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Meiosis&ProteinSynthesisUnitCoverPage Attheendofthisunit,IwillbeprogressingtowardsmasteringthefollowingNGSSstandards:EngineeringPractices
q ETS1-1:Analyzeamajorglobalchallengetospecifyqualitativeandquantitativecriteriaandconstraintsforsolutionsthataccountforsocietalneedsandwants.
q ETS1-2:Designasolutiontoacomplexreal-worldproblembybreakingitdownintosmaller,moremanageableproblemsthatcanbesolvedthroughengineering.
q ETS1-3:Evaluateasolutiontoacomplexreal-worldproblembasedonprioritizedcriteriaandtrade-offsthataccountforarangeofconstraints,includingcost,safety,reliability,andaestheticsaswellaspossiblesocial,cultural,andenvironmentalimpacts.
q ETS1-4:Useacomputersimulationtomodeltheimpactofproposedsolutionstoacomplexreal-worldproblemwithnumerouscriteriaandconstraintsoninteractionswithinandbetweensystemsrelevanttotheproblem.
Attheendofthisunit,Iwill:
q LS3-1:AskquestionstoclarifyrelationshipsabouttheroleofDNAandchromosomesincodingtheinstructionsforcharacteristictraitspassedfromparentstooffspring.
q LS3-2:Makeanddefendaclaimbasedonevidencethatinheritablegeneticvariationsmayresultfrom:(1)newgeneticcombinationsthroughmeiosis,(2)viableerrorsoccurringduringreplication,and/or(3)mutationscausedbyenvironmentalfactors.
q EachchromosomeconsistsofasingleverylongDNAmolecule,andeachgeneonthechromosomeisaparticularsegmentofthatDNA.Theinstructionsforformingspecies’characteristicsarecarriedinDNA.
q Allcellsinanorganismhavethesamegeneticcontent,butthegenesused(expressed)bythecellmayberegulatedindifferentways.NotallDNAcodesforaprotein;somesegmentsofDNAareinvolvedinregulatoryorstructuralfunctions,andsomehavenoas-yetknownfunction.(LS3-1)
q Environmentalfactorsalsoaffectexpressionoftraits,andhenceaffecttheprobabilityofoccurrencesoftraitsinapopulation.Thusthevariationanddistributionoftraitsobserveddependsonbothgeneticandenvironmentalfactors.(LS3-2),(LS3-3)
q LS1-1:ConstructanexplanationbasedonevidenceforhowthestructureofDNA
determinesthestructureofproteinswhichcarryouttheessentialfunctionsoflifethroughsystemsofspecializedcells
q Knowthedifferencebetweensexualandasexualreproduction.q Understandthedifferencebetweenhaploidanddiploidcells.q Understandthestepsinvolvedinmeiosiswithregardtogametesandchromosomenumber.
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CrossCuttingConceptsq Patterns:Observedpatternsofformsandeventsguideorganizationandclassification,andthey
promptquestionsaboutrelationshipsandthefactorsthatinfluencethem.q Causeandeffect:Mechanismandexplanation.Eventshavecauses,sometimessimple,sometimes
multifaceted.Amajoractivityofscienceisinvestigatingandexplainingcausalrelationshipsandthemechanismsbywhichtheyaremediated.Suchmechanismscanthenbetestedacrossgivencontextsandusedtopredictandexplaineventsinnewcontexts.
q Scale,proportion,andquantity:Inconsideringphenomena,itiscriticaltorecognizewhatisrelevantatdifferentmeasuresofsize,time,andenergyandtorecognizehowchangesinscale,
q Systemsandsystemmodels:Definingthesystemunderstudy—specifyingitsboundariesandmakingexplicitamodelofthatsystem—providestoolsforunderstandingandtestingideasthatareapplicablethroughoutscienceandengineering.
q Energyandmatter:Flows,cycles,andconservation.Trackingfluxesofenergyandmatterinto,outof,andwithinsystemshelpsoneunderstandthesystems’possibilitiesandlimitations.
q Structureandfunction:Thewayinwhichanobjectorlivingthingisshapedanditssubstructuredeterminemanyofitspropertiesandfunctions.
q Stabilityandchange:Fornaturalandbuiltsystemsalike,conditionsofstabilityanddeterminantsofratesofchangeorevolutionofasystemarecriticalelementsofstudy.
Roots,PrefixesandSuffixesIwillbeabletounderstandwhenIseetheminwordsare:q Homo-,chromo-,hap-,di-,karyo-q -logous,-some
ThetermsIcancompletelydefineare:
q Gene,homologouschromosome,gamete,haploid,fertilization,diploid,meiosis,crossingover,karyotype,telomere,nondisjunction
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MeiosisandReproductionWarm-upHumanshave46chromosomesinalloftheirbodycells.Thefirstcelloftheorganismismadebyjoiningeggandsperm.
1. Howmanychromosomesdoyouthinkareinahumaneggorspermcell?Explain.
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
2. Doyouthinkthatcelldivisionbymitosis(duplicationofcells)canproduceeggorsperm?
Explain.
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
UnderstandingHaploidandDiploidIfN=2,2Nwouldlooklike:
1. DrawthechromosomesinadiploidcellofanorganismwhereN=3.
2. Howmanycombinationsofhaploid(eggsorsperm)cellsarepossibleifN=2?Drawthepossiblecombinations.
3. HowmanycombinationsofhaploidcellsarepossibleifN=3?Drawthepossiblecombinations.
=Achromosome=Achromosome
Thereare2differenttypesofchromosomesinthiscell.2Nmeansthatthiscellisdiploid(ortherearetwocopiesofeachchromosome).Howmanytotalchromosomesarepresentinthiscell?_________
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AsexualReproductionWarm-up:WhatisAsexualReproduction?
Whatarethelimitationsofasexualreproduction?
Whataresomespecificexamplesofasexualreproduction?
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SexualReproductionNotesWhydoorganismshavesex?
Sexualreproductionincreases______________byproducingnew
______________combinations.
Whatdoessexualreproductionconsistof?
1. ______________:Formationoftwohaploidsexcells(or
_______________).
• Meiosisisaprocesstoconverta________celltoa________
gamete,andcauseachangeinthegeneticinformationto
increasediversityintheoffspring.
• Inhumans,meiosisonlyoccursinthe___________
– Spermatogenesis:Inthe___________(inmales)
– Oogenesis:Inthe_________________(infemales)
2. Fertilization:Combinationofgeneticinformationfromtwo
separatecellsthathaveone________theoriginalgenetic
information.
Wheredogametescomefrom?Whatareistheploidylevelsofgametes?Whatisthenamefortheprocessinwhichtwogametescombine?
• ______________forfertilizationusuallycomefromseparate
parents
o Femaleproducesan___________
o Maleproduces_____________
• Bothgametesarehaploid(1__),withasinglesetof
____________________.
• Thenewindividualiscalleda_____________,withtwosetsof
chromosomes(____________or2___).
• Oncethezygotebeginstodivide,itiscalledan
_________________.
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Karyotypes
Akaryotypeisthenumberandappearanceofchromosomesinthenucleusofaneukaryoticcell.
1. Analyzethekaryotypeabove.Howmanychromosomesdoyousee?________________
2. Arethesechromosomesreplicatedorunreplicated?Howcanyoutell?
3. Circlethesexchromosomes.Whatisthegenderofthisperson?____________________
4. Howmanyhomologouspairsdoyousee?
5. Howarehomologouschromosmespairedup?AndareXandYhomologous?Explain.
6. Forhumans,n=______.Explainwhatthismeans.
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USING KARYOTYPES TO PREDICT GENETIC DISORDERS Use the following website to help you fill in the blanks and answer the following questions. http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/begin/traits/predictdisorder/
1. A normal human karyotype has ______ chromosomes: _____ pairs of autosomes and ____ sex chromosomes. Cells don’t always end up with these chromosomal numbers, though. The following text outlines what happens when cells end up with too much or too little genetic information.
2. Too many or too few chromosomes
a. To understand how our cells might end up with too many or too few chromosomes, we need to
know how the cells normally get _____ chromosomes.
b. First we need to understand meiosis. Meiosis is the cell division process that produces egg
and sperm cells (___________), which normally have ______ chromosomes each.
c. If eggs and sperm only have one set of _____________________, then how do we end up
with 46 chromosomes? During ______________________, when the egg and sperm fuse, the
resulting _________________ has two copies of each chromosome needed for proper
development, for a total of ________.
3. How can cells end up with too many or too few chromosomes?
a. Sometimes chromosomes are incorrectly distributed into the egg or sperm cells during
_______________. When this happens, one cell may get __________ copies of a particular
chromosome, while another cell gets none.
b. What happens if a sperm or egg cell with an abnormal number of chromosomes participates in
fertilization? It depends on how many chromosomes the gamete has. For example, if a
___________ with an extra chromosome fertilizes an egg with a normal chromosome number,
the resulting zygote will have _____ copies of one chromosome. This is called
_______________.
c. If a sperm that is missing a ___________________ fertilizes an egg, then the resulting zygote
will have only one copy of that chromosome. This is called ________________________
d. People who are born with an abnormal number of chromosomes often have genetic disorders
because their cells contain too much or too little genetic information. Scientists can predict
genetic disorders by looking for extra or missing chromosomes in a ___________________.
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4. Missing pieces of chromosomes
a. In some cases, genetic material is missing from a chromosome. Such chromosomes are said
to have __________________.
b. Deletions large enough to be seen in a karyotype result in the loss of many _____________.
In humans, these are less comman than deletions that remove small portions of a
chromosome.
c. A _________________________ is a chromosome rearrangement in which part of a
chromosome breaks off and then reattaches to a different chromosome.
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QUIZ: Use the options listed below and your knowledge to answer the following questions. Some options will be used more than once.
Normal female Turner Syndrome Down Syndrome
Normal male Klinefelter Syndrome
1. _______________________
2. _______________________
3. _______________________
4. _______________________
5. _______________________
6. _______________________
7. _______________________
8. _______________________
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Patient Histories: Karyotyping Activity
Introduction This exercise is a simulation of human karyotyping using digital images of chromosomes from actual human genetic studies. You will be arranging chromosomes into a completed karyotype, and interpreting your findings just as if you were working in a genetic analysis program at a hospital or clinic. Karyotype analyses are performed over 400,000 times per year in the U.S. and Canada. Imagine that you were performing these analyses for real people, and that your conclusions would drastically affect their lives.
G Banding During mitosis, the 23 pairs of human chromosomes condense and are visible with a light microscope. A karyotype analysis usually involves blocking cells in mitosis and staining the condensed chromosomes with Giemsa dye. The dye stains regions of chromosomes that are rich in the base pairs Adenine (A) and Thymine (T) producing a dark band. A common misconception is that bands represent single genes, but in fact the thinnest bands contain over a million base pairs and potentially hundreds of genes. For example, the size of one small band is about equal to the entire genetic information for one bacterium.
The analysis involves comparing chromosomes
for their length, the placement of centromeres (areas where the two chromatids are joined), and the location and sizes of G-bands.
Your assignment This exercise is designed as an introduction to genetic studies on humans. Karyotyping is one of many techniques that allow us to look for several thousand possible genetic diseases in humans. You will evaluate 3 patients' case histories, complete their karyotypes, and diagnose any missing or extra chromosomes. The assignment will be completed online, while the questions must be answered on the following page. Use the following website to help these patients diagnose their disorders from karyotypes and answer the following questions. http://www.biology.arizona.edu/human_bio/activities/karyotyping/karyotyping2.html
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Patient Histories Patient A Patient A is the nearly-full-term fetus of a forty year old female. Chromosomes were obtained from fetal epithelial cells acquired through amniocentesis. Complete Patient A's Karyotype (this will have to be done online). Patient B Patient B is a 28 year old male who is trying to identify a cause for his infertility. Chromosomes were obtained from nucleated cells in the patient's blood. Complete Patient B's Karyotype. Patient C Patient C died shortly after birth, with a multitude of anomalies, including polydactyly (more than five fingers on a hand) and a cleft lip. Chromosomes were obtained from a tissue sample. Complete Patient C's Karyotype.
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Making a diagnosis
The next step is to either diagnose or rule out a chromosomal abnormality. In a patient with a normal number of chromosomes, each pair will have only two chromosomes. Having an extra or missing chromosome usually renders a fetus inviable (meaning that it will not live). In cases where the fetus makes it to term, there are unique clinical features depending on which chromosome is affected. Listed below are some syndromes caused by an abnormal number of chromosomes.
Diagnosis Chromosomal Abnormality
Normal # of chromosomes patient's problems are due to something other than an abnormal number of chromosomes.
Klinefelter's Syndrome one or more extra sex chromosomes (i.e., XXY)
Down's Syndrome Trisomy 21, extra chromosome 21
Trisomy 13 Syndrome extra chromosome 13
1. What observations can you make regarding patient A’s karyotype?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
2. What diagnosis would you give patient A? Explain your answer. _________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
1. What observations can you make regarding patient B’s karyotype?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
2. What diagnosis would you give patient B? Explain your answer.
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_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
3. What observations can you make regarding patient C’s karyotype?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
4. What diagnosis would you give patient C? Explain your answer.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
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MeiosisOverviewFollowyourteacher’spowerpointpresentation,anddrawtheoverviewofmeiosis,usingtwodifferentcolors.
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MeiosisNotes
Whendoesmeiosisstart?Whatismeiosisoftencalledandwhy?
Meiosisbeginsafterinterphase,whenthe______replicates.
Meiosisisoftencalled____________________/____________________
Reduction:
• Processtakesa________________cellwithtwosetsof
chromosomesandreducesittoa_________________
cellwithonesetofchromosomes.
Division
• Thecytoplasmicdivisionofonecellinto_______
cells.
• Thistakes2roundsofdivision.
Meiosiscanbebrokenupintotwophasesofdivision:
and
.
MeiosisI
• ProphaseI
ProphaseIismuchliketheprophaseofmitosis:
1.Nuclearmembrane_________________________
2.________________form
3.Chromatin________________into__________________.
However,unlikemitosis,wherethechromosomesofa
homologouspairarerandomlyscatteredwithinthe
nucleus,inprophaseIofmeiosis:
1.Homologouschromosomesgroupwithother
homologouschromosomestoforma“_________________”
2.A“_________________”occursatthepointwherethe
chromosomes______________________,_______________,and
______________________________ofthechromosome
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CheckforUnderstanding:PhasesofMeiosis
NameofPhase Description
1. Homologouschromosomespairupandformtetrad
2. Spindlefibersmovehomologouschromosomestooppositesides
3. Nuclearmembranereforms,cytoplasmdivides,4daughtercellsformed
4. Chromosomeslineupalongequator,notinhomologouspairs
5. Crossing-overoccurs
6. Sisterchromatidsseparate
7. Homologouschromosomeslineupalongequator
8. Cytoplasmdivides,2daughtercellsareformed
Oneachoftheimages,labelthephaseofmeiosis.
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MeiosisNotes
• MetaphaseI
MetaphaseI1. _____________________chromosomes_____________atthe
______________________________.
2. Microtubules(_______________)attachtothekinetochoreof_____________________
• AnaphaseI
AnaphaseI
1. Homologouschromosomes____________________.
2. ___________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
• TelophaseI
TelophaseI/Cytokinesis
1. _____daughter_________areformedwitheachone
containingonly_____chromosomeofthe_________________
__________.
2. Thedaughtercellsarenow___________________.
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MeiosisApplication: Labelthemicrographsoflilyanthersundergoingmeiosis.
1. Acellwithadiploidnumber(2N)of20undergoesmeiosis.Thiswillproduce________
daughtercells,eachwithahaploidnumberof____________chromosomes.2. Crossingoveroccursduringthisphase:_______________________
3. TrueorFalse:Theonlydifferenceinmitosisandmeiosisisthatmeiosishappensinordertocreatesexcells.
4. AttheendofmeiosisI,________daughtercellsarecreated.Thesedaughtercellsare[diploid|haploid].(Pickone)
5. Meiosisoccursinwhattypeofcells:____________________________
6. Circlethehomologouschromosomes.
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MeiosisNotesMeiosisII
• ProphaseII
ProphaseII1. DNAdoes__________________________________.
2. ProphaseIIisjustlike______________prophase.
• MetaphaseII
MetaphaseII
1. Allofthechromosomeslineupatthe____________________
plate.
• AnaphaseII
AnaphaseII
1. __________________divide
2. ___________________________________migrateseparatelytoeach
pole.
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MeiosisNotes
• TelophaseII/Cytokinesis
TelophaseII/Cytokinesis
1. Chromosomesrevertto_________________.
2. ________________________.
3. Cytoplasm_______________.
4. Four______________daughtercellsareobtained
Mitosisvs.Meiosis
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LilyHistologyLabBackground:Thestamenisthepollenproducingpartofaflower,usuallytoppedwithanantherthatmakespollen.Pollenisthemalegameteforflowers.Thefemalegameteisproducedbytheovaryoftheflower.
Procedure:
1. Openthe“PlantHistology”apponaniPad.2. Selectthe“Meiosis”option,thenchoose“study”3. Chooseeitherovarycellsoranthercellstoinvestigate.4. Carefullydraweachphaseonthefollowingpagesandlabelcharactericticstructuresineach
phase.5. Describewhatishappeningduringeachphase,indetail,underthecolumn“Whatis
happeningduringthisphase?Describetheprocess.”Identifyeachphaseaseitherhaploidordiploidinthe“HaploidorDiploid”column.
ConclusionQuestions:
1. Duringwhichphasedidcrossingoverlikelyoccur?
2. HowdoMeiosisIandMeiosisIIdiffer?
3. Whyismeiosisimportantforsexualreproduction?
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4. TheAsiaticlilyhasadiploidnumberof24.(2n=24)a. HowmanychromosomesshouldbepresentinacellinProphaseI?Howmany
sisterchromatids?
b. HowmanychromosomesshouldbepresentinoneofthecellsinProphaseII?Howmanysisterchromatids?
c. HowmanychromosomesshouldbepresentinacellinAnaphaseII?Howmanysisterchromatids?
5. HowmanydaughtercellsareattheendofMeiosiscomparedtoMitosis?
6. Whatisthepurposeofthesecellsthathadundergonemeiosis?
7. Whatistheadvantageofsexualreproductioninplantsvs.asexualreproductioninplants?
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LilyHistologyLab
DrawingandLabels Whatishappeningduringthisphase?Describetheprocess.
Diploidor
Haploid?
Interphase
Prophase I
Metaphase I
Anaphase I
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MeiosisSongtotheTuneof“AreYouSleeping”
Useyourfingersto“actout”meiosistothissong.Yourteacherwilldirectyou.
I’mfrommymommy
I’mfrommydaddy
Replicate
Replicate
Atprophasewecrossover
Thenshuffle,shuffle,shuffle
Separate
Separate
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MeiosisSquareDanceLyrics
Now coil up, coil up, coil up tight
If we’re to do meiosis right
Interphase one is almost done
Marks the start of prophase one
Face your partners and do them bow
Do-se-do crossover now
Allemande left with your left hand
Promenade around the land
Now grab your partner’s chromatid
Crossing arms you’ll be glad you did
The nuclear membrane breaks down here
Attach your fiber to you centromere
The fibers pull the dance is done
Hold on tight its metaphase one
Couples move to the central plate
It’s anaphase one so you separate
Now wave goodbye to reach your goal
Each partner move to the other pole
Telophase one is mighty sad
You’re all alone lost what you had
Together we’ll no longer be
These parts of you will be dear to me
Prophase, prophase, prophase two
The spindles coming after you
With a fiber stuck to your centromere
You’re pulled into the center here
On the central plate for metaphase two
Just like before it’s déjà vu
At Interphase one you duplicate
So now that you can separate
The fibers tugging this is it
Time for your chromatids to split
Anaphase, anaphase, anaphase two
This time you wave goodbye to you
At telophase two half the teams on hand
You’re feeling sad you’re a single strand
Now this is just your normal state
With some luck you’ll procreate
So rest a while and unwind too
As the nuclear membrane surrounds you
Now meiosis is complete
Four nuclei from ones the treat
The cytoplasm will divide
Four gametes form with you inside
And if we zoom out you will find
Many more of the same kind
And if you’re wondering what’s the use
It’s all so we can reproduce… reproduce
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MeiosisPipeCleanerPlay–WARMUPTounderstandtoday’sactivity,youwillneedtoknowthefollowingterms.Lookthemupinyourtextbookandthoroughlysummarizethembelowinyourownwords.
• Allele
• Phenotype
• Genotype
• Dominant
• Recessive
• Heterozygous
• Homozygous
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MeiosisPipeCleanerPlay
Act1:SceneI–Interphase Act1:Scene2–ProphaseI
Act1:Scene4–AfterCytokinesisofMeiosisI
Act2:Scenes3and4–AfterCytokinesisofMeiosisII
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MeiosisPipeCleanerPlayIntroduction:Adragon’stestesaregoingthroughmeiosis.Youandyourclassmateswillactouttheprocessusingpipecleaners.Act1:Scene1-InterphaseThedragonhas6chromosomes.ThegenotypeofyourfruitflyisGgBbrr.Removethesechromosomesfromyourbagtostarttheplay.Analleleisaformor"version"ofagene.Organismstypicallyhavetwoallelesforatrait.Dominantallelesareshownwithuppercaseletters,whilerecessiveallelesareshownwithlowercaseletters.
-Chromosome1:withalleleG(forGrayeyes)-Chromosome2:withalleleg(forgreeneyes)-Chromosome3:withalleleB(forblack,solidbody)-Chromosome4:withalleleb(forredstripedbody)-Chromosome5:withalleleR(forlarge,pointedtippedwings)-Chromosome6:withalleler(smaller,roundedtippedwings)
Howwouldthesechromosomesarrangethemselvesduringinterphase?Afterconfirmingwithyourteacher,drawonthepreviouspage.Act1:Scene2-ProphaseIHowwouldthesechromosomesarrangethemselvesduringprophaseI?Describeanyimportanteventsorprocessesoccurringinthespacebelow.Afterconfirmingwithyourteacher,drawonthepreviouspage.Act1:Scene3-MetaphaseIHowwouldthesechromosomesarrangethemselvesduringthisphaseandwhy?Describeanyimportanteventsorprocessesoccurringinthespacebelow.
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Act1:Scene4–AnaphaseI,TelophaseI,andCytokinesisHowwouldthesechromosomesarrangethemselvesduringthesephases?Describeanyimportanteventsorprocessesoccurringinthespacebelow.Afterconfirmingwithyourteacher,drawtheendproductofmeiosisIonthepreviouspage.Act2:Scene1and2–ProphaseIIandMetaphaseIIHowwouldthesechromosomesarrangethemselvesduringthesephases?Describeanyimportanteventsorprocessesoccurringinthespacebelow.Act2:Scene3and4–AnapahseII,TelophaseII,andCytokinesisHowwouldthesechromosomesarrangethemselvesduringthisphase?Describeanyimportanteventsorprocessesoccurringinthespacebelow.Afterconfirmingwithyourteacher,drawonthepreviouspage.
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MeiosisPipeCleanerPlay
Act3:FertilizationYourdragonmeetsafemaledragon,andtheylikeeachotherandwanttohavebabydragons.Chooseoneofthefourgametescreatedandwritedownitsgenotypehere____________.
Haveitfertilizewithanothergametefromanotherstudent.Writedowntheirgenotypehere
________.
Whatisthenewoffspringsfullgenotype?_________________
Whatistheoffspring’sphenotype?
Drawthenewdragonoffspringinthespacebelow.Usecolorandmakesureitmatchesthegenotype.
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WarmUp:
1. Accordingtothisgraphic,whatmolecule(s)canbecreatedfromDNA.
2. WhattypeofmacromoleculeisDNAandRNA?
3. WhatistheprocesscalledwhenDNAcreatesmoreDNA?
4. IdentifythenameoftheprocessthatinvolvesmakingRNAfromDNA.
5. IdentifythenameoftheprocessthatinvolvescreatingproteinfromRNA?
6. InferwhatthecirclesmarkedH,V,andMmightbe.Hint:theyarethemonomersofprotein.
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BrainstormWhichofthefollowingchromosomeswouldhaveagreaterrateofcrossingover.Makeaclaim,anddefendyourclaimbasedonwhatyouknowaboutthestructureofDNAandchromosomes.
ChromosomeA ChromosomeB
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ProteinSynthesisNotes
WhatisRNA?
RNAstandsfor________________________________________acid.
HowisRNAdifferentfromDNA?
Itcontainsa_______________________________asthesugarinitssugar-
phosphatebackbone.
RNAhasa____________________________ratherthanThymineasitsbase:
Abondswith_________,andCbondswith_________.
WhatarethethreetypesofRNA?
1. ______________________________RNA(mRNA)
2. _______________________________RNA(tRNA)
3. ________________________________RNA(rRNA)
Whatarethetwostepstoproteinsynthesis?
______________________________________:mRNAismadefromastrandofDNA
______________________________________:Proteinismadebyaribosomewith
using___________asthesetof“instructions.”
HowdoesProteinSynthesisoccurinProkaryoticcells?(Labeltheimagetotheleft)
ProteinSynthesisinProkaryotesoccursintwosteps:
1. Transcription:_________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. Translation:_____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
HowdoesProteinSynthesisoccurinEukaryoticcells?(Labeltheimagetotheleft)
ProteinSynthesisinEukaryotesoccursinthreesteps:
1. Transcription:__________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. RNAProcessing:Non-codingregionsofmRNA,called_____________
areremovedfromthepre-mRNA,whilethecodingregion(or
________________)leavethenucleus.
3. Translation:_____________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
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ProteinSynthesisNotes
WhatarethefivestepstoTranscription?
1. _______________________doesNOTunzipDNAatthegeneofinterest
2. ____________________________________unzipsandmatchesRNA
nucleotidebasestoDNA,usingonesideasatemplate.
3. The_______________strandiscreated.Itnowcomplimentsthe
originalDNAstrand(G-_______andA-________).
4. ________________________helpsthestrandofDNAtocloseagain.
5. mRNAstrandmovesoutofnucleusto_____________________________,
DNAzipsup.
Whatarethekeyplayersinvolvedintranslation?
§ rRNA=RNAthatmakesupa____________________________.
§ tRNA=RNAthat___________________________specificaminoacids
§ mRNA=carriesthe______________________;RNAtranscribedfromDNA
§ _____________________=3nucleotidesinarowonastrandofmRNA
thatcodeforanaminoacid
§ Anticodon=3nucleotidesin___________________thatbasepairwith
thecodon
§ Aminoacids=__________________________ofproteins(20inhumans)
WhatarethefourstepstoTranslation?
1. ____________________attachtothe“start”codonofmRNA(_________),
signalingthebeginningoftheproteinchain
2. mRNA____________________arematchedtocorrespondingtRNA
_____________________andappropriateaminoacidsarestrungtogether.
3. Dehydrationsynthesisoccursbetweenthe______________________
acids,andtheyjoin,makingaproteinchainwith______________________
bondsinbetween.
4. Ribosomesdetachwhentheycomeacrossa“________________”codon
(UAA,UAG,UGA).Proteinsynthesisiscomplete.
Whatifasinglebaseischanged?
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Common-CoreWarm-up:
Theabovegraphshowsthatabodytemperatureof98.6degreesFahrenheitistheoptimaltemperatureforlife-sustainingbiochemicalreactionsinyourbody.1.Usingyourknowledgeofenzymes,explainwhytemperaturesbelowandabove98.6degreeswouldcauseamedicalemergency.(Hint:Consideryourknowledgeofrandommotionofmoleculesaswellastheconditionsthathelpmaintainthestructuralintegrityofproteins.)__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
2.Whywouldyourbodydevelopa“fever”tofightoffbacterialorviralinfectionsifitcanpotentiallycausemedicalemergencies?__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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ProteinNotes
Whatareproteins?
MadeupofC______________,H_________________,O__________________and
N______________________(andsomeSulfur)
Proteinsareresponsibleformanychemicalreactions
Nameanddescribetheseventypesofproteins.
1. ______________________=________________________that______________
_______therateofachemical_______________________
________________upor_____________________________substrate
Fittogetherlikea“______________”anda“___________”
_______________________________________inthereaction
Workinaveryspecific__________________________________________
Usuallyendwith“-_______________”
2. _______________Proteins
Provides___________________________________tocellsandtissues
3. ________________________Proteins
________________________small_____________or________________________
4. ______________________Proteins
Enablesstructuresto___________________
5. _________________________(signalingproteins)
Carries_______________________fromcell-to-cell
e.g.,____________________
6. ___________________________
_____________________________smallmoleculesorions
e.g.,____________________isstoredinthe_______________inferritin
7. Otherspecializedfunctions
_________________________(immunesystemantibodies)
___________________________proteins(ineyesandmusclesto
detect stimulus)
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EnzymeCommonCorePractice(toreviewenzymes,referbacktopage165ofyourinteractivenotebook)
Sucroseisasweetenerfoundinmanycandies.Itisacarbohydratedisaccharidemadeupofglucoseandanothersugarcalledfructose.Whenweeatsucrose,itmustbedigestedorbrokendownintosmallersubstances,whichourcellscanabsorb.Anenzyme(protein)calledsucrasespeedsupthischemicalreactionbybreakingthechemicalbondinsucrose,thesubstrate.Highheatandstrongacidsorbasesdestroytheenzymeandwouldstopthechemicalreaction.Theonlywaytomakethereactiongofasteristoaddmoreenzymes.Scientistssupportthe“lockandkey”modelbelowforhowanenzymespeedsupchemicalreactions.Theletters“ase”attheendofwordshelpusidentifyenzymes.
1. LabelA-Edirectlyontheimageabove(activesite,substrate,enzyme,glucose,fructose)2. Areenzymeschangedorusedupwhentheyconvertsubstratesintoproducts?Explainyour
answerwithevidencefromtheimageabove
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ProteinNotes
Whatareproteins?
MadeupofC______________,H_________________,O__________________and
N______________________(andsomeSulfur)
Proteinsareresponsibleformanychemicalreactions
Nameanddescribetheseventypesofproteins.
8. ______________________=________________________that______________
_______therateofachemical_______________________
________________upor_____________________________substrate
Fittogetherlikea“______________”anda“___________”
_______________________________________inthereaction
Workinaveryspecific__________________________________________
Usuallyendwith“-_______________”
9. _______________Proteins
Provides___________________________________tocellsandtissues
10. ________________________Proteins
________________________small_____________or________________________
11. ______________________Proteins
Enablesstructuresto___________________
12. _________________________(signalingproteins)
Carries_______________________fromcell-to-cell
e.g.,____________________
13. ___________________________
_____________________________smallmoleculesorions
e.g.,____________________isstoredinthe_______________inferritin
14. Otherspecializedfunctions
_________________________(immunesystemantibodies)
___________________________proteins(ineyesandmusclesto
detect stimulus)
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ProteinNotes
Whatarethemonomersofproteins?
Proteins’_______________arecalledaminoacids
_____________________bond:abondbetween2________________Acids:
Achainofaminoacidsarecalled_______________________________“ManyPeptides”
Polypeptides____________________and____________________toformaspecific
___________________
______________ormorepolypeptidesformacomplete_____________________
Theseshapesallowproteinstofunction
SummarizetheEndo-membraneSystem
Howdoproteinscreatedbythe“free”ribosomesdifferinfinaldestinationfromtheproteinscreatedbythe“attached”ribosomesoftheER?
___________________ribosomes:Theymakeproteinsthatareeither:
1)____________________________________________________
2)____________________________________________________
3)___________________________________inamembranetofunctionasanother
organelle,suchasa_______________________.
___________________ribosomes:Theymakeproteinsthatstaywithinthe
___________________________.Thecellusestheseproteinsitself.
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CodonTable:CodonsarethreemRNAbasesthatcodeforanaminoacid.Fourcodoncombinationshavebeenleftblankonthiscodontable.Filltheminwithyourclassmatesfollowingyourteacher’sinstructions.
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TanscriptionandTranslationMiniLabhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B6O6uRb1D38
Purpose:Ingroups,youwillbetranscribingastrandofmRNAandtranslatingaproteinusingmRNAasyourtemplate.Thisisaproteinsequencethatyourbodyactuallymakes.Materials:
v LongstrandofpaperwithDNAsequencev Longstrandofblankpaper(servingasmRNA)v Dry-erasemarkerv Ribosome(largepieceofconstructionpaper)v 9tRNAswithanticodonsv 9aminoacids(foamrectangles)v AminoAcidtable(onpage360)
Procedure:
1. LaythestrandofDNAoutonthetable.
2. LaytheblankmRNAstrandoutonthetable,andtranscribethemRNAsequencefromtheDNAtemplate.OncetheRNAsequenceiscomplete,youmayrolltheDNAbackup.YoudonotneedtheDNAfromthispointon.
3. Carefullyinsertthebeginningofthesequence(AUG,thestartcodon)intotheribosome.
4. OnememberofthegroupcanactastheenzymethatattachesthetRNAtotheaminoacid.Thisisatoughjob!
5. AsyouslidethemRNAthroughtheribosome,matchtheanticodonsonthetRNAuptothecodonsonthemRNA.Youwillberecruitingaminoacidsaswell.
6. Besuretobondeachaminoacidtothenext.Whilewemaybeusingtoothpicks,thepolypeptideusespeptidebonds.
7. WheneachtRNAhastransferreditsaminoacid,itmayleavetheribosomecomplex(inthecell,itwouldberecycledtopickupanotheraminoacid)
8. Whenyouaredone,raiseyourhandtogetyourproteinchecked.
9. Carefullyputallofthestartingmaterialsbackinthebackforthenextclass.
AUG
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TranscriptionandTranslationMiniLabCongratulations!Youjusttranslatedtheprotein,anti-diuretichormoneorvasopressin,whichhelpsyoutoconservewaterinyourbodybypreventingyoufromurinatingallofthetime.
1. Fillintheaminoacidsequencefortheproteinyoutranslatedbelow:
Met-_________-_________-_________-_________-_________-_________-_________-_________
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CELLULARSPYACTIVITYSectionOne:Answerthefollowingquestions
1. WhenmRNAtakesthegeneticinformationcopiedfromDNAoutofthenucleusandintothe
cytoplasmofthecellitiscalled______________________.
2. _______________________convertsthenucleotidesequenceofthemRNAintoaspecificsequence
ofaminoacidstoproduceaspecificprotein.
3. Whichofthesenucleotidebasepairsarecorrect?a. Adenine-Guanineb. Thymine-Cytosinec. Thymine-Adenined. Guanine-Cytosinee. Bothcandd
4. Thestartcodon________codesfortheaminoacid____________________.
SectionTwo:DecodingSofarwehaveseenaminoacidsrepresentedwiththeirthree-lettercode.Occasionally,youwillseeaminoacidsrepresentedwithaone-lettercode(i.e.,Alanine=Ala=A).UseoneoftheaminoacidtablesinyournotesorthewheelonthenextpagetodecodethefollowingsentencesbytranscribingthemintomRNAandfinallytranslatingthemintotheiraminoacidsequence.
1 . AAATGCGTATCA
2 . GCATTACGGTAAAGACCCTCTCTCCGGTGG
3 . CTATTGCGTTAGAGGGACTAAAAGCTT
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CELLULARSPYACTIVITY
1. Thisaminoacidtablebelowisalittle
differentfromtheoneyou’veworkedwithbefore.Followthewheelfromtheinsidetotheoutsidetofindthecodonsequenceandtheaminoacid.
2. Usethetableontherighttogettheone-lettercodefortheaminoacid.
One-lettercode Three-letter-code Name1 A Ala Alanine2 C Cys Cysteine3 D Asp AsparticAcid4 E Glu GlutamicAcid5 F Phe Phenylalanine6 G Gly Glycine7 H His Histidine8 I Ile Isoleucine9 K Lys Lysine10 L Leu Leucine11 M Met Methionine12 N Asn Asparagine13 P Pro Proline14 Q Gln Glutamine15 R Arg Arginine16 S Ser Serine17 T Thr Threonine18 V Val Valine19 W Trp Tryptophan20 Y Tyr Tyrosine
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Activity:DNAà RNAà Protein
PARTI:TRANSCRIPTION,TRANSLATIONANDMUTATIONSThefollowingisthebasesequenceonthesensestrandofaDNAmolecule: DNASenseStrand: AATGCCAGTGGTTCGCAC
1. WhatisthebasesequenceofthecomplementarymRNAtranscribedfromthesensestrandoftheDNAmolecule?
NewmRNAstrand: _________________________________________________
2. DrawalinebetweenthecodonsontheabovemRNAmoleculethatyoumadefromthesensestrandofDNA.
3. Useacodontablefigureouttheaminoacidsequencethatwouldbesynthesizedfromthe
mRNAmoleculeinnumberoneabove.Recordyouranswersbelow.
mRNACodon AminoAcid
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
4. Stringsofaminoacidsliketheonesynthesizedinthetableabovemakeupwhatkindof
molecule?_____________________________
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Activity:DNAà RNAà Protein
5. Below,addaguaninebase(G)totheoriginalDNAstrandafterthethirdbase.WhatwouldtheresultingmRNAlooklike?OriginalDNAStrand:AAT___GCCAGTGGTTCGCACNewmRNAstrand:____________________________________________________
6. DrawalinebetweenthecodonsofthemRNAstrandinnumber5above.
7. UseacodontableandthenewmRNAstrandabovetofillinthetablebelow.
mRNACodon AminoAcid
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
Leftoverbase?
8. DidtheadditionofaGinnumber5abovechangetheaminoacidsequence?(Comparethe
sequenceofaminoacidsinthechartinnumber3withthesequenceofaminoacidsinthe
chartinnumber7).____________________
Thistypeofmutationiscalledaninsertion.
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Activity:DNAà RNAà Protein
9. ChangetheeighthbaseintheoriginalDNAstrandfromGtoC.WhatwouldtheresultingmRNAlooklike?OriginalDNAStrand:AATGCCAGTGGTTCGCAC
NewmRNAstrand:____________________________________________________
10. DrawalinebetweenthecodonsofthenewmRNAstrandinquestion9above.
11. UsingthechartorthewheelandthenewmRNAstrandinquestionnumber9,fillinthechartbelow.
mRNACodon AminoAcid
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
12. DidchangingaGtoaCinnumber9abovechangethesequenceofaminoacids?(Compare
thesequenceofaminoacidsinthechartinnumber3withthesequenceofaminoacidsin
thechartinnumber11).________
Explain.________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Thistypeofmutationiscalledasubstitution.
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Sicklecellanemiaisaworldwidehealthproblemaffectingmanyraces,countries,andethnicgroups.The
WorldHealthOrganizationestimatesthateachyearmorethan250,000babiesarebornworldwidewiththis
inheritedbloodcelldisorder,whichcausesredbloodcellstoelongateandclogarteries.Chronicpainandlife-
threateninginfectionsmayresultfromtheillness.Aboutonein400African-AmericannewbornsintheUnited
Stateshavesicklecellanemia,butthediseaseisalsoprevalentinmanySpanish-speakingregionsoftheworld
suchasSouthAmerica,Cuba,CentralAmerica,andamongtheHispaniccommunityintheUnitedStates.
PeopleinMediterraneancountriessuchasTurkey,Greece,andItalyalsohavetheillness.Andmanypeople,
includingonein12African-Americans,carrythesicklecelltraitwhichmeansthattheycanpassthedefect
ontooffspringalthoughtheirownhealthremainsexcellent.
Activity:DNAà RNAà Protein
PARTII:SICKLECELLANEMIA
Afterreadingaboutsicklecellanemia,completethetaskbelowtounderstandthegeneticcauseofthisdisorder.
ThefollowingsensestrandofDNAispartofthegenetomakehemoglobin(theredpigmentinbloodcellsthatcarriesoxygentobodycells).DNAsensestrandforhemoglobin:CACGTGGACTGAGGACTCCTC
1. WhatisthebasesequenceofthemRNAstrandtranscribedfromtheaboveDNAmolecule?
mRNAStrand:_______________________________________________
2. DrawalinebetweenthecodonsinthemRNAmoleculeinquestion1.
3. UsingacodontableandthemRNAstrandabove,fillinthefollowingtable.
mRNACodon AminoAcid
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
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Activity:DNAà RNAà Protein
4. Changethe17thbaseintheDNAstrandfromTtoA(isthisaninsertionorasubstitution?)________________________________________
WhatmRNAbasewouldthenewDNAbasecodefor?(Tpairswith…?)_______________
DNAsensestrandforhemoglobin: CACGTGGACTGAGGACTCCTC
NewmRNAStrand: ________________________________________________
5. DrawalinebetweenthecodonsofthemRNAstrandinquestion4above.
6. UsingacodontableandthemRNAstrandinnumber4above,fillinthechartbelow.
mRNACodon AminoAcid
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
7. Whatisthedifferenceintheaminoacidsequenceinquestionnumber3andquestion
number6?_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
NOTE:Theaminoacidsequenceinnumber3codesfornormalhemoglobin.Theaminoacid
sequenceinnumber6codesforsicklecellhemoglobin.Thissingleaminoacidsubstitutionhassomedevastatingconsequences.Thenormallysmooth,doughnut-shapedredbloodcellstakeonasickleorcurvedshape.Thesicklecellsbecomestiffandstickyandclogsmallbloodvessels.
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ThemostcommongeneticdiseaseintheUnitedStatesiscysticfibrosis,whichstrikes1inevery2500
Caucasiansbutismuchrarerinotherraces.Cysticfibrosiscausesexcessivesecretionsofmucusfromthe
pancreas,lungsandcirrhosisoftheliver,pneumoniaandotherinfections.Untreated,mostchildrenwith
cysticfibrosisdiebythetimetheyarefourorfiveyearsold.Currently,however,treatmenthasprolonged
theirlifeexpectancyintotheir40's.
Activity:DNAà RNAà Protein
PARTIII:CYSTICFIBROSIS
ThefollowingisthebasesequenceonthesensestrandoftheDNAmoleculethatcodesforpartofthegenethatdirectsthecelltoproducenormalamountsofmucussecretions.DNAsensestrandfornormalmucus:TAGTAGAAACCACAAAGGATA
1. GivethebasesequenceofthemRNAstrandtranscribedfromtheaboveDNAmolecule.
mRNAStrand:_________________________________________________
2. DrawalinebetweenthecodonsinthemRNAmoleculeinquestion1.
3. UsingacodontableandthemRNAstrandinnumber1above,fillinthefollowingtable.
mRNACodon AminoAcid
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
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Activity:DNAà RNAà Protein
4. Ifwedeletethe7th,8th,and9thbaseintheDNAsensestrand,whatmRNAmoleculewouldthenewDNAcodefor?DNAsensestrandfornormalmucus:TAGTAGAAACCACAAAGGATA
Newstrand:TAGTAGCCACAAAGGATA
NewmRNAStrand: _________________________________________________
5. DrawalinebetweenthecodonsofthemRNAstrandinquestion4above.
6. UsingacodontableandthenewmRNAstrandabove,fillinthetablebelow.
mRNACodon AminoAcid
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7. Whatisthedifferenceintheaminoacidsequenceinnumber3andnumber6above?
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________NOTE:Theaminoacidsequenceinnumber3codesfornormalmucussecretions.Theamino
acidsequenceinnumber6codesfortheexcessivemucussecretionstypicalofcysticfibrosis.
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ChromosomalMutationActivityThenumberedrectanglerepresentsachromosome.Eachofthenumbersaremeanttorepresentseveralbandsonachromosome.Readthescenarios.Then,cutouteachrectanglechromosomewhilekeepingtheindividualnumberedsquaresattached.Yourgoalistoperformamutationtoeachofyournumberedchromosomes.Tapeorgluethemutatedchromosometothepapernexttoeachtypeofmutation.Theinsertionandtranslocationmutationswillrequiretwodifferentchromosomes(circleandrectangle).Oneruleorconstraintisthateachmutatedchromosomemuststartwiththenumberoneandendinthenumbersix.
4p-Deletion(Wolf-Hirschhornsyndrome)
Nutritionalfactorshavebeencorrelatedwiththedeletionoftheshortarmofchromosome4(4p)resultsinginprofoundintellectualdisability.Manifestationsalsomayincludeepilepsy,abroadorbeakednose,midlinescalpdefects,cleftpalate,anddelayedbonedevelopment.Manyaffectedchildrendieduringinfancy;thosewhosurviveintotheir20shaveseveredisability.
ExampleofDeletion:
1
2
4
5
6
HeatShockResistanceinFruitFliesEvidenceofchromosomalinversionshavebeenfoundinfruitfliescalledDrosophilla,aftertheflieswereexposedtohighamountsofheatandradiation.Flieswiththisformofchromosomalmutationweremorelikelytoproduceamutatedenzymethatsignificantlyhelpedtoincreaseitsresistancetoheat,andthrivedforlongerperiodsoftimeinthisextremeenvironment.ExampleofInversion:
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MECP2duplicationsyndrome?
MECP2duplicationsyndromeisaconditionthatoccursalmostexclusivelyinmalesandischaracterizedbymoderatetosevereintellectualdisability.Mostpeoplewiththisconditionalsohaveweakmuscletoneininfancy,feedingdifficulties,poororabsentspeech,seizuresthatmaynotimprovewithtreatment,ormusclestiffness(spasticity).IndividualswithMECP2duplicationsyndromehavedelayeddevelopmentofmotorskillssuchassittingandwalking.Someaffectedindividualsexperiencethelossofpreviouslyacquiredskills(developmentalregression).Approximatelyonethirdofpeoplewiththisconditioncannotwalkwithoutassistance.ManyindividualswithMECP2duplicationsyndromehaverecurrentrespiratorytractinfections.Theserespiratoryinfectionsareamajorcauseofdeathinaffectedindividuals,withalmosthalfsuccumbingbyage25.Exposuretotoxinsandviralinfectionshavebeenimplicatedasthepossiblecauseforthisformofautism.
ExampleofDuplication:
BacterialAntibioticResistanceBacteriahavebeenknowntopickupforeignDNAfromitsenvironmentandincorporatetheforeigngenesintotheirownchromosomeasaninsertion.Manyofthegenesareoftenleftoverintheenvironmentfromrupturedvirusesorotherdeadorganisms.Ifthisforeigngenecodesforproteinsthatpromoteresistancetoantibiotics,thenthatbacteriawillalsodeveloparesistancetoantibioticsoncethegeneisinsertedintoitsowngenome.
ExampleofanInsertion:
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TranslocationDownsyndromereferstothetypeofDownsyndromethatiscausedbyrearrangedchromosomematerial.Justliketypicaldownsyndrome,therearethreechromosomes#21,butinthiscase,oneofthechromosomes21isattachedtoanotherchromosome,insteadofbeingseparate.Riskfactorsforthistypeofdiseaseincreasewiththeageofthemother.
ExampleofaTranslocation:PracticalApplications:Younoticeasigninaparkingstructurethatsays“Warning:ThisareacontainschemicalsknowntothestateofCaliforniatocausecancerandbirthdefectsorotherreproductiveharm.”InferhowtheseharmfulchemicalsaffectyourDNA.Then,explainhowalterationsintheDNAaffectgeneexpression.ConsidertheCentralDogmaofMolecularBiologyinyourresponse.
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Claims-Evidence-Reasoning:Makeanddefendaclaimbasedonevidencefromthisactivitythat(1)inheritablegeneticvariationsmayresultfrom(2)mutationscausedby(3)environmentalfactors.Claim:Evidence#1 Reasoning:
Evidence#2
Reasoning:
Evidence#3 Reasoning:
Basedonthisactivity,areallmutationsbad?Writeyourclaimanddefendit,usingevidenceandreasoningfromtheactivity.
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CaseStudy:Santhi’sStory
1. Talktothepersonnexttoyouandidentifyatleast5characteristicstodistinguishmalesfromfemales.
2. Howissexdeterminedinhumans?
3. Isthereanotherwaythatsexischaracterizedinhumans?
4. HowisSexDeterminedinHumans?
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