be wafted into the disembodied head's nostrils by the hunter that dealt the killing blow,who would compliment the animal for its courage.[52]The Kutchintypically hunted blackbears during their hibernation cycle. Unlike the hunting of hibernating grizzlies, which wasfraught with danger, black bears took longer to awaken, and was thus safer and easier. [26]

During the European colonisation of eastern North America, thousands of black bears werehunted for their meat, fat and fur.[4]Theodore Rooseveltwrote extensively on black bearhunting in hisHunting the Grisly and other sketches, in which he stated "in [a black bear]chase there is much excitement, and occasionally a slight spice of danger, just enough torender it attractive; so it has always been eagerly followed". He wrote that black bears weredifficult to hunt by stalking, due to their habitat preferences, though were easy to trap.Roosevelt described how, in the southern states, planters regularly hunted black bears onhorseback with hounds. General Wade Hamptonwas known to have been present at 500successful black bear hunts, two thirds of which he killed personally. He killed thirty or fortyblack bears with only a knife, which he would use to stab the bears between the shoulderblades while they were distracted by his hounds.[90]Unless well trained, horses were oftenuseless in black bear hunts, as they often bolted when the bears stood their ground. [52]In 1799,192,000 black bear skins were exported from Quebec. In 1822, 3,000 skins were exportedfrom the Hudson's Bay Company.[115]In 1992, untanned, fleshed and salted black bear hideswere sold for an average of $165.[116]

In Canada, black bears are considered as both a big game and furbearer species in allprovinces save for New Brunswick and Northwest Territories, where they are only classed asa big game species. There are around 80,900 licensed black bear hunters in all of Canada.Canadian black bear hunts take place in the fall and spring, and both male and female bearscan be legally taken, though some provinces prohibit the hunting of females with cubs, or

yearling specimens.[30]

Currently, 28 of the USA's states have black bear hunting seasons. Nineteen states require abear hunting license, with some also requiring a big game license. In eight states, only a biggame license is required to hunt black bears. Overall over 481,500 black bear hunting licencesare sold per year. The hunting methods and seasons vary greatly according to state, with somebear hunting seasons including fall only, spring and fall, or year-round. New Jersey, inNovember 2010, approved of a six-day bear-hunting season in early December 2010 to slowthe growth of the black bear population. Bear-hunting had been banned in New Jersey for fiveyears.[117]A Fairleigh Dickinson UniversityPublicMind poll found that 53% of New Jerseyvoters approved of the new season if scientists concluded black bears were leaving their usual

habitats and destroying private property.[118]Men, older voters, and those living in rural areaswere more likely to approve of a bear-hunting season in New Jersey than women, younger


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voters, and those living in more developed parts of the state.[118]In the western states, wherethere are large black populations, there are spring and year-round seasons. Approximately18,000 black bears were killed annually in the USA between 19881992. Within this period,annual kills ranged from six bears in South Carolina to 2,232 in Maine.[30]

According to Dwight Schuh in hisBowhunter's Encyclopedia, black bears are the third mostpopular quarry of bowhunters, behind deer and elk.[119]

Meat

Black bear meat

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)

Energy 649 kJ (155 kcal)

Carbohydrates 0.00 g

Fat

8.30 gProtein 20.10 g

Vitamins

Vitamin A equiv. (10%)78 g

Thiamine (B1)(14%)0.160 mg

Riboflavin (B2)(57%)0.680 mg

Niacin (B3) (21%)3.200 mg

Minerals

Iron (55%)7.20 mg

Phosphorus (23%)162 mg

Other constituents

Water 71.20 g

Units g = micrograms mg = milligrams

IU = International units

Percentages are roughly approximated using

US recommendationsfor adults.

Source: USDA Nutrient Database

Black bear meat had historically been held in high esteem among North America's indigenous

people and colonists.[52]

Black bears were the only bear species the Kutchin hunted for theirmeat, though this constituted only a small part of their diet.[26]According to the second


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volume of Frank Forester's field sports of the United States, and British provinces, of NorthAmerica:

The flesh of the [black] bear is savoury, but rather luscious, and tastes not unlike pork. It wasonce so common an article of food in New-York as to have given the name ofBear Marketto

one of the principal markets of the city.

Frank Forester's field sports of the United States, and British provinces, of North Americap. 186

Theodore Roosevelt himself likened the flesh of young black bears to that of pork, and not ascoarse or flavourless as the meat of grizzlies.[120]The most favoured cuts of the black bear'smeat are concentrated in the legs and loins. Meat from the neck, front legs and shoulders isusually ground into minced meator used for stewsand casseroles. Keeping the fat tends togive the meat a strong flavour. As black bears can have trichinellosis, cooking temperaturesneed to be high in order to kill the parasites.[121]

Black bear fat was once valued as a cosmetic article that promoted hair growth and gloss. Thefat most favoured for this purpose was the hard white fat found in the body's interior. As onlya small portion of this fat could be harvested for this purpose, the oil was often mixed withlarge quantities of hog lard.[52]However animal rightsactivism over the last decade hasslowed the harvest of these animals; therefore the lard from black bear has not been used inrecent years for the purpose of cosmetics.[citation needed]

See also

List of fatal bear attacks in North America

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american black bear8

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