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This document is Chapter 8 of the Volunteer EstuaryMonitoring Manual, A Methods Manual, Second Edition,EPA-842-B-06-003. The full document be downloaded from:
http://www.epa.gov/owow/estuaries/monitor/
Voluntary Estuary Monitoring Manual
Chapter 8: Data Management, Interpretation,and Presentation
March 2006
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Chapter 8DataManagement,Interpretation,
andPresentation
Dataarelikelettersofthealphabet:takenindividually,theyrevealverylittle.Put
togetherwithalittlethoughtandorganization,however,thosesameletterscantella
completestory.Byhighlightingdatamanagement,interpretation,andpresentation,
thischaptershowshowdatacanbeusedtotellastoryaboutyourestuary.
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Photos(ltor):TheOceanConservancy,L.Monk,TheOceanConservancy,K.Register
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Chapter8:DataManagement,Interpretation,andPresentation
Overview
Volunteerestuarymonitoringobjectivesdifferfromoneprogramtothenext.
Meetingthoseobjectives,however,usuallyrequiressimilarsteps.Regardlessof
whetheravolunteerprogramwantstouseitsdataforcitizeneducationorresource
management,theprogrammustmakeitsdataunderstandabletoitsaudience.
Manygoalswillbeunmetifthevolunteerprogramcannotclearlyconveywhatits
datasayabouttheestuary.
Dataarelikelettersofthealphabet:takenindividually,theyrevealverylittle.Put
togetherwithalittlethoughtandorganization,however,thosesameletterscantella
completestory.Byhighlightingdatamanagement,interpretation,andpresentation,
thischaptershowshowdatacanbeusedtotellastoryaboutyourestuary.
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Chapter8:DataManagement,Interpretation,andPresentation
AfterDataCollection:WhatDoesItMean?
Figure8-1. Stepsnecessarytopreparedataforpresentation.Datatellastoryabouttheestuary.
Considerthissituation:Youhavethe
monitoringequipment.Volunteersareinthe
fieldcollectingdata.Enthusiasmishigh.
Everythingisgoingsmoothlyanditstimeto
relax.
Butisitreally?
Asdifficultasitmaybetoaccept,the
aforementionedsituationmeansonething:
thereismuchmoreworktobedone.What
willyoudowiththeincomingdata?As
discussedinpreviouschapters,monitoring
organizationsshouldknowtheanswertothisquestionbefore theycollecttheirfirstsample.
Thesedecisionsaremade,inpart,basedon
theneedsofpotentialdatausers,whoare
particularlyconcernedabout:
databasesandsoftwareusedtomanagethedata;
proceduresfollowedinordertoverifyandchecktherawvolunteerdata;
DataManagement
Asdiscussedinpreviouschapters,data
sheetsshouldnotonlybeeasyforvolunteers
tocomplete,butshouldalsorecordalldesired
informationabouttheestuaryandthe
samplingsessions.Thevolunteerleader
cannotoveremphasizetovolunteersthe
importanceofcarefulandaccuratedata
recording.Incompleteorinaccuratedata
sheetscancauseseriousproblemswhenit
DataSh
eet
INTRO
DUCT
ION
Data Data DataAnalysis/ DataCollection Management Interpretation Presentation
analyticalproceduresemployedtoconverttherawdataintofindingsand
conclusions;and
reportingformats.
Knowinghowthedatawillbeusedshould
drivethedevelopmentandeveryday
managementofavolunteermonitoring
program.
Mostprogramsintendtousetheirdatato
tellastoryabouttheestuaryshealth.
Similarly,mostvolunteerswhocollectthedata
wanttoknowwhattheirinformationreveals
abouttheestuary.Withoutcommunicatingthat
datainameaningfulwaytoyourintended
audience,thehardworkofmanyvolunteers
andvolunteerleaderscouldbewasted.Totake
informationfromdatasheetsandconvertitto
somethingthatmakessensetoyouraudience
requiresseveralelements,whichare
summarizedinFigure81anddescribedinthe
remainderofthischapter.
comestimetointerpretthedata.Suchprob-
lemscandamageyourprogramscredibility
and/orrenderthedatauseless,makingall
worthwhileeffortsfutile.
Datamanagementiseveryonesrespon-
sibility.Thecommitmentbyvolunteersto
collecthighqualitydatamustbematchedby
theprogramscommitmenttomakethe
informationunderstandabletoitsvolunteers
andotherdatausers.Fromtheveryearlystagesofplanningavolunteermonitoring
program,asounddatamanagementplanmust
beapriority.Itshouldbeclearhowthedata
willbeprocessed,whenitwillbeprocessed
andreported,andwhowillberesponsiblefor
eachtask.AnattitudeofLetsjustgetthe
datanowandfigureoutwhattodowithit
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latercanleadtowastedtimeandeffortanda
hugedatabacklog.
WhereDoestheDataGo?
Itisdifficulttogetanymeaningfromboxesfullofdatasheets.Theinformationcollected
byvolunteersneedstobeorganizedand
readilyaccessible.Yearsago,thismayhave
meantthatthedatamightbeorganizedin
handwrittentables.Thismethodisstillan
option,butacomputerizeddatamanagement
systemprovidesagreatdealofadvantages,
especiallyifthedatacollectioneffortis
conductedatmanysitesand/oroveralong
timeperiod(Lease,1995).
DatabaseorSpreadsheet?
Todayscomputersoftwareincludesa
varietyofspreadsheetanddatabasepackages
thatallowyoutoorganizethedataand
performstatisticalanalyses.Theseoptions
makeiteasiertodetectrelationshipsbetween
datapoints.Spreadsheetsareadequatefor
mostdatamanagementneedsandhavethe
advantageofbeingrelativelysimpletouse.
Mostspreadsheetpackageshavegraphics
capabilitiesthatwillallowyoutoplotyour
dataontoagraphofyourchoice(i.e.,bar,line,orpiechart).Examplesofcommon
spreadsheetsoftwarepackagesareLotus
123,Excel,andQuattroPro.
Databasesoftwaremaybemoredifficultto
masterandusuallylackthegraphics
capabilitiesofspreadsheetsoftware.Ifyou
managelargeamountsofdata,however,
havingadatabaseisalmostanecessity.Itcan
storeandmanipulateverylargedatasets
withoutsacrificingspeed.Thedatabasecan
alsorelaterecordsinonefiletorecordsin
another.Thisfeatureallowsyoutobreakyour
dataupintosmaller,moreeasilymanaged
filesthatcanworktogetherasthoughthey
wereone.
Theabilitytoquerydataisoneofthemost
significantadvantagesofusingadatabase.
Forexample,theusercansearchforrecords
thatshowwatertemperatureexceedingX
degreesoveraspecifiedtimeperiod,or
identifymonitoringsitesthathavedissolved
oxygenlevelsbetweenXandY andthedates
ofthoseobservations.Thequestionscanbe
simpleorquitecomplexandtheanswersoroutputcanbeorganizedinavarietyofways.
Ifyouuseadatabasefordatastorageand
retrieval,youmaystillwanttousea
spreadsheetorotherprogramwithgraphics
capabilities.Manyspreadsheetanddatabase
softwarepackagesarecompatibleandwill
allowyoutotransportdatasetsbackandforth
withrelativeease.Specificpartsofthe
database(suchasresultsforaparticularwater
qualityvariablefromallstationsandall
samplingevents)canthenbetransportedinto
thespreadsheet,statisticallyanalyzed,andgraphicallydisplayed.Examplesofpopular
databasesoftwarepackagesaredBase,
Access,FileMakerPro,andFoxPro.
DesigningaDataManagementSystem
Manypeoplearecapableofwritingtheir
ownprogramstomanipulateanddisplaydata.
Thedisadvantageofusingahomegrown
softwareprogram,however,isthatifits
authorleavesthemonitoringprogram,sotoo
doesallknowledgeabouthowtheprogramworks.Commercialsoftware,ontheother
hand,comeswithconsumerservicesthat
provideoverthephonehelpandinstructions,
users guides,replacementguarantees,and
updatesasthecompanyimprovesitsproduct.
Mostcommercialprogramsaredevelopedto
importandexportdatainstandardformats.
Thisfeatureisimportantbecauseifyouwant
tosharedatawithotherprogramsor
organizations,allyouneedarecompatible
softwareprograms.However,somefile
conversionsmaybemoredifficultthanadvertisedbythesoftwaremanufacturer.To
avoidpotentialproblems,consultwithany
groups,governmentagencies,orlaboratories
withwhomyouplantosharedataandensure
thatyoursoftwarepackagesarecompatible
(Lease,1995).
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SharedDatabases
Greatereffortsarebeingmadetodevelopdatastoragesystemsthatfacilitatedataexchange
amongdifferentmonitoringgroups.A shareddatabaseservestoassimilateallthedatabeing
collectedinaparticularregionandthereforehelpstoincreaseunderstandingofenvironmentalconditions.Volunteerorganizationsareincreasinglybeingencouragedtosubmittheirdatato
theseshareddatabases.
Toparticipateinashareddatabase,thevolunteerorganizationusuallymusthaveaquality
assuranceprojectplan(seeChapter5)thatmeetstherequirementsofthegroupmaintaining
theshareddatabase.Usingsoftwareprogramsthatarecompatiblewiththeshareddatabase
mayalsobenecessary.
Shareddatabasesmaybedevelopedforaspecificresource(e.g.,ariver)orasageneral
clearinghouseofinformation.OneexampleofabroaddatabaseistheU.S.Environmental
ProtectionAgencys(EPAs)nationalwaterandbiologicaldatastorageandretrievalsystem,
calledSTORET.WithSTORET,volunteerprogramscansubmitdatatoacentralizedfile
serverwhichpermitsnationaldataanalysesandthroughwhichdatacanbesharedamongorganizations.A specificsetofqualitycontrolmeasuresisrequiredforanydataenteredinto
thesystem.Formoreinformation,seetheEPA Webpageatwww.epa.gov/owow/STORET/.
Datasharingalsooccursatthestatelevel.Forexample,theOregonDepartmentof
EnvironmentalQuality(DEQ)willacceptdatafromvolunteersandloaditintoaninhouse
monitoringdatabase,theLaboratoryAnalyticalStorageandRetrieval(LASAR).Thesedata
arethenperiodicallyuploadedtotheSTORET system.TheDepartmenthasestablisheda
RequiredDataElementsPolicytoenhancethewidestuseofdatacollectedinOregon.Visit
theDEQWebsiteforcontactinformationandacopyofthepolicy:
http://www.deq.state.or.us/wq/.
Whendesigningdatabasesorspreadsheets,alwayskeepinmindwhatyouwillultimately HelpfulHintdowiththedata.Willyouproducegraphsor Easeofdataentryisalwaysanimportantreports?Willyouneedtoshowamapwith elementtoconsider.Herearesomekeydatacollectionsites?Trytodesignyour suggestions:datamanagementsysteminamannerthatwill Designthedatabaseorspreadsheetmakeiteasytogenerateyourfinalproduct. beforeyoucollectanydatathiswill
Anotherconsiderationiswhowillinputthe helpinthecreationofyourdatasheets.dataandcreatethefinalproducts.Asmore
people,andespeciallyvolunteers,are Ideally,thedatabaseorspreadsheet
involvedindataentryandmanagement,more inputscreenandthefielddatasheets
emphasisshouldbeplacedonmakingthe usedbyvolunteermonitorsshouldlook
alike.systemeasytouse.
Designthedatabaseorspreadsheetinsuchawaythatitisreadilyapparent
wheredatashouldbeentered.Datacells
canbehighlightedwithaspecialcolor,
forexample.
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CodingSystems
Anydatamanagementsystemshouldbe
flexibleenoughtomeetfutureneeds,
especiallyasdatastarttoaccumulate.Aneasilyunderstoodcodingsystemwillhelp
simplifythetrackingandrecordingofdata.
Codesdevelopedforsamplesites,parameters,
andotherinformationonfieldandlabsheets
shouldparallelthecodesyouuseinyour
database.Ifyouwillbesharingyour
informationwithastateorlocalnatural
resourceagency,youmaywantyourcoding
systemtomatchorcomplementtheagencys
system.
SampleSites
Becausesamplesitestendtochangeorgrow
innumberovertime,itisimportanttohavean
accommodatingsitenumberingsystem.A good
conventiontofollowistouseasitecoding
systemthatincludesanabbreviationofthe
waterbodyorprojectplusasitenumber(e.g.,
GOR021forasiteontheGoomsRiver).By
usingasiteabbreviationandthreedigitcode,
999sitescanbecreatedforeachproject,which
isplentyformostvolunteerprograms.
WaterQualityParameters
Itisalsoimportanttodevelopacoding
systemforeachofthewaterqualityparameters
youaretesting.Thesearethecodesyouwill
useinthedatabaseorspreadsheettoidentify
andextractresults.Tokeeptheamountof
clericalworktoaminimum,abbreviatewithout
losingtheabilitytodistinguishparametersfrom
oneanother.Forexample,ECcouldrepresent
E.colibacteriaandFCcouldbethecodefor
fecalcoliformbacteria.
ReviewingDataSheets
Writershaveeditorstolookformistakesin
grammar,punctuation,etc.Similarly,
someoneshouldbeavailabletoreview
volunteers datasheets.Eventhebest
professionalsandvolunteerscanmakedata
recordingmistakes;misplaceddecimalpoints,
forgottencalculations,ordatavalues
accidentallyleftblankareentirelypossible.
Theprogramcoordinatorordesignateddata
analystshouldscreenandreviewthefield
datasheetsimmediatelyastheyarereceived
andbeforethedataareenteredintothe
databaseorspreadsheet.Waitingtoreviewthe
datasheetsfordiscrepanciesisnotadvised;
thelongeryouwait,themorelikelyitisthat
thepersonwhocollectedthedatawillforget
importantdetailsaboutthesamplingeffort
thatcouldclarifyanyinconsistencies.
Whenreviewingthedatasheets,the
programcoordinatororotherdesignated
personshouldaskthefollowing:
Arethefielddatasheetscomplete?
Ifapersonisconsistentlyleavingasection
ofthesheetincomplete,askwhy.Youmay
learnthatheorsheisunclearabouta
monitoringprocedureorhasmisunderstood
someinstructions.
Arethemonitoringresultsverydifferentfromwhatmightusuallybeexpectedforthe
site?Ifunexpected,aretheystillwithinthe
realmofpossibility?
Forexample,canthekitortechniqueusedactuallyproducethereportedresults?Does
themonitorofferanypossibleexplanations
fortheresults(e.g.,asewagetreatmentplant
malfunctionhadbeenrecentlyreported)?Is
thereadditionalcorollaryinformationthat
supportsthedata(e.g.,afishkillhasbeen
observedalongwiththeextremelylow
dissolvedoxygenreadings)?
Alsocheckforconsistencybetweensimilar
parameters.Forexample,totalsolidsand
turbidityshouldtracktogetherifonegoes
up,soshouldtheother.
Arethereoutliersfindingsthatdifferradically
frompastdataorotherdatafromsimilarsites?
Valuesthatareoffbyafactorof10or100
shouldbequestioned.Followuponanydata
thatseemsuspect.Ifyoucannotexplainwhy
theresultsaresounusual,buttheyarestill
withintherealmofpossibility,youmaywantto
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flagthedataasquestionable.Askan Double-CheckingDataEntryexperiencedvolunteerorprogramstaffmember
tosampleatthatsiteasabackupuntil
uncertaintiesareresolved,orworktoverifythat
propersamplingandanalyticalprotocolsare
beingfollowed.Besidessuggestinghuman
error,monitoringresultsthatareradically
differentthanusualcanindicateaproblemwith
themonitoringtechniqueoranewandserious
problematthemonitoringsite.
Areallmeasurementsreportedinthecorrectunits?
Minimizethechanceforerrorbyincluding
onthedataformitselfanyequationsneededto
convertmeasurementsandspecifyontheform
whatunitsshouldbeused.Checkthemath,makingsurethatthemonitorhasfollowedthe
programsrulesforroundingnumbersand
reportingtheappropriatenumberofdecimal
places.A valueofzeroshouldnotbereported;
instead,reportthevalueaslessthanthelowest
valuethatcanbereadwiththeequipment
(Miller,1995).Forexample,iftherangeofa
testis01mg/l,thesmallestincrementis0.01
mg/l,andthetestresultiszero,reportthevalue
aslessthan0.01mg/lor
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DataInterpretation
Whilecomputersarequitehelpfulin
organizingdata,decipheringthestorybehind
thesefactsremainsahumanjob.Theoverall
purposeofdatainterpretationistoget
answerstoyourstudydesignquestionsthe
samequestionsthatoriginallyprovokedyou
tostartyourmonitoringprogram.
Asanexample,imaginethatyouwantto
determinewherewaterqualitycriteriaarenot
beingmetintheestuary.Todothis,youmust
firstdeveloppreliminaryfindings,orobjec-
tiveobservationsaboutyourdata(Dates,
1995).Bylookingatthedata,forexample,
youmightbeabletoidentify: variablesthatfailedtomeetwater
qualitycriteria;
monitoringsitesthatregularlyfailedtomeetthecriteria;
datesonwhichmostorallofthesitesdidnotmeetthecriteria,andthe
environmentalconditions(e.g.,weather,
flow)onthosedates;
sitesupstreamanddownstreamofasuspectedpollutionsourcethatshow
differentmonitoringresults;and
changesinonewaterqualityvariablethatcoincidewithchangesinanother.
Yourfindingswillhelpyoulookmore
criticallyatthedata.Withthefactsinhand,
youmightnaturallywanttofigureoutwhy
thedataarewhattheyare,especiallyifyour
findingsrevealthatwaterqualitycriteriaare
notmetincertainareas.Thiswillrequire
moreeffort,butiscertainlyworthwhile:once
reasonsforpoorwaterqualityarefound,
solutionscanbedeveloped.Askyourselfquestionstohelpyoudecide
whetherhumanalterations,naturalconditions,
and/ordatacollectionprocessingmistakes
mightexplainyourresults.
Couldweatherinfluenceyourresults(e.g.,doproblemlevelscoincidewith
intenserainstorms)?
Dospecificsourcesexplainyourresults(e.g.,canincreasedbacterialevelsbe
attributedtoawastewatertreatment
plant,failingsepticsystem,oralarge
populationofwaterfowlordomesticated
animals)?
Dochangesinoneofyourindicatorsappeartoexplainchangesinanother?
Forexample,hightemperatures(caused
byathermaldischargeoraheatwave)
mightexplainlowoxygenlevels.
Doyourvisualobservationsexplainanyofyourresults?Didyoursamplers
reportanystrangepipes,construction
activity,flocksofbirds,ordryweather
dischargesfromstormdrainpipes?
Formultipleyearsofdata,arethereoveralltrends?Forexample,didthe
submergedaquaticvegetation(SAV)
communityimproveordeteriorateover
time?Theformercouldbeexplainedby
improvedpollutioncontrol;thelatter,by
newpollutionsources.
Ifyouaremonitoringtheimpactofapollutionsource(e.g.,awastewater
treatmentplant),arethereother
upstreamimpactsthatmightbe
influencingandconfusingyourresults?
Forexample,ifadairyfarmislocated
immediatelyupstreamfromthe
wastewatertreatmentplantthatyouare
monitoring,itmightbedifficultto
figureoutwhichsourceiscausingthe
waterqualityproblemsrevealedbyyour
data.Alternatively,itcouldbedifficult
todeterminehowthetwosources
combinetocausetheproblems.
Couldunusualorunexpecteddatabeattributedtocontaminatedsamplesor
humansamplingerror?
Didthetimeofsamplingaffectyourresults?Forexample,dissolvedoxygen
levelsaregenerallylowestintheearly
morninghours.Samplingfordissolved
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oxygenintheafternooncouldoverlook
theestuarysworstcaseconditions.
Couldthewaterqualityvariableoccurinseveralplacesthroughoutthe
ecosystem?Forexample,ifyoufoundlowlevelsofphosphorusinthewater
column,theremightbehighlevelsin
bottomsedimentsorplants.Algae
bloomsareevidenceofnutrient
enrichmentthatmaynotbeapparentin
watersamples.
HelpfulHintComparingolderphotoswithmorerecent
onesfromthesamelocationcanhelp
volunteersunderstandchanginglandusesandperhapshelpyouinterpretwaterquality
changes.
SummaryStatistics
Figure8-2.Graphic Summarystatisticsdescribethebasic
representationofthe attributesofasetofdataforagivenmean.Themeanis parameter.Therearemanydifferenttypesoflocatedatthepeakofanormalorbellshaped statisticsthatcanbeused.Programleaders
distributioncurve. shouldconsultastandardstatisticsmanual,
theirdatausers,andtheirquality
Frequency
Frequency
Value
Mean
assuranceprojectplantoMean
determinewhichstatistical
methodsaremostappropriate
fortheirdata.Twoofthemost
frequentlyuseddescriptorsof
environmentaldataarethe
mean andstandarddeviation.
Theyarebrieflydescribedhere.
Textbookstatisticscommonly
assumethatifaparameteris
measuredmanytimesunderthe
sameconditions,thenthe
measurementvalueswillbe
randomlydistributedaroundthe
averagewithmorevalues
clusteringneartheaveragethan
furtheraway.Inthisideal
situation,agraphofthe
frequencyofeachmeasure
plottedagainstitsmagnitudeValue
shouldyieldabellshapedornormalcurve.
Themeanandthestandarddeviation
determinetheheightandbreadthofthis
curve,respectively(Figures82and83).
Themeanissimplythesumofallthe
measurementvaluesdividedbythenumberof
measurements.Commonlyreferredtoasthe
average,thisstatisticmarksthehighestpoint
atthecenterofanormalcurve(Figure82).
Thestandarddeviation,ontheotherhand,
describesthevariabilityofthedatapoints
aroundthemean.Verysimilarmeasurement
valueswillhaveasmallstandarddeviation,
whilewidelyscattereddatawillhaveamuch
largerstandarddeviation(Figure83).A high
standarddeviationindicatesimprecisedata
(seeChapter5foradiscussionofprecisionandanequationforcalculatingstandard
deviation).
Whileboththemeanandthestandard
deviationarequiteusefulindescribing
estuarinedata,oftentheactualmeasuresdo
notfitanormaldistribution.Otherstatistics
sometimescomeintoplaytodescribethe
data.Somedataareskewedinonedirection
ortheother,whileothersmightproducea
flattenedbellshape(Figure84).
Deviationfromthenormaldistribution
oftenoccursinestuarysamplingbecausetheestuaryisdynamic,withmanyfactors
influencingtheconditionofitswaters.The
variousmethodsusedtocollectdatacanalso
causenonnormaldistributions.Forexample,
ifvolunteersarecollectingwaterqualitydata
inSAV beds(seeChapter18),thedistribution
ofwaterqualityvariableswilltendtobe
skewedtowardgoodwaterqualitybecause
waterqualityhastobeofacertainminimum
standardtosupportthegrowthofthese
underwaterplants.
Anothercommoncauseofnonnormal
distributionoccursbecauseofdetection
limits.A detectionlimitmarkstheboundary
aboveorbelowtheconcentrationsorvalues
measuredbyaparticularmethod.Secchi
depthmeasurements,forexample,havean
upperdetectionlimitdeterminedbywater
depth(i.e.,theSecchidepthcannotexceedthe
waterdepth)andalowerlimitdeterminedby
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thesmallestincrementofmeasureonthe Forexample,datashowinghigh
rope.Figure85showshowbothlowand turbidityandaccompaniedby
highvaluesmaybetruncatedbythese visualobservationsof
detectionlimits. abnormallycloudywatercould
Mean
Freque
ncy
S=1
S=2
S=3
indicateasignificantsediment
MysterySolved? ornutrientrunoffproblemfrom
Wemightliketothinkourdatawilltellusmanypossiblesources(e.g.,
constructionsites,farmland,everythingaboutwhatishappeninginthe
forestryoperations,golfcourses,estuary.Inreality,thedatamaynottellthe
etc.).Suchinformationshould Valuewholestoryorevenpartofit.Aswithany
bebroughttotheimmediatescientificstudy,yourdatamaybeinconclu Figure8-3. Graphicrepresentationof
thestandarddeviation.A smallstandardattentionofproperauthoritiesforsive,especiallyifyourprogramhasbeen
monitoringforonlyashorttime(Dates,furtherinvestigation. deviationcorrespondstoapeakedfre
Keepinmindthatyourdata quencydistribution,whilealargerstan-1995).Indeed,sincetheworkingsofan darddeviationcorrespondstoamore
shouldsupportyourinterpretations.estuaryarecomplex,itisoftendifficultto
determinetrendsformanywaterquality
variables(e.g.,nutrients)unlessthe
monitoringhasoccurredoverseveralseasons.
Infact,severalyears worthofunusualdata
maybequitemisleadingandtellastoryvery
differentthanthelongtermsituation.
Concludingthatyouneedadditional
informationtobetterunderstandtheestuaryis
flatteneddistribution.Still,yourinterpretationsare
simplyyourbestjudgmentsaboutthedata.Evenifyouincludeyour
volunteers,datausers,andothers
whoareknowledgeableabouttheestuaryin
reviewingthedata,othersmaydisagreewith
yourinterpretation.Thatisnotatypical.
However,aslongasyourdatasupportyour
interpretationandyouhavefollowedacompletelyacceptable.
Ontheotherhand,anomalousdatacan
indicateproblemsrequiringimmediateaction.
reasonabledatainterpretationprocess,you
shouldbeabletodefendyourposition.
Normal(Bell-shaped)
RightSkewed
LeftSkewed
Flattened
Frequency
Value
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
MinimummeasureonSecchirope
Depthof
wateratsite
SecchiDepth(meters)
Month
Figure8-4. Examplesoffrequencydistributions.Becauseofthecomplexityofestuarinesystems,deviationstothenormalbellshapeddistributioncurvearecommon.
Figure8-5. ExampleoflimitationsonSecchidepthmeasurementsinanhypotheticalmonitoringprogram.
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DataPresentation
A projectcoordinatorinPuertoRicoreviews
thesignificanceofmarinedebrisdatawithher
youngvolunteers.Presentationsshouldbe
designedaccordingtothetypeofaudience
(photobyL.Monk).
Whenyoufeel
fullyconfidentthat
youhaveassembled
thebestpossible
pictureof
environmental
conditionsinyour
studyareas,itis
yourjobtomake
othersyour
volunteers,data
users,localfishing
clubs,oranyother
audienceawareof
whatyoufound.
KnowYourAudience
Whethercitizenprogramsconvey
monitoringresultsinaperiodicnewsletter,
annualreport,orbyverbalpresentation,the
keytorousingandsustainingtheinterestof
theaudienceremainsthesame.Thespeaker
orwritermustdeterminetheinterests,
background,andleveloftechnical
understandingofthetargetaudienceand
preparethepresentationaccordingly.
Remember:Theburdenofcommunicationis
onthepresentertoconveytheinformation,
notontheaudiencetounderstand(Sayce,
1999).
Inpresentingdataresultstovolunteersor
otherinterestedparties,severalpointsmerit
consideration:
Highlytechnicalorextremelysimplisticpresentationsboretheaudience.An
informativeandlivelyapproach,molded
totheexpectationsoftheaudience,willbefarmoreeffective.Simplegraphics
oftenhelpmakecomplicatedissues
muchmoreunderstandable.
A presentationshouldfocusonaclearmessagerelatedtoyouraudiences
interests.Youraudiencewilllikelybe
moreinterestedinspecificssuchas
trendsinwaterquality,seasonal
variation,qualityassuranceissues,or
theidentificationoftroublespotsinthe
estuaryratherthananacrosstheboard
synopsisofallthemonitoringresults.
Datapresentations,whetherwrittenorverbal,shouldbebothtimelyand
relevant.Volunteerswillmaintaina
higherlevelofinterestiftheyseea
quickturnaroundoftheirdataintousableandinformativegraphicsand
summaries.Moreover,yournutrient
datawonthavemuchinfluenceon
communitydecisionmakersifyoumiss
thepublichearingonasewerupgrade
project.Asmentionedearlier,trends
maybedifficulttodeterminewith
limiteddata,sooneshouldexercise
cautionwhenimplyingthatdatashow
longtermtrends.
Betterunderstandingonthepartofyour
audiencemayleadtomorecommunity
support,morefunding,better
managementpolicies,andgreater
citizeninvolvement.
Whenpresentingdata,oneofyourchief
goalsshouldbetomaintaintheattentionand
interestofyouraudience.Thisisverydifficult
usingtablesfilledwithnumbers.Mostpeople
willnotbeinterestedintheabsolutevaluesof
eachparameterateachsamplingsite;rather,
theywillwanttoknowthebottomlinefor
eachsite(e.g.,isitgoodorbad)andseasonal
andyeartoyeartrends.
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Technicalvs.Non-TechnicalAudiences
Whenaddressingwaterqualityorplanningprofessionals,youshouldprovideinformationabout:
thepurposeofthestudy;
whoconductedit;
howitwasfunded;
themethodsused;
thequalitycontrolmeasurestaken;
yourinterpretationoftheresults;
yourconclusionsandrecommendations;and
furtherquestionsthathavearisenasaresultofthestudy.
Graphics,tables,andmapsmaybefairlysophisticated.Besuretoincludetherawdataina
writtenreportsappendixandnoteanyproblemsencountered.
A reportforthegeneralpublicshouldbeshortanddirect.Itisveryimportanttoconveyinformationinanontechnicalstyleandtoincludedefinitionsfortermsandconceptsthatmaybe
unfamiliartothelayperson.Simplecharts,summarytables,andmapswithaccompanying
explanationscanbeespeciallyuseful.Includeabriefdescriptionoftheprogram,thepurposeof
themonitoring,anexplanationoftheparametersthatweremonitored,thelocationofsample
sites,asummaryoftheresults,andanyrecommendationsthatmayhavebeenmade.
Inanywrittenreportorpresentation,youshouldacknowledgethevolunteersandthesourcesof
fundingandothersupport.
(ExcerptedandadaptedfromUSEPA,1997.)
Graphics sophisticatedgraphicstylesmayberequiredtopresentsomedata,threebasictypesare
Graphics,whenusedproperly,areexcellentoftenusedforvolunteermonitoringdata:the
toolstopresentagreatdealofinformationinbargraph,piechart,andlinegraph.
acondensedyetunderstandableformat.They
enliventhepresentation,highlighttrends,andBarGraph
illustratecomparativerelationships.Graphics
includeflowcharts,maps,andgraphsorchartsThebargraphuses
50
ofthedata.Suchgraphics,alongwithsimplecolumns(Figure
narrativeinterpretation,summarystatistics,86).Theheightof
40
tables,overheads,andslides,helpconstructaeachcolumnrepresents
wellroundedandinterestingpresentation. thevalueofadata 30point,making
comparisonsofthedata20
GraphsandChartsrelativelyeasy. 10
Resultssummarizedfromthevolunteer Modificationscanbecollecteddatacanbedisplayedinanyof madetothestandard 0
#1 #2 #3 #4severalstylesofgraphs.Choosingthestyle bargraphforvisual
Categorythatbestconveystheinformationiscritical appeal.Forexample,andrequirescarefulthought.Althoughmore Figure87shows Figure8-6.Bargraph.
Units
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1-May
15-May
1-Jun
16-Jun
1-Jul
16-Jul
1-Aug
16-Aug
1-Sep
16-Sep
1-Oct
16-Oct turbiditydata,asmeasuredbyaSecchidisk.
Inthisgraphic,depthincreasesina
No.
ofFecalColiformB
acteria
in100mlwater
Figure8-7.ModificationoftypicalbargraphtoillustrateSecchidepthdata.
0
200
600 simplicityandclarity.
Certaindatamaybebetterdescribedbya400 piechartthanothers.Forexample,itcanbe
800
1000 Thechartspieshape,withthepie
Thepiechart(Figure89)isasimpleyeteffectivemeansofcomparingeachcategory
1200Notpermissibleforswimming
Permissibleforswimming
Desirableforswimming
Permissibleforboatingandfishing(under5,000)
withinthedatasettothewhole.Itisbestused
1-May
15-May
1-Jun
16-Jun
1-Jul
16-Jul
1-Aug
16-Aug
1-Sep
16-Sep
1-Oct
16-Oct
SecchiDepth(meters)
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
31-Oct
31-Oct
percentagesofmarinedebrisfoundata
particularsite(e.g.,thepercentofplastic,
paper,glass,etc.,debris),butnotfor
presentingdissolvedoxygentrends.
veryusefulforsummarizingthecomposition
wedgesrepresentingdistinctcategories,
makesthisgraphicstylepopularduetoits
representingthetotalandtheindividual
topresentrelationaldata,suchaspercentages.
downwarddirectionalongtheverticalaxisto
simulateactualwaterdepth.Thisminor
changefromthenorm,alongwiththeuseof
Secchidiskiconsextendingdownfromthe
surface,makesthedataeasytounderstand.
InbargraphsofpH,dissolvedoxygen,
bacteria,orotherwaterqualityvariablesfor
whichastandardvalueexists,consider
insertingalineacrossthegraphicshowingthe
standard(Figure88).Thishelpsin
understandingwhenyourresultsindicate
problems.
PieChart
Figure8-9.Piechart.
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VolunteerEstuaryMonitoring:AMethodsManual
Figure8-8. Bargraphshowingfecalcoliformdatavaluesandcomparingthem HelpfulHintwithwaterqualitystandards.
Iftherearemanysmallpercentagesinyour
piechart,considerreducingtheclutterby
Category4 Category1 groupingthevaluestogetherasanother
category.Identifytheitemsintheother
sliceofthepieelsewhere,especiallyifyou
arepresentingtheinformationtoa
technicalaudience.
Category3 Category2
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LineGraph bathymetricmaps, 40
A linegraph(Figure810)isconstructedby whichshowthe
connectingthedatapointswithaline.Itcan relief(deepand 30
beeffectivelyusedfordepictingchangesover shallowportions)
U
nits
20
timeorspace.Thistypeofgraphplacesmore onthebottomofemphasisontrendsandtherelationship estuaries;
Geographic 10
Information
System(GIS) 0
maps,whichare #1 #2 #3 #4 #5 #6
computergener Category
atedandcanshow
avarietyoffeatures(seebox, Figure8-10. Linegraph
page814);
highwayorstreetatlasmaps;
geologicmaps; soilmaps;
geologicorengineeringhazardsmaps;
floodinundationmaps;and
handdrawnmaps.
18
16
amongdatapointsandlessemphasisonany
particulardatapoint.
Linegraphscanalsobeusedtocompare
twowaterqualityvariablesthatmaybe
related.Figure811,forexample,shows
dissolvedoxygenconcentrationsandwater
temperature.Theplotofthetwoparameters
showsthataswatertemperatureincreases
throughthesummer,oxygenlevelsgenerally
decline.Theoppositeoccursascooler
autumntemperaturessetin.
MapsandPhotographs
Displayingtheresultsofyourmonitoring
dataonamapcanbeaveryeffectivewayof
helpingpeopleunderstandwhatthedata
signify.A mapcanshowthelocationof
samplesitesinrelationtofeaturessuchas
cities,wastewatertreatmentplants,farmland,
andtributariesthatmayhaveaneffecton
waterquality.Thistypeofgraphicdisplaycan
WaterTemperature
DissolvedOxygen
25
14
DissolvedOxygen[mg/l]
WaterTemp.[degreesC]
beusedtoeffectivelyshowthecorrelationbetweenspecificactivitiesorlandusesand
theimpactstheyhaveontheecosystem.
Becauseamapdisplaystheestuarys
relationshiptoneighborhoods,parks,and
recreationalareas,itcanalsohelptoelicit
concernfortheestuaryandstrengtheninterest
2012
10
158
6 10
4
inprotectingit.2
Therearedifferenttypesofmapsavailable. 0Theseinclude:
topographicmaps,whichshow
naturalfeaturesandelevations;
1-May
15-May
1-Jun
16-Jun
1-Jul
16-Jul
1-Aug
16-Aug
1-Sep
16-Sep
1-Oct
16-Oct
31-Oct
Figure8-11. Linegraphcomparingvaluesfortworelatedwaterqualityvariables.
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0
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HelpfulHint
Herearesometipsformakingyourgraphicseasytounderstand:
Havethegraphserveaclearpurpose.Theinformationcontainedinthegraphshouldberelativelyeasytointerpretandrelatecloselytothetextofadocumentorscriptofapresentation.
Donotdistortthemeaningofthedata.Graphicalrepresentationsofthedatapointsshouldbeproportionaltoeachpointsactualvalue(Figure8-12).
Ensurethatthelabelingofgraphicsisclearandaccurate.Atableofthedatavaluesshouldaccompanyanygraphthatislikelytobemisunderstood.
Keepthegraphicdesignsimple.Complexortrickygraphicsoftenhidethetruemeaningofthedata.Avoidclutteringthegraphwithlabels,arrows,grids,fillpatterns,andothervisualnoisethatunnecessarilycomplicatethegraphic.Use
simplefontsthatareeasytoread.
Limitthenumberofgraphicelements.Apiechart,forexample,shouldbedividedintonomorethanfiveorsixwedges.Keepthenumberofsuperimposedlinesonalinegraphandthequantityofcolumnsinabargraphtoaminimum.
Considertheproportionsofthechartandthelegibilityofthetypeandgraphicelements.Ahorizontalformatisgenerallymorevisuallyappealing,simplertounderstand,andmakeslabelseasiertoread.Theelementsshouldfillthedimensions
ofthegraphtocreateabalancedeffect.Ensurethattheaxesarelabeledwithlegibletitlesandthatthetickmarks
showingdataintervalsarenotcrowdedalongtheaxislines.Avoidcrypticabbreviationswheneverpossible,
rememberingthatyouwantyouraudiencetofullyunderstandtheinformationinthegraphic.
Createatitleforthechartthatissimpleyetinformative.
Rememberthat8percentoftheU.S.populationiscolorblind.Whencolor-codingresults,dontusebothredandgreenonthesamegraphic.Youmayalsouseshapesorsymbolsinadditiontocolor.
Whetheryouusecolor,shading,orpatterns,besurethataneasy-to-understanddatakeyisincludedorthatthedataareclearlylabeled.
Ifyouwillneedtophotocopycolorgraphics,makesurethatthecolorsarestilldistinguishablewhenthegraphicsarephotocopiedinblackandwhite.
Beconsistentwhencomparingdata;forexample,dontmixpiechartswithbargraphs.(PortionsexcerptedandadaptedfromSchoenetal.,1999.)
GeographicInformationSystems
Computersoftwaresystemsthatallowyoutomapandmanipulatevariouslayersof
information(suchaswaterqualitydata,landuseinformation,countyboundaries,orgeologic
conditions)areknownasGeographicInformationSystems(GIS).Theycanvaryfromsimple
systemsrunonpersonalcomputerstosophisticatedandverypowerfulonesthatrunonlarge
mainframes.ForanyGISapplication,youneedtoknowthecoordinatesofyoursample
siteseithertheirlatitudeandlongitude,orsomealternatesystem.Youcanalsolocateyoursitesonatopographicmapthatcanbedigitizedontoanelectronicmapofthewatershed.
Oncethesepointshavebeenestablished,youcanlinkyourdatabasetothepointsonthemap,
queryyourdatabase,andcreategraphicdisplaysofthedata.
PowerfulGISapplicationstypicallyrequireexpensivehardware,software,andtechnical
training.AnyvolunteerprograminterestedinGISapplicationsmayconsiderworkingin
partnershipwithotherorganizationssuchasuniversities,naturalresourceagencies,orlarge
nonprofitgroupsthatcanprovideaccesstoaGIS.
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20
10
0
Chapter8:DataManagement,Interpretation,andPresentation
pH
a) b)pH,GoomsBay pH,GoomsBay
14 8
79
pH
64 5
4Site1 Site2 Site3 Site4 Site5 Site1 Site2 Site3 Site4 Site5
c)TotalPhosphorous,GoomsBay
d)TotalPhosphorous,GoomsBay
50 35
40
TP(g/l) 32.5
TP(g/l)
30
27.5
25Above GolfCourse Below Above GolfCourse Below
Figure8-12.Scaleconsiderationsforpresentingdata.ThepHgraphin(a)givesthemistakenimpressionthattheresultsaresimilarateachsite.Thegraphin(b)usesanarroweryaxisscale,therebydoingabetterjobofshowingthesignificantdifferencesamongmonitoringsites.Changingscalestodramatizeinsignificantdifferences(candd),however,isnotrecommended.
Thedisplaymapshouldshowprincipal
featuressuchasroads,municipalboundaries,
waterways,andotherfamiliarlandmarks(e.g.,
schoolsandchurches).Itshouldhave
sufficientdetailandscaletoshowthelocation
ofsamplesitesandhavespaceforsummary
informationabouteachsite.
Whendisplayingyourdataonamap,
considerthefollowing:
Keeptheamountofinformationpresentedoneachmaptoaminimum.
Donottrytoputsomuchononemap
thatitbecomesvisuallycomplicated
anddifficulttoreadorunderstand.A
goodruleofthumbistoreadthemap
withoutreferringtothelegend.Ifthe
mapisnoteasilyunderstoodorif
symbols,lines,andcolorsarenotdistinctfromeachother,thenyou
shoulduseanothermaptodisplaya
differentlayerorviewofthedata.
Forexample,ifthereareseveraldates
forwhichyouwishtodisplay
samplingresults,useonemapfor
eachdate.
Clearlylabelthemapandprovideanexplanationofhowtointerpretit.If
youneedalongandcomplicated
explanation,youmaywanttopresent
thedatadifferently.Ifyouhave
reachedaclearconclusion,statetheconclusiononthemap.Forexample,
ifamapshowsthattributariesare
cleanerthanthemainstem,usethat
informationasthesubtitleofthemap.
Provideakeytothesymbolsthatareusedonthemap.
Ratherthanpackinglotsofinformationintoasmallareaofthe
map,useablowuporenlargement
oftheareaelsewhereonthemapto
adequatelydisplaytheinformation.
Usesymbolsthatvaryinsizeandpatterntorepresentthemagnitudeof
results.Forexample,asitewitha
fecalcoliformlevelof10colonies/
100mlcouldbealightgraycircle
witha1/16inchdiameterwhileasite
withalevelof200colonies/100ml
wouldbeadarkgraycircle1/4inch
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A volunteerdistributesinformationtopassersbyat
anEarthDayeventinWashington,DC(photoby
TheOceanConservancy).
indiameter.Start
byfindingthe
highestand
lowestvalues,
assigndiameters
andpatternsto
thosevalues,and
thenfillinsteps
alongtheway.
Fortheabove
exampleyou
mighthavefour
ranges:0to99,
100to199,200to
500,and500+.
Photographsalso
addgreatvaluetoyourproject.Aerialphotosofthemonitoringsitesaddapersonal
touch,allowingcitizenstoseetheirhouses
orfavoritefishingspots.Thiscanpiquetheir
interestintheproject.
Groundlevelpicturesofalgalblooms,
monitoringsites,andvolunteersinactionare
alsohelpful.Theyarequalitativerecordsof
yourestuaryshealthoryourmonitoring
projectandhelpyouraudienceunderstand
yourprojectandprogramsactivities.
Compilingaphotolibraryisalwaysagood
idea,especiallywhenlastminuteadditionsareneededforreports,pressreleases,display
booths,andpresentations.
GettingtheWordOut
Onaregularbasis,asuccessfulvolunteer
estuarymonitoringprogramshouldreportkey
findingstovolunteers,datausers,andthe
generalpublic,includingthemedia.As
mentionedpreviously,statewaterquality
agencieswillrequiredetailedreports,whereas
shorterandlesstechnicalsummariesaremoreappropriateforthegeneralpublic.
Thevolunteerprogramshoulddevelopa
strategyfordistributingandpublicizing
reports.Allreportsshouldbesubjectedtothe
reviewprocessprescribedbyyourquality
assuranceprojectplan,andyourprograms
leadersshouldbeconfidentaboutthedataand
comfortablewiththestatementsand
conclusionsbeforethereportismadepublic.
Whenyourreportsfindingsandconclusions
arereleasedtothepublic,youwillneedtobe
preparedtorespondtoquestionsregardingthe
dataandyourinterpretationofthatdata.
Someideasfordistributingprojectresultsand
informingthepublicincludethefollowing:
WrittenReport
A writtendocumentisagoodinstrumentfor
gettingyourinformationouttoawide
audience.Ifyouhaveaccesstoamailinglistof
peoplewhoareinterestedinyourestuary,mail
thereportwithacoverletterthatsummarizes
themajorfindingsofthestudy.Thecoverletter
shouldbebriefandenticingsothattherecipient
willbecuriousenoughtoreadthereport.Ifyou
wantpeopletotakesomekindofaction,such
assupportingtheexpenditureofpublicfundsto
upgradeasewagetreatmentplant,youmay
wanttoaskfortheirsupportinthecoverletter.
Ifyoudonothaveanextensivemailinglist,
perhapsotherorganizationsthatshareyour
goalswouldbewillingtosupplyyouwiththeir
lists.Besuretoalsosendthereporttostateand
federalagencies;newspapers;radioand
televisionstations;locallibraries;collegesand
universities;researchstations;andhighschools,
ifappropriate.
Insteadoflongtechnicalreports,youmay
wanttodevelopfactsheetsforpublic
distribution.Thesesummariesofyourfindings
andconclusionsshouldmakeyourpoints
quicklyandinstructthereaderonhowtoobtain
moreinformation.
SpeakingTour
Developanoralpresentation(withslides,overheads,etc.)thatcouldbeofferedtogroups
suchasthelocalchamberofcommerce,civic
clubs,conservationorganizations,schools,and
governmententities.Yourpresentationcould
evenbevideotapedfordistributiontoawider
audience.
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PublicMeetings
Scheduleaseriesofpublicmeetingsthat
highlightthemonitoringprogram,itsfindings,
anditsrecommendations.Atthemeetings,
distributethewrittenreport,answerquestions,andtellyouraudiencehowtheycanget
involved.Thesemeetingscanalsohelpyou
recruitmorevolunteers.
Besuretoschedulethemeetingsattimes
whenpeoplearemorelikelytoattend(i.e.,
weekdayevenings,weekenddays)andavoid
periodswhenpeopleareusuallybusyoron
vacation.Invitethemediaandpublicizethe
meetingsinnewspapercalendars;sendpress
releasestoradioandtelevisionstations,
newspapers,andotherorganizations;andask
volunteerstodistributefliersatgrocery
stores,cityhall,etc.
PressReleasesandPressConferences
AsexplainedinChapter3,distributinga
pressreleaseisacosteffectivemeansof
informingthepublicabouttheresultsand
accomplishmentsofyourprogram.Developa
mailinglistofnewspapers,radioand
televisionstations,andorganizationsthat
solicitarticlesforpublication.Sendthenews
releasetovolunteersandotherswhoareinterestedinpublicizingthemonitoring
program.
Ifyourreportcontainssomerealnewsorif
ithasledtoasignificantevent(e.g.,the
mayororcitycouncilhasrecognizedthe
valueofthereportandissuedastatementof
support),holdapressconference(seeChapter
3fordetails).
Exhibits
Setupdisplaysatriverfestivals,county
fairs,conferences,libraries,storefront
windows,boatramps,orparks.Exhibitsallow
youtoshowyourdatatoavarietyofaudiences,usuallyinaninformalsetting.
WebSites
PlacingdataonyourprogramsWebsiteor
thesitesofprojectpartnerscanbeauseful
andconvenientwaytomakeyourdata
available.Almosteveryonehasaccesstothe
InternetanddevelopingaWebpageis
relativelyeasy.
Peoplecuriousaboutyourprojectcanview
theWebsiteforrawdata,graphics,photos,andcommentary.Inaddition,posting
informationonthesitecansavestaff
resourcesthatwouldotherwisebespent
printingandmailingtheresultsorexplaining
resultsoverthephone.
Oncepeopleknowwheretheycanfind
yourdata,theycancontinuetocheckthesite
forupdates.
OtherPublicity
Becreativeingettingyourreportand
messageout.Trywritingletterstotheeditor
oropedarticlesforlocalorstatewidepapers,
producingradiofeeds(arecordingofthe
groupsleaderplayedoverthephonetoa
radiostation),issuingmediaadvisories,and
evenadvertisinginpublications.
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ReferencesandFurtherReading
Portionsofthischapterwereexcerptedandadaptedfrom:
Dates,G.1995.InterpretingYourData. TheVolunteerMonitor7(1).
Lease,F.1995.DesigningaDataManagementSystem.TheVolunteerMonitor7(1).
Schoen,J.,MF.Walk,andM.L.Tremblay.1999.Ready,Set,Present!A DataPresentation
ManualforVolunteerWaterQualityMonitoringGroups.MassachusettsWaterWatch
Partnership.Univ.ofMassachusetts,Amherst.
Website:http://www.umass.edu/tei/mwwp/datapresmanual.html .
U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(USEPA).1997. VolunteerStreamMonitoring:A
MethodsManual. EPA 841B97003.November.OfficeofWater,Washington,DC.211pp.
Otherreferences:
Dates,G.,andJ.Schloss.1998.DatatoInformation:A GuideforCoastalWaterQuality
MonitoringGroupsinNewHampshireandMaine.Univ.ofMaineCooperativeExtension
andME/NHSeaGrant.Waldoboro,ME.
Ely,E.(ed.)1995.TheVolunteerMonitor.SpecialTopic:ManagingandPresentingYourData.
7(1).
Hubbell,S.1995.SeizetheData.TheVolunteerMonitor7(1).
Miller,J.K.1995.DataScreeningandCommonSense.TheVolunteerMonitor7(1).
Rector,J.1995.VariabilityHappens:BasicDescriptiveStatisticsforVolunteerPrograms.
TheVolunteerMonitor7(1).
RiverWatchNetwork.1995. ProgramOrganizingGuide.RiverWatchProgramofRiver
Network.Montpelier,VT.
Sayce,K.1999.DataAnalysisandPresentation.In:MeetingNotesU.S.Environmental
ProtectionAgency(USEPA)/CenterforMarineConservation(CMC)workshop:Volunteer
EstuaryMonitoring:WaveoftheFuture.Astoria,OR:May1921,1999.
U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(USEPA).1990. VolunteerWaterMonitoring:A Guide
forStateManagers. EPA 440/490010.August.OfficeofWater,Washington,DC.78pp.
U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(USEPA).1997. ProceedingsFifthNationalVolunteer
MonitoringConference:PromotingWatershedStewardship.August37,1996,Universityof
WisconsinMadison.EPA 841R97007.
Website:http://www.epa.gov/owow/volunteer/proceedings/toc.html .
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Unit OneChemicalMeasures
Oxygen Nutrients pHandAlkalinity Toxins
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