1 java programming java syntax from the ground up

Java Programming

Java Syntax from the Ground Up

CSC 140 Java Programming

Introduction

Lexical Structure - Unicode Character Set

Most languages use a 7/8 bit ASCII code table for encoding (128/256 different characters)

Lexical Structure - Unicode

Unicode is 16 bit (32,768 different characters)Special unicode editor might be requiredor, encode characters as \uxxxx

xxxx is in hexExamples:

\ux0020 is space \u03c0 is π

Lexical Structure -Case-Sensitivity and Whitespace

Java is cAse-SEnsitIve ;-)While, WHILE, and while are different

thingsWhile and WHILE are identifiers.while is a reserved word.

If you have declared a variable i you cannot refer to it as I.

Whitespace is ignored (spaces, tabs and newlines)

Comments

Comments are ignored by the compiler; there are three different types of comments:Single line comment ( //… )int i = 0; // initialize the loop variable

Multi-line comments (type 1, /* … */)/* * First, establish a connection to the server. * If the connection attempt fails, quit right away

Comments

Multi-line comments (type 2, /** … */, doc-comment) used for generating automatic Javadoc documentation/** * Upload a file to a web server * * @param file The file to upload * @return <tt>true</tt> on success. * <tt>false</tt> on failures. * @author David Flanagan */

Generated Javadoc

Reserved Words

abstract const final int public throw

assert continue finally interface return throws

boolean default float long short transient

break do for native static true

byte double goto new strictfp try

case else if null super void

catch enum implements package switch volatile

char extends import private syncrhonized while

class false instanceof protected this

Reserved Words (Modifiers)

Reserved Words (Types)

Reserved Words (Exceptions)

Reserved Words (Control Flow)

Reserved Words (Literals)

Reserved Words (Modularity)

Reserved Words (OO stuff)

Identifiers

Literals

Integer and floating point numbers, characters, strings, as well as true, false and null

1, 1.0, 1f, 1L, ‘1’, “one”, true, null

(int, double, float, long, char, string, boolean, class type)

Punctuation

Separators( ) { } [ ] < > : ; , . @

Operators+ - * / % & | ^ << >> >>>+= -= *= /= %= &= |= ^= <<= >>= >>>== == != < <= > >=! ~ && || ++ ? :

Primitive Data Types

Java supports 8 primitive typesType Contains Default Size Rangeboolean true or false false 1 bit N/A

char Unicode character \u0000 16 bits \u0000 to \uffff

byte Signed integer 0 8 bits -128 to 127

short Signed integer 0 16 bit -32,768 to 32767

int Signed integer 0 32 bit -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647

long Signed integer 0 64 bit -9,223,372,036,854,775,808 to 9,223,372,036,854,775,807

float IEEE 754 floating point

0.0 32 bit +/-1.4E-45 to +/-3.4028235E+38

double IEEE 754 floating point

0.00 64 bit +/-4.9E-324 to +/-1.7976931348623157E+308

The boolean Type

Represents a truth value.Only two possible values: true or false

Not like C where 0 is false and anything else is true.

Cannot be compared to integers.

The char Type

Represents unicode characterschar c = ’A’;char tab = ’\t’;char apostrophe = ’\’’;char nul = ’\000’;char aleph = ’\u05D0’;

Note the difference here:char \u05D0 = ’\u05D0’;

\u05D0 is a variable name is unicode‘\u05D0’ is a character literal in unicode.

The char Type

Escape sequence Character value

\b Backspace

\t Horizontal tab

\n Newline

\f Form feed

\r Carriage return

\” Double quote

\’ Single quote

\\ Backslash

\xxx/ Latin-1 character xxx octal value (0 to 377)

\uxxxx Unicode character xxxx hexadecimal value

Strings

String is not a primitive type, but a class.

Java does allow string Literals”Hello, World””This is a string!”

Or some code:String greeting = “Hello stranger!”;String \u03c0 = "\"\'\u03c0\'\"";

delcares a string ”’π’” in a unicode variable called \u03c0

Integer Types

byte, short, integer, and long are all signed integer types (no unsigned integer types exist in java)255 (decimal) = 0xff (hex) = 0377 (octal)1234 is a int value, 1234L is a long value

Overflow

Neither the compiler nor the runtime system catches overflow

byte b1 = 127, b2 = 1;byte sum = (byte)(b1 +

What is the value of sum?

Wrapper Classes

Classes for each integer type exist: Byte, Short, Integer, Long(Note the capital letter)

Byte.MAX_VALUEByte.MIN_VALUE

gives the max/min byte values

Floating-Point Types

Real numbers in Java are represented by the float and double data types.

123.450.0.011.2345E02 // 1.2345*102, or 123.451e-6 // 1*106, or 0.000001

Just like integer values are int types by default, floating point values are double by default.

double d = 6.02E23;float f = 6.02E23f;

int i = 1/0 causes an exception, division by 0 is illegal in integer arithmetic.

double inf = 1.0/0.0 does not cause an exception.

4 Special ‘values’ for floating points:

double inf = 1.0/0.0; // prints Infinitydouble neginf = -1.0/0.0; // prints -Infinitydouble negzero = -1.0/inf; // prints -0double NaN = 0.0/0.0; // prints NaN

Infinity + anything = Infinity-0 == 0NaN is not equal to anything (incl. itself)Double.isNaN() checks for NaN

Primitive Type Conversions

Conversion is legal between integer and floating points (incl. chars, but not boolean)Widening: A value is converted to a type

with a larger range of legal values:

double d = 10;

double is a ‘wider’ type than int.Widening is always allowed

Narrowing: Converting a value to a type that has a smaller range of legal values.

Ok sometimes: int value 13 can be converted to a byte, but 1300 cannot (byte range is -128 to 127)

Narrowing conversions can be forced by a cast.

int i = 13;

byte b = (byte)i; // force int to be converted to a byte

i = (int)13.456; // force this double literal to the int 13

From boolean byte short char int long float double

boolean --- N N N N N N N

byte N --- Y C Y Y Y Y

short N C --- C Y Y Y Y

char N C C --- Y Y Y Y

int N C C C --- Y Y* Y

long N C C C C --- Y* Y*

float N C C C C C --- Y

double N C C C C C C ---

Y = yes, the conversion is a widening.N = not, the conversion cannot occur.C = yes, the conversion must be a narrowing cast.Y* = yes, by automatic widening that can cause loss of precision. This can happen when converting int and long to float and double.

Expressions and Operators

The Java interpreter evaluates expressions to compute its value.

The simplest expressions are called primary expressions, and consists of literals and variables: 1.7 // a floating point literal

true // a boolean literalsum // a variable

The value of a literal is the value itself:The value of 1.7 is 1.7!

The value of a variable is the value stored in the location in memory represented by that variable

We use operators together with primary expressions to form more interesting expressions:

sum = 1.7sum = 1 + 2 +3*1.2 + (4+8)/3.0sum/Math.sqrt(3.0 * 1.234)(int)(sum + 33)

Note, all valid expressions; assignments are not statements but expressions, they have a value.

Operator Summary

P A Operator Operand(s) types Operation Performed

15 L .

( args )

Object, member

Array, int

Method, arglist

Variable

Object member access

Array element access

Method invocation

Post increment/decrement

14 R ++/--

Variable

Number

Integer

Boolean

Pre increment/decrement

Unary plus/minus

Bitwise complement

Boolean NOT

13 R new

( type )

Class, any

Type, any

Object creation

Cast (type conversion)

12 L *,/,% Number, number Multiplication, division, remainder

11 L +,-

Number, number

String, any

Addition, subtraction

String concatenation

10 L <<

Integer, integer

Left shift ( * 2)

Right shift w/sign extension ( / 2)

Right shift w/zero extension

Operator Summary

9 L <, <=

Instanceof

Number, number

Reference, type

Less than, less than or equal

Greater than, greater than or equal

Type comparison

8 L ==

Primitive, primitive

Reference, reference

Equal (have identical values)

Not equal (have different values)

Equal (refer to the same object)

Not equal (refer to different objects)

Integer, integer

Boolean, boolean

Bitwise AND

Boolean AND

Integer, integer

Boolean, boolean

Bitwise XOR

Boolean XOR

Integer, integer

Boolean, boolean

Bitwise OR

Boolean OR

4 L && Boolean, boolean Conditional AND

3 L || Boolean, boolean Conditional OR

Operator Summary

2 R ? : Boolean, any Conditional (ternary) operator

*=, /=, %=,

+=, -=, <<=,

>>=, >>>=,

&=, ^=, |=

Variable, any

Assignment

Assignment with operation

Precedence

Precedence specifies the order in which operations are performed. Eg.:

1 + 2 * 3 // == 7

* has higher precedence than +, and is performed first. Precedence can be overruled using ( ):

(1 + 2) * 3 // == 9

Associativity

Associativity governs the order of operation when we use operators of the same precedence.a = b += c = -~d is: a = (b += (c = -(~d)))Precedence can be overridden using ( )

Operand Number and Type

Operators take different number of operands:Unary operators take one operand

-8 (unary minus)~i (bitwise complement)

Binary operators take two operandsa + 8 (binary plus)a << 8 (binary left shift)

Operators take different number of operands:Ternary operators take three operands

x > y ? x : y (called a ternary expression)Like an ‘if’-statement, but as an expressionmin = (x > y) ? x : y

Not all operators work on all types.-”Hello”

(you cannot negate a string)a + false

(+ does not work with booleans)x > y ? “x is greater” : y

(Why is this one wrong? ;-) )

Return Type

Just as an operator only works on specific types, it also returns a value of a specific type (sometimes dependent on the type of the operands)1 + 1 = 2 (int + int = int)1.0 + 2.0 = 3.0

(double + double = double)1 + 2.0 = ???

Return Type

Not all operators return values of the same type as their operands:a < 0 is of boolean typex < y ? “x is smaller” : “y is smaller”always returns values of string type, but x and y can be any type compatible with <.

Side Effects

int a=2;a = ++a + ++a * a++;

Order of Evaluation

The order in which operands are evaluated is always left to rightTaking into account

Associativity of operatorPrecedense of operatorParentehsis ( )

Order of Evaluation

Some operators do not evaluate all their operands:x ? y : z (Ternary), only x and the

chosen branch are evaluatedx && y. If x is false there is no need to

evaluate y.x || y. if x is true there is no need to

evaluate y.

Order of Evaluation

int a = 2;

int v = ++a + ++a * ++a;

What is the value of v after theassignment?

Arithmetic Operators

Addition (+)Normally + adds numbers:

2 + 2 = 4 (integer + integer = integer)2 + 2.0 = 4.0 (integer + double = double)

Can be used on strings:“Hello “ + “world” = “Hello world”

Be careful when mixing strings and numbers“Total: “ + 3 + 4 = “Total: 34”3 + 4 + “ is the total” = “7 is the total”

Arithmetic Operators

Other arithmetic operators:Subtraction (-), both binary and unaryMultiplication(*)Division (/ )

7/3 = 27/3.0f = 2.33333337/3.0 = 2.33333333333333357/0 causes a runtime error (An exception)7/0.0 evaluates to (positive infinity)0.0/0.0 evaluates to NaN (Not a Number)

String Concatenation Operator

Reminder: + and += can be used withstrings.

Objects are converted to strings with the toString() method (more about that later)

“Once a string, always a string”: remember to use ( ) around arithmetic when mixed with strings.

Increment/Decrement Operators

++ or -- increment/decrement its single operand by 1.i = 1;

j= i++;

Is equivalent to

i = 1;

j = i + 1;

a++ is not the same as ++a.a++ uses the value of a then incrementint a = 1;System.out.println(a++); // prints 2

++a increments the value of a then uses itint a = 1;System.out.println(++a); // prints 1

Be REAL careful about the ++ and -- operators.

Most of time x++ is equivalent to x = x + 1

But not always:

a[i++]++;a[i++] = a[i++] + 1;

Comparison Operators

Used to test equality and size (order)== equal (values!)

Eg. a == b tests is the value stored in a is the same as the value stored in b

!= not equala != b is the same as !(a == b)

Careful: = is not a test for equality, it is assignment

<, >, <=, >=For comparing values that are ordered

!=, == works on ‘anything’<, >, <=, >= works on numbers only

The result of all of these operators is a boolean value: either true or false

Example:boolean b;int a, c;a = 10;c = 4;

b = !(a > c);

What is the value of b?

Boolean Operators

A number of operators work on boolean values. They are either binary (two operands) or unary (one operand), but all produce a boolean result: && Conditional AND

true && true == true true && false == false false && false == false false && true == false

Example: (x < 10 && y > 3)

Boolean Operators

|| Conditional ORtrue || true == truetrue || false == truefalse || false == falsefalse || true == true

! Boolean NOT!true == false!false == true

Short Circuit Boolean Evaluation

Remember: Evaluation from LEFT to RIGHT, and with SCBE.

To avoid SCBE and force evaluation of all operand expressions use & and | instead.

& and | used with integer operands computes a bit-wise operation. and | used with integer operands computes a bit-wise operation.

Boolean Operators

^ is exclusive or (XOR)true ^ true == falsetrue ^ false == truefalse ^ true = truefalse ^ false = false

Can be used on integers as wellWith boolean operands: ^ is the same as !=

Bitwise Operators

Used to manipulate the individual bits of integral values/variables:~ bitwise complement& bitwise AND (we already saw this with

booleans)| bitwise OR^ bitwise XOR

Shift Operators

Shift operators moves bits left or right:<< Left Shift:

10 << 1 // 00001010 << 1 == 00010100 = 20 = 10*2

>> Signed Right Shift:27 >> 3 // 00011011 >> 3 == 00000011 = 3 / 27/(2*2*2)

-50 >> 2 // 11001110 >> 2 == 11110011 = -13 = -50/(2*2)

>>> Unsigned Right Shift:-50 >>> 2 // 0xFFFFFFCE >>> 2 = 0x3FFFFFF3

Assignment Operator

We have already see this one:= (and not == which is comparison)

Others exist:+= for example: a += 2; which is the same

as a = a + 2;Others: -=, *=, /=, %=, &=, |=, ^=, <<=, >>=, >>>=

The Conditional Operator

The only operator to take three operands: … ? … : …Example:a > 10 ? b+1 : c-2

If a>10 then the entire thing evaluates to the value of the expression b+1, else the value of c-2

Really is an if-expression (as opposed to an if statement.

Can be used as an expression: d = a>2 ? 4 : 8;

The two last operand expressions must be the same type

The Conditional Operator

Example of the conditional operator Compute max value of x and y and assign to z;

if (x > y) z = x;else z = y;

Orz = (x > y) ? x : y;

The instanceof Operator

We will return to this one later Determines if the left hand side object expression is

an object of a certain class type: o instanceof A

True if o is an object based on class A.

Note, if o instanceof A is true, and B is a super class of A, o instanceof B will also be true.

Tells us when it is safe to ‘cast’ an object reference to a different class type.

Special Operators

A number exist, let’s just consider explicit castingExplicit casting is “changing the type of a

value”(byte) 28

(float) 3.14Objects can be cast as well.

Statements

A Statement is a single command that has no return value. They include Expression statements (Expressions where return values are

ignored) Compound (block) statements: { … } Empty statement: ; Local variable declarations: int a; If/else statement: if (…) … else … Switch statement: switch (…) { case ..: …. ….. } While statement: while (…) … Do statement: do … while (…) For statement: for (…;…;…) … Break- / continue- / return-statement

Expression Statements

An expression statement is an expression used as a statement (value of expression is ignored)a = 1;

a *= 2;

Compound Statements

a = 10;

b = 1;

while (a > 0)

a = a - 1;

b = b * 2;

What is the value of a and bafter the loop?

Compound Statements

a = 10;

b = 1;

while (a > 0)

a = a - 1;

b = b * 2;

What is the value of a and bafter the loop?

a = 0b = 2

Compound Statements

A compound statement is a number of statements grouped together using { }

a = 10;b = 1;

while (a > 0) { b = b * 2; a = a - 1;

The Empty Statement

The empty statement is just a semicolon: ;

for (int i=0; i<10; a[i++]++)

Rarely a use for it! The above example should be written differently

for (int i=0; i<10; i++) {

a[I]++;

Local Variable Declarations

We know how to do these:<type> name;

<type> name = <expr>But for how long is a name ‘valid’?

The part of the code where a name can be referenced is called the name’s scope.

int a = 10;

int b = 1;

while (a > 0) {

int c = b * 2;

b = c;

Scope of a in red

{int a = 10;int b = 1;while (a > 0) { int c = b * 2; b = c;

Scope of c in redScope of b in red

The scope of a local variable is the rest of the closest enclosing block! { } creates a block….. Others to come later

If-statements

Used for flow control (decisions)Two general forms:

if (<bexpr>)<then-stmt>

else<then-stmt>

If <bexpr> evaluates to true,then the <then-stmt> is executed,If <bexpr> evaluates to false,execution continues at …

If <bexpr> evaluates to true,then the <then-stmt> is executed.If <bexpr> evaluates to false,then the <else-stmt> is executed

If-statements

Be careful about nested if-statements:if (i==j)

if (j==k)

System.out.println(“i = k”);

System.out.println(“i != j”);

An else always matches the inner-most if. To make sure you get it right use { }

If-statements

if (i==j) {

if (j==k) {

System.out.println(“i = k”);

} else {

System.out.println(“i != j”);

Technically { } and { } are not needed.

If-statements

If-statements can also be chained:if (i == 2) { b = 3;} else if (i == 3) {b = 5;

} else if (i == 4) {b = 7;

} else {b = 9;

if (i == 2) b = 3;else if (i == 3)b = 5;

else if (i == 4)b = 7;

else b = 9;

or without { }

Switch-statement

A multi-case replacement for a lot of if-statementsif (n == 1) a = 2;else if (n == 2) a = 4;else if (n == 3) a = 6;else if (n == 4 || n == 5) a = 7;else a = 9;

Switch-statement

A multi-case replacement for a lot of if-statementsif (n == 1) a = 2;else if (n == 2) a = 4;else if (n == 3) a = 6;else if (n == 4 || n == 5) a = 7;else a = 9;

switch (n) { case 1: a = 2; break; case 2: a = 4; break; case 3: a = 6; break; case 4: case 5: a = 7; break; default: a = 9; break;}

Same as

Switch-statement

A few things are important to remember about switch-statements.The default label is optional (just like else is!)

The break statement for each case is optional (but almost always needed)

When hitting a break (!) in a switch statement, control jumps to the end of it (I.e., the } )

Switch-statement

Consider this:a = b = c = 0;

switch (n) {

case 1: a = 1;

case 2:

case 3: b = 1;

default: c = 2;

Switch-statement

switch (n) {

case 1: a = 1;

case 2:

case 3: b = 1;

default: c = 2;

n a b c

Switch-statement

switch (n) {

case 1: a = 1;

case 2:

case 3: b = 1;

default: c = 1;

n a b c

1 1 1 1

Switch-statement

switch (n) {

case 1: a = 1;

case 2:

case 3: b = 1;

default: c = 1;

n a b c

1 1 1 1

2 0 1 1

Switch-statement

switch (n) {

case 1: a = 1;

case 2:

case 3: b = 1;

default: c = 1;

n a b c

1 1 1 1

2 0 1 1

3 0 1 1

Switch-statement

switch (n) {

case 1: a = 1;

case 2:

case 3: b = 1;

default: c = 2;

n a b c

1 1 1 1

2 0 1 1

3 0 1 1

4 0 0 1

While-statement

Simple looping mechanismwhile (<bexpr>)

<statement>While the <bexpr> is true, execute <statement> and go back and evaluate the <bexpr>

While-statement

Remember, if more than one statement is to be executed, use { }:

b = 1; b = 1;

while (a > 0) { while (a > 0)

a = a - 1; vs. a = a - 1;

b = b * 2; b = b * 2;

While-statement

Remember, if more than one statement is to be executed, use { }:

b = 1; b = 1;

while (a > 0) { while (a > 0)

a = a - 1; vs. a = a - 1;

b = b * 2; b = b * 2;

a = 0 and b = 2a a = 0 and b = 2

Do Statement

Almost like a while:

do statementwhile ( expression );

statement always executes at least once.

While vs do

a = 100; a = 100;

b = 1; b = 1;

while (a > 0) { do {

a = a - 1; a = a - 1;

b = b * 2; b = b * 2;

Are these two pieces of the same?

While vs do

while (expression) do

statement statement while (expression)

Are these two pieces of the same? Always???

While vs do

b = 0; b = 0;

while (a > 0) { do {

b = b + 2; b = b + 2;

a = a - 1; a = a - 1;

} } while (a > 0)

For which values of a do they produce the same result?

Do statement

Can we make a do loop work like a while loop?while (expression) statement

if (expression)

statement

while (expression)

Do statement

Can we make a do loop work like a while loop?while (expression) statement

if (expression)

statement

while (expression)

For statement

One last loop mechanism: the for loopfor (initialize; test; update)

statement

initialize is executed ONCEtest is executed BEFORE the statement; the

statement is executed for as long as test is true

update is executed after the statement

For statement

for (initialize; test; update)

statement

is equivalent toinitializetest; statement; update; test; statement; update; …test; statement; update; test;

For statement

int result = 0;

for (int i=1; i<=100; i++) result = result + i;

Sums up the first 100 numbers. Note:

You may declare variables in the initializer. The scope of these variables is the body of the loop. More than one variable can be initialized and more than

one variable can be updated. If declaring one or more variable in the initializer nothing

else can go there!

For statement

int result, count, i;

for (result=0, count=0, i=0; i<=100; i=i+2, count++) result = result + i;

For loops can be written using while loops easily:

initialize;

while (test) {

statement;

update;

For/in statement

Special type of for loop:for (declaration : expression) statement

Often used to ‘iterate’ through a collection/arrayint[] primes = new int[] {2,3,5,7,9,11,13,17,19,23,29}for (int n: primes) System.out.println(n);

For/in statement

int[] primes = new int[] {2,3,5,7,9,11,13,17,19,23,29}for (int n: primes) System.out.println(n);

The base type of the iterating variable must match that of the collection.More on arrays soon!

Skipping for now

BreakContinueReturn

Skipping completely

SynchronizedThrow/exceptionsAssert

Methods

A method is a way to abstract away computation.Just like math: f(x,y) = x*x + y*y;

It has formal paramters (x,y) It has a (return) type: what ever type x*x + y*y is. It can be applied to many different pairs of actual

parameters: f(6,7), f(8,9), f(g(5),5),….

Methods

Simple example:public int f(int x, int y) {

int result;

result = x*x + y*y;

return result;

public is a modifier (more about that later)int is the type that the method returnsf is the name, int x, int y the formal

paramters.

Methods

Simple example:public int f(int x, int y) {

int result;

result = x*x + y*y;

return result;

int a;

a = f(5,7);

5 and 7 are the actual parameters.

Scoping in Methods

Methods have the same scoping rules as what we have used until now except for the parametersThe scope of a parameter is the entire body

Call by value

A method in Java uses call by value call semantics:void f(int a) {

a = 10000;

int a = 0;

// value of a? The variable a is not passed to f, its VALUE is.

Methods

When calling a method, the order of the actual parameters must match the order of the formal parameters.

The same number of actual parameters as formals must be passed to a method.

If a method does no return anything, its type is void.

Return value may be ignored.

Arrays

An array is a collection of values all of the same type (more or less!)Either all of a primitive typeOr all of a reference type (more about that

later)Not a primitive type, but an object type.

Arrays

Arrays are allocated dynamicallyCannot be allocated statically on the stack,

but must be on the heap.

int[] intArray;

declares a variable that can hold a reference to an array of integers.

No Static Arrays

We cannot declare static arrays:

int[3] myLittleArray;

int myBigArray[1000];

are both illegal.

Creating an array

All arrays must be allocated/created before they can be used.Unlike other primitives which are just there

when declaredint a; // you can assign to a

//and use it as an int

int[] as; // you cannot use as until

// it has been given a

// value

Creating an Array

Let us create an array of 100 integers:

int[] myInts;

myInts = new int[100];

int[] myInts = new int[100];

Indexing an array

An array is indexed by an integer value starting at 0. The first element is at index 0, the second at index 1 etc.

int[] myInts = new int[100]; // index

for (int i=0; i<100; i++)

myInts[i] = i;

Indexing an array

The first index of an array is index 0The last is l-1 where l is the length of

the array.The length can be obtained like this:

int len = myInts.length;

We could redo the code from 2 slides ago:

int[] myInts = new int[100]; // index 0..99for (int i=0; i<myInts.length; i++)

myInts[i] = i;

Initializing arrays

We can write code to initialize an array like on the previous slide.

Or we can do it when the array is created:int[] myInts = new int[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 4};

When initializing an array like this, no size is given. I.e., this is illegal: int[] myInts = new int[5]{0, 1, 2, 3, 4};

Call by reference vs call by value

Consider the following code:public static void foo(int a) {

a = 900; }

public static void main(String[] args) { int a = 0; foo(a); int b=0; foo(b);

What is the value of a and b after the call to foo?

a = 900; }

public static void main(String[] args) { int a = 0; foo(a); // the value of a is still 0 int b=0; foo(b); // the value of b is still 0

Remember, copies of the values of a and b are transferred to foo, and the a parameter belongs to foo, and not main!

CALL BY VALUE:COPIES of the

ACTUAL parametersare passed to the

method. Any changesmade to the parameterseffect only the FORMALparameters inside the

method, not the ACTUALparameters passed.

a = 900; }

public static void main(String[] args) { int a = 0; foo(a); // the value of a is still 0 int b=0; foo(b); // the value of b is still 0

Remember, copies of the values of a and b are transferred to foo, and the a parameter belongs to foo, and not main!

CALL BY VALUE:COPIES of the

ACTUAL parametersare passed to the

method. Any changesmade to the parameterseffect only the FORMALparameters inside the

method, not the ACTUALparameters passed.

CALL BY REFERENCE:Changes made to

the FORMAL parametersWILL effect the ACTUAL

parameters.

All primitives in Java are passed by value (call-by-value)

Arrays are passed by reference (call-by-reference) Any chances made in a method to an array

parameter will be made to the actual parameter

Call by reference

public class ArrayTest { public static void fill(int[] array) { for (int i=0;i<array.length;i++) array[i]=i; // <-- will change intArray }

public static void main(String[] args) { int[] intArray = new int[100]; fill(intArray);

for(int i=0;i<100;i++) System.out.println(intArray[i]); }}

Aliasing

public class ArrayTest { public static int[] fill(int[] array) { for (int i=0;i<array.length;i++) array[i]=i;

return array; }

public static void main(String[] args) { int[] intArray = new int[100];

int[] newIntArray; newIntArray = fill(intArray);

for(int i=0;i<100;i++) { System.out.println(intArray[i]);

System.out.println(newIntArray[i]); } }}

Aliasing

return array; }

public static void main(String[] args) { int[] intArray = new int[100];

int[] newIntArray; newIntArray = fill(intArray);

System.out.println(newIntArray[i]); } }}

intArray and newIntArraywill contain the same data.NOT copies of the samedata, but THE SAMEdata

Aliasing

return array; }

public static void main(String[] args) { int[] intArray = new int[100] int[] newIntArray; newIntArray = fill(intArray);

System.out.println(newIntArray[i]); }}

The integer array is onlyallocated once; all other‘copies’ of it are just copiesof ‘arrows’ pointing to the same set of integers.

This is called aliasingWhen a method is invoked with an array parameter it is passed by reference

Multi-dimensional Arrays

Java supports multi-dimensional arrays:int[][] twoDimArray;twoDimArray = new int[10][10];

This creates a 2D array indexed like this:twoDimArray[0][0] = 100;twoDimArray[9][9] = 900;

Java allows ‘ragged arrays’ (where higher dimensions’ entries aren’t the same length.

Ragged Arrays

int[][] bs = new int[2][];bs[0] = new int[5];bs[1] = new int[]{1,2,3};

bs is 2 dimensional

bs[0] is 1 dimensional of type int[] bs[1] is 1 dimensional of type int[]

bs[0][0]Val: ?

bs[0][1]Val: ?

bs[0][2]Val: ?

bs[0][3]Val: ?

bs[1][0]Val: 1

bs[0][4]Val: ?

bs[1][1]Val: 2

bs[1][2]Val: 3

Multi-dimensional arrays

You may leave the allocation of a higherdimension to later (last slide), but you may not leave lower ones:

int[][] bs = new[][2]; // illegal

Multi-dimensional array constants

We can write constants of multi-dimensional type as well:

int[][] myInts = new int[][]{ {1,2},

{3,4,5,6},

{7,8,9} };

Copying arrays

As we have seen using = on array variables just copies a ‘pointer’

If we want to copy an entire array we can either use a for loop and copy the elements by hand, or use .clone()int[] a = new int[]{1,2,3};

int[] b = a.clone();

a[1] = 900; // a = {1,900,3}, b={1,2,3}

Copying array

int[][] bs = new int[2][];

bs[0] = new int[]{100,200,300};

bs[1] = new int[]{1,2,3};

int[][] q = bs.clone();

bs[0][1] = 999;

System.out.println(q[0][1]);

What is printed?

Copying array

int[][] bs = new int[2][];

bs[0] = new int[]{100,200,300};

bs[1] = new int[]{1,2,3};

int[][] q = bs.clone();

bs[0][1] = 999;

System.out.println(q[0][1]);

What is printed? 999

.clone() is a SHALLOWcopy - it copies only the TOP level. If an arraycontains entries that arereference, then they arecopied as REFERENCESnot as VALUES.

Traversing an array

We are familiar with this:int sum = 0;

for(int i=0; i<myArray.lengh; i++)

sum = sum + myArray[i]

We can use a different for-loop int sum = 0;

for (int e : myArray)

sum = sum + e;

1 java programming java syntax from the ground up

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