Texas Tech Universi ty Press

Daniel Del i s H i l l

American MenswearFrom the Civ i l War to the

Twenty-First Centur y

[ Contents ]

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .v

Chapter 1Ready-to-Wear: The Democratization of Men’s Fashion in America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

• From Slops to Mass Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1• Industry and Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6• Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9• Fashion Marketing and Advertising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14• Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21

Chapter 2Victorian: Fashions from the Civil War through the Fin de Siècle, 1860–1900 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23

• Expansionism to Imperial Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23• The Second American Industrial Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24• The Cultural and Social Shifts in America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26• Dress and Identity: Ideas and Ideals of Edwardian Masculinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29• Prelude: Suits of the Early Nineteenth Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40• Suits and Formal Dress 1860–1900 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43• Shirts 1860–1900 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51• Work Clothes 1860–1900 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54• Sportswear 1860–1900 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54• Outerwear 1860–1900 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59• Underwear 1860–1900 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62• Sleepwear 1860–1900 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64• Accessories 1860–1900 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65• Grooming 1860–1900 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73• Conclusion 1860–1900 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75

Chapter 3Edwardianism: Fashions of la Belle Époche, 1900–1914 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77

• America on the World Stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77• A Progressive American Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78• Dress and Identity: Ideas and Ideals of Edwardian Masculinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82• Suits and Formal Dress 1900–1914 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84• Shirts 1900–1914 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88• Work Clothes 1900–1914 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90• Sportswear 1900–1914 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91• Outerwear 1900–1914 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95• Underwear 1900–1914 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .99• Sleepwear 1900–1914 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100• Accessories 1900–1914 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101• Grooming 1900–1914 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110• Conclusion 1900–1914 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112

[ 3 ]

Chapter 4The Jazz Age: Fashions from World War I through the Great Euphoria, 1915–1929 . . . . . . . . .115

• The World at War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115• The Golden Twenties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117• The Fashion Industry in America 1915–1929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122• Dress and Identity: Ideas and Ideals of Masculinity During World War I and the 1920s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125• Suits and Formal Dress 1915–1929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .128• Shirts 1915–1929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .135• Work Clothes 1915–1929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136• Sportswear 1915–1929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139• Outerwear 1915–1929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145• Underwear 1915–1929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147• Sleepwear 1915–1929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .148• Accessories 1915–1929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150• Grooming 1915–1929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .156• Conclusion 1915–1929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .158

Chapter 5From Bust to Berlin: Fashions from the Great Depression through World War II, 1930–1945 . . .161

• Crash and Crisis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161• The Pendulum Swings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .163• War Ends the Depression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .166• Dress and Identity: Ideas and Ideals of Masculinity During the Great Depression and World War II . . . . .167• Men’s Style During the Depression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .171• Suits and Formal Dress 1930–1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .174• Shirts 1930–1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .182• Work Clothes 1930–1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183• Sportswear 1930–1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .186• Outerwear 1930–1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .192• Underwear 1930–1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194• Sleepwear 1930–1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195• Accessories 1930–1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197• Grooming 1930–1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .202• Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .203

Chapter 6Postwar Boom Times: Fashion in the Atomic Age, 1946–1959 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .207

• Consumerism, Conformity, and Communism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .207• Dress and Identity: Ideas and Ideals of Masculinity in the Postwar Boom Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .211• Suits and Formal Dress 1946–1959 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215• Shirts 1946–1959 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .221• Work Clothes 1946–1959 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .223• Sportswear 1946–1959 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .224• Outerwear 1946–1959 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .227• Underwear 1946–1959 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229• Sleepwear 1946–1959 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .230• Accessories 1946–1959 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231• Grooming 1946–1959 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .235• Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .236

Chapter 7Revolution: Fashions from the Age of Aquarius to Disco, 1960–1979 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .239

• Youthquake and Aftershock Transitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .239• Dress and Identity: Postmodern Ideas and Ideals of Masculinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .243

• Postmodern Fashion Pluralism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .245• Suits and Formal Dress 1960–1979 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .251• Shirts 1960–1979 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .259• Work Clothes 1960–1979 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .260• Sportswear 1960–1979 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .261• Outerwear 1960–1979 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .269• Underwear 1960–1979 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .273• Sleepwear 1960–1979 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .274• Accessories 1960–1979 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .275• Grooming 1960–1979 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .282• Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .285

Chapter 8Pluralistic Tribalisms: Fashions since 1980 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .287

• The Reagan Counterrevolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .287• The Fin de Siècle and a New Millennium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .289• The End of the Cold War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .290• American Business and Technology 1980–Present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .290• American Culture and Society 1980–Present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .293• Fashion Merchandising 1980–Present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .295• Dress and Identity: Postmodernist Ideas and Ideals of Masculinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .295• Pluralistic Tribalism 1980–Present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .302• Suits and Formal Dress 1980–Present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .309• Shirts 1980–Present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .314• Sportswear 1980–Present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315• Outerwear 1980–Present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .323• Underwear 1980–Present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .324• Sleepwear 1980–Present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .327• Accessories 1980–Present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .327• Grooming 1980–Present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .333• Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .327

Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .339

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .351

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .359

Preface [ 4 ]

[ 5 ] American Menswear from the Civil War to the Twenty-First Century

[ v ]

Relatively few comprehensive books on the history of Americanmenswear exist. Fashion survey texts are limited by space and conse-quently treat the topic only in the most general terms, usually focusing onsuits and sportswear, but omitting categories such as outerwear, sleep-wear, underwear, swimwear, headgear, neckwear, footwear, and acces-sories. One exception is the definitive Esquire’s Encyclopedia of TwentiethCentury Men’s Fashions by Bill Gale and Oscar Schoeffler (1973), but thetext concludes at the beginning of the 1970s, leaving a substantial gap offour decades. Even if a researcher can find a copy of that volume in a usedbooks store, he can expect to pay a few hundred dollars for it. Equally rareis William Harlan Shaw’s American Men’s Wear 1861–1982 (1982), one ofthe “series of theatre-related volumes published by Oracle Press”1 prima-rily as a picture reference book with little substantive text. Other impor-tant texts on menswear focus on European perspectives. FaridChenoune’s A History of Men’s Fashions (1993) is an excellent study ofFrench and British styles with a few American pop culture references(and is also an expensive rarity when available). Vittoria de Buzzaccarini’sElegance and Style: Two Hundred Years of Men’s Fashions (1992) coversItalian menswear into the 1960s. Maria Constantino’s Men’s Fashion inthe Twentieth Century (1997) and Diana de Marly’s Fashion for Men(1985) are both short but well-detailed histories of British menswear.Cally Blackman’s One Hundred Years of Menswear (2009) is predomi-nantly a pop culture picture book with captions, also with a Britishemphasis.

Other texts on the subject of menswear carve up the topic into cate-gories that are hard to navigate when researching a chronology of men’sdress and style. Colin McDowell’s The Man of Fashion: Peacock Males andPerfect Gentlemen (1997) separates British men’s dress into assorted gar-ment types mixed with identity themes. Similarly, Jocks and Nerds: Men’sStyle in the Twentieth Century by Richard Martin and Harold Koda

[ Preface ]

(1989), examines the dress styles of a dozen masculine types. In 2009,Robert Bryan and the Council of Fashion Designers of America producedAmerican Fashion Menswear, which is likewise divided into categoriesthat make a chronology difficult to follow.

Thus, this book on American menswear undertakes three objectives.Foremost is the compilation of a detailed, well-illustrated chronology ofmen’s fashion and masculine style in the United States from the Civil Warera through the first decade of the twenty-first century. Second is anoverview of the democratization of men’s fashion by mass production,mass distribution, and mass marketing. Third is a historical and sociocul-tural introduction to each era with an assessment of the evolving andshifting ideas and ideals of masculinity in America during each period.

Although this study also includes an abbreviated look at Americanmenswear in the first half of the nineteenth century, its primary focus isfashions and styles since the Civil War for several reasons. During the1850s and 1860s, a number of innovative advances in apparel manufac-turing methods, technology, distribution, and marketing converged at thecusp of the Second Industrial Revolution in America. Most important ofall was the introduction of the foot treadle sewing machine of the 1850s,which revolutionized ready-to-wear manufacturing by cutting garmentproduction time up to 90% over handsewn methods. In addition, refine-ments in the power loom and its conversion from water power to steamand then electricity made possible the high-speed production of a hugearray of cheap woven and knit textiles to feed the growing ready-to-wearindustry. Another key advance at the time was the Union Army’s develop-ment of proportional tables for standardized garment sizes that werequickly adapted by civilian clothing makers, ensuring a more accurate fitfor consumers.

With such an abundance of mass-produced clothing came new con-cepts of mass distribution and mass merchandising. In the 1850s and1860s, large department stores were established in many U.S. cities,bringing under one roof the complete range of ready-to-wear and acces-sories for the entire family. At the same time, the earliest mail-order serv-ices were established, first by magazines in the 1850s and then byspecialty catalog retailers soon after the war.

In tandem with the growth of department stores and mail-orderbusinesses emerged new strategies of fashion marketing and mass media.Catalogs became profusely illustrated, some in color, with plates thatshowed men not only what the current styles of fashion were, but alsohow the clothes should fit and which accessories were appropriate for thewell-dressed man. (Color Plate 1.) Similarly, retailers set up lavish win-dow and counter displays to demonstrate the newest styles and the cor-rect way in which to dress. In addition to the illustrated mail-ordercatalogs, mass distribution magazines of the time like Godey’s Lady’s Book(1830–98), Vogue (1892 to present), and Harper’s Bazaar (1867 to pres-ent) often included fashion reports and illustrated style editorials onmen’s fashions. Also complementing the fashion guidance of catalogs andstore displays was a barrage of illustrated advertising by ready-to-wearmakers and retailers in magazines and newspapers, on posters and hand-bills, and stuffed into mailers.

Coinciding with these developments in manufacturing, commerce,and mass media was the emergence of a new form of men’s fashion in the1850s. The sack coat suit introduced from England quickly became the

[ vi ] American Menswear from the Civil War to the Twenty-First Century

Preface [ vii ]

ubiquitous and standardized style of masculine dressthroughout America. The sack coat suit was comfortable,practical, and fashionable for all socioeconomic classes aswell as easy to manufacture for ready-to-wear makers.(Color Plate 2.)

From these mid-nineteenth-century developments ofready-to-wear mass styling, mass production, and massdistribution, coupled with mass advertising and massmedia, emerged a democratization of fashion across thecountry. Fashionable clothing was no longer solely thepurview of the social or economic elite. The factoryworker could dress as smartly in the most current clothingstyles as the factory owner. The American male was incul-cated with the notion of fashion aspiration. He learnedfrom these many marketing channel sources about fashioncycles and style obsolescence. By the end of the 1800s, most averageworking men could afford at least one ready-to-wear suit for Sundays andspecial occasions that had been mass manufactured in America and soldthrough a local retailer or by mail order. Remarkably, these symbioticprinciples of the American ready-to-wear industry are still the formulawith the same success as 150 years ago: inspiring, urging, and coaxingmen into a fashion awareness and mass consumption. (Figure 1.)

In addition to the well-illustrated chronology of menswear categoriesand the historical and cultural introductions to each era, this study alsoexamines ideas and ideals of masculinity and identity as expressed indress. As many researchers and scholars have assessed in recent decades,dress is more than simply the clothes on our backs. In Dress and Gender:Making and Meaning (1992), Joanne B. Eicher defines dress as “an assem-blage of body modifications and/or supplements displayed by a person incommunicating with other human beings.”2 That communicationthrough our choices in dress, says writer John Harvey, is the “persona weperform.” “Styles of clothing carry feelings and trusts, investments, faithsand formalized fears,” asserts Harvey. “Styles exert a social force, theyenroll us in armies—moral armies, political armies, gendered armies,social armies.”3 And for the widely assorted armies of average Americanmen over the past 150 years, a continuum of dress and masculine identityhas expressed and demonstrated the collective persona of each genera-tion. Key to that continuum has been conformity—a conformity to stan-dardized tenets of behavior and conformity expressed visually in dress,which for each man and the society in which he lived gave clarity to the

Figure 1. Since the mid-nineteenth century, Americanready-to-wear makers and retailers have continuallyinspired, urged, and coaxed men into a fashion awarenessthrough mass marketing. Some advertising messagesserved as style guides for the unsure male, othersappealed to certain masculine lifestyles, and still others,such as this 1965 color ad for Mohara suits, made theirpoint through humor. (Color-blind men would not be ableto see the “65” in the green and pink dots.)

meaning of masculine identity in ways beyond a mere representation ofgender. The blue serge sack suit of the Victorian man communicated amasculine identity of bourgeois authoritarianism in a brotherhood offamilial patriarchs. The bulky sack suit of the Edwardian man conveyedhis identification with the robust leadership of America—husky TeddyRoosevelt and ponderous William Taft. The trim drape cut suits of theyears between the two World Wars projected the powerful athleticism ofthe youthful warrior who did battle against foreign aggressors and againsteconomic calamities. The gray flannel suit of the 1950s Ivy Leaguerreflected the gray conformity and complacency of American men in thepost-World War II years. Even in our postmodern era when individualityand self-expression have prevailed in men’s fashion, the rigidly paddedsuit of the 1960s and 1970s was a unifying identity against the frighteningstyle melee of the Peacock Revolution. The broad-shouldered power suitof the 1980s Greed Decade proclaimed the chauvinism and success of theyuppie. And the skinny look suit of the 2000s has been an assertive differ-entiation of the millennial masculine identity for Gen X’ers and GenY’ers.

The legacy of this linearity of American men’s dress and masculineidentity has been commented on by every generation since Victoriantimes. (Figure 2.) Typical was the assessment by a contributing editor toPrinter’s Ink in 1922 who complained, “The American [male] is very con-servative in dress. He hates like the deuce to look different from othermen, even to look better dressed. There is a monotony about men’s dressin this country that is comical.”4 However, contrary to the often-voicedcomplaint that men’s clothing styles hardly change, regular and signifi-cant changes have obviously occurred. Sometimes the shifts evolved soglacially that only in looking back over several years was the distinctionapparent to the men who had experienced it such as the sack coat phasesdescribed above; other times, change was tectonic like the startling sud-denness of the 1960s youthquake that overturned comfortable, decades-old conventions of masculine style and identity such as short hair andinconspicuousness in appearance and demeanor.

Moreover, there are important reasons for focusing on Americanmen’s dress and identity. Not only are there significant differences in thesociopolitical meanings of masculinity between the Latin-Mediterraneanand Anglo-Germanic cultures of Europe and that of pluralistic America,but we also have distinctive forms of dress and identity that are relativelymeaningless elsewhere in the world. The dress and accoutrement ofAmerican cowboys, for instance, might be adaptable to the outbacks ofAustralia or the Argentine pampas, but in London and Paris, the lookwould appear like an incongruous American movie costume. Yet on thestreets of Manhattan or Chicago or Los Angeles, the tribal dress of anurban cowboy would garner little if any attention. Likewise, grunge, theSeattle youth look of the early nineties, was popularized in the UnitedStates by rock bands such as Pearl Jam and Nirvana, but where the musicof grunge bands achieved international fame, the look did not. Even bodymodifications differ, as in the case of circumcision wherein two of everythree American males are circumcised for cultural, aesthetic, and hygienicreasons as compared to fewer than one in ten in the rest of the world(excluding Judeo-Islamic regions).

By contrast, some distinctive tribal styles of European subcultures

[ viii ] American Menswear from the Civil War to the Twenty-First Century

Figure 2. The common complaint that men’sfashions hardly changed was used for an adcampaign in the 1950s promoting a new look,ironically, for a menswear commodity productthat actually had not changed in a hundredyears. Ad 1958.

that must be included in world (or EuroAmerican) fashion histories areirrelevant in this work. The dress of England’s Teddy boys in the 1950sand the look of the zazous of France in the 1940s were peculiar to thosetimes and places, and had no impact on American fashions. And evenwhen the styles of European subcultures were appropriated by Ameri-cans, they were transformed into something different from the originalcontext. The mods of England, for example, were impeccably groomedand custom-suited teens of the early 1960s, but with the “British inva-sion” of the Beatles, Rolling Stones, and the Who, mod instead became forAmerican youth a Peacock Revolution of sexualized, flamboyant fashionsand long hair. Similarly, the dress of the British punks of the mid-1970semerged as a protest look (and abrasive, confrontational attitude) oflower-working-class teenagers against the restrictive British class system.But in America, the punk look was stylized and homogenized by urban,middle-class teens solely as a rebellious look to shock parents and otherauthority figures, without the abusive behavior of their English counter-parts.

To illustrate both the historical clothing and the way in which mascu-line identity was visually communicated in society, this study has reliedextensively on period images from popular culture, especially advertising.In 1927, an American marketing trade journal asserted, “Advertisementsmore truthfully reflect the customs, manners, and ideals of a nation than

Preface [ ix ]

Out Apr 2010back cover

Figure 3. “Advertisements more truthfully reflect the customs, manners, and ideals of a nationthan any other one thing,” noted a marketing trade journal in 1927. By the end of the first decadeof the twenty-first century, the pluralism of American masculinity was reflected in targeted nichemarketing such as the Dockers “Wear the Pants” campaign of 2009–10. The “call of manhood”messages included having to “endure strange and humiliating rites of passage...like wearing skinnyjeans” for heterosexuals, and dressing to “attract the touches of friends, boyfriends, and even theoccasional stranger” for gay men. Left ad for GQ; right version for Out.

GQApr 2010p61

any other one thing.”5 (Figure 3.) Since the earliest development of adver-tising as an industry in the mid-nineteenth century, marketers haveunderstood how best to give customers what they wanted. For ready-to-wear makers, that meant providing images and props in illustrations withwhich the American male consumer could readily identify. The masculineidentities of men as husbands, fathers, breadwinners, protectors of homeand hearth, sportsmen, and (heterosexual) lovers were commonly repre-sented in the artwork and photos of magazine and newspaper ads, andlater in the new media of movies, television, and the Internet. The Victo-rian man might just as easily recognize himself in many of the images ofmanly roles—and clothing—depicted in the ads and TV commercials ofthe new millennium as those of his own time.

[ x ] American Menswear from the Civil War to the Twenty-First Century