4: network layer 4a-1 14: intro to routing algorithms last modified: 8/8/2015 12:41:16 pm
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4: Network Layer 4a-1
14: Intro to Routing Algorithms
Last Modified: 04/19/23 03:46 AM
4: Network Layer 4a-2
Routing
IP Routing – each router is supposed to send each IP datagram one step closer to its destination
How do they do that? Static Routing
• Hierarchical Routing – in ideal world would that be enough? Well its not an ideal world
Dynamic Routing• Routers communicate amongst themselves to
determine good routes (ICMP redirect is a simple example of this)
• Before we cover specific routing protocols we will cover principles of dynamic routing protocols
4: Network Layer 4a-3
Routing Algorithm classification: Static or Dynamic?
Choice 1: Static or dynamic?
Static: routes manually defined change slowly over time or only one possible route Appropriate in some circumstances, but obvious
drawbacks (routes added/removed? sharing load?) Not much more to say?
Dynamic: Routes learned by communicating with other routers routes change more quickly
periodic update in response to link cost changes
4: Network Layer 4a-4
Routing Algorithm classification: Global or decentralized?Choice 2, if dynamic: global or decentralized
information?
Global: all routers have complete topology, link cost info “link state” algorithms
Decentralized: router knows physically-connected neighbors, link
costs to neighbors iterative process of computation, exchange of info
with neighbors (gossip) “distance vector” algorithms
4: Network Layer 4a-5
Roadmap
Details of Link State Details of Distance Vector Comparison
4: Network Layer 4a-6
Routing
Graph abstraction for routing algorithms:
graph nodes are routers
graph edges are physical links link cost: delay, $
cost, or congestion level
Goal: determine “good” path
(sequence of routers) thru network from source to
dest.
Routing protocol
A
ED
CB
F
2
2
13
1
1
2
53
5
“good” path: typically means
minimum cost path other definitions
possible
4: Network Layer 4a-7
Global Dynamic Routing
A
ED
CB
F
2
2
13
1
1
2
53
5
See the big picture; Find the best Route
What algorithm do you use?
4: Network Layer 4a-8
A Link-State Routing Algorithm
Dijkstra’s algorithm Know complete network topology with link
costs for each link is known to all nodes accomplished via “link state broadcast” In theory, all nodes have same info
Based on info from all other nodes, each node individually computes least cost paths from one node (“source”) to all other nodes gives routing table for that node
iterative: after k iterations, know least cost path to k dest.’s
4: Network Layer 4a-9
Link State Algorithm: Some Notation
Notation:c(i,j): link cost from node i to j. cost
infinite if not direct neighborsD(v): current value of cost of path from
source to dest. Vn(v): next hop from this source to v
along the least cost pathN: set of nodes whose least cost path
definitively known
4: Network Layer 4a-10
Dijsktra’s Algorithm
1 Initialization – know c(I,j) to start: 2 N = {A} 3 for all nodes v 4 if v adjacent to A 5 then D(v) = c(A,v) 6 else D(v) = infty 7 8 Loop 9 find w not in N such that D(w) is a minimum (optional?) 10 add w to N 11 update D(v) for all v adjacent to w and not in N: 12 D(v) = min( D(v), D(w) + c(w,v) ) 13 /* new cost to v is either old cost to v or known 14 shortest path cost to w plus cost from w to v */ 15 until all nodes in N
4: Network Layer 4a-11
Dijkstra’s algorithm: example
Step012345
start NA
ADADE
ADEBADEBC
ADEBCF
D(B),n(B)2,B2,B2,B
D(C),n(C)5,C4,D3,D3,D
D(D),n(D)1,A
D(E),n(E)infinity
2,D
D(F),n(F)infinityinfinity
4,D4,D4,D
A
ED
CB
F
2
2
13
1
1
2
53
5
4: Network Layer 4a-12
Dijkstra’s Algorithm gives routing table
A
A
B
C
D
E
F
n(A) = A
n(B) = B
n (C)= D
n(D) = D
n(E) = D
n(F) = D
Outgoing Link
dest
inat
ion
4: Network Layer 4a-13
Complexity of Link StateAlgorithm complexity: n nodes each iteration
Find next w not in N such that D(w) is a minimum Then for that w, check its best path to other
destinations => n*(n+1)/2 comparisons: O(n2)
more efficient implementations possible using a heap: O(nlogn)
4: Network Layer 4a-14
Distance Vector Routing Algorithm
distributed: each node communicates only with
directly-attached neighbors
iterative: continues until no nodes exchange info. self-terminating: no “signal” to stop
asynchronous: nodes need not exchange info/iterate in
lock step!
4: Network Layer 4a-15
Distance Vector Routing Algorithm
Distance Table data structure each node has its own row for
each possible destination column for each directly-
attached neighbor to node example: in node X, for dest. Y
via neighbor Z:
D (Y,Z)X
distance from X toY, via Z as next hop
c(X,Z) + min {D (Y,w)}Z
w
=
=
D ()
Y
Z
Dx(Y,Z)
Xcost to destination via
dest
inat
ion
Column only for each neighbor
Rows for each possible dest !
4: Network Layer 4a-16
Example: Distance Table for E
A
E D
CB7
8
1
2
1
2
D ()
A
B
C
D
A
1
7
6
4
B
14
8
9
11
D
5
5
4
2
Ecost to destination via
dest
inat
ion
D (C,D)E
c(E,D) + min {D (C,w)}D
w== 2+2 = 4
D (A,D)E
c(E,D) + min {D (A,w)}D
w== 2+3 = 5 Loop back through E!
D (A,B)E
c(E,B) + min {D (A,w)}B
w== 8+6 = 14 Loop back through E!
Column only for each neighbor
Rows for each possible dest !
D (row, col)E
4: Network Layer 4a-17
Distance table gives routing table
D ()
A
B
C
D
A
1
7
6
4
B
14
8
9
11
D
5
5
4
2
Ecost to destination via
dest
inat
ion
A
B
C
D
A,1
D,5
D,4
D,2
Outgoing link to use, cost
dest
inat
ion
Distance table Routing table
= least cost
4: Network Layer 4a-18
Distance Vector Routing: overview
Iterative, asynchronous: each local iteration caused by:
local link cost change message from neighbor:
its least cost path change from neighbor
Distributed: each node notifies
neighbors only when its least cost path to any destination changes neighbors then notify
their neighbors if necessary
wait for (change in local link cost of msg from neighbor)
recompute distance table
if least cost path to any dest
has changed, notify neighbors
Each node:
4: Network Layer 4a-19
Distance Vector Algorithm:
1 Initialization (don’t start knowing link costs for all links in graph): 2 for all adjacent nodes v: 3 D (*,v) = infty /* the * operator means "for all rows" */ 4 D (v,v) = c(X,v) 5 for all destinations, y 6 send min D (y,w) to each neighbor /* w over all X's neighbors */
XX
Xw
At all nodes, X:
Then in steady state…
4: Network Layer 4a-20
Distance Vector Algorithm (cont.):8 loop 9 wait (until I see a link cost change to neighbor V 10 or until I receive update from neighbor V) 11 12 if (c(X,V) changes by d) 13 /* change cost to all dest's via neighbor v by d */ 14 /* note: d could be positive or negative */ 15 for all destinations y: D (y,V) = D (y,V) + d 16 17 else if (update received from V wrt destination Y) 18 /* shortest path from V to some Y has changed */ 19 /* V has sent a new value for its min DV(Y,w) */ 20 /* call this received new value is "newval" */ 21 for the single destination y: D (Y,V) = c(X,V) + newval 22 23 if we have a new min D (Y,w)for any destination Y 24 send new value of min D (Y,w) to all neighbors 25 26 forever
w
XX
XX
X
w
w
Network Layer 4-21
x y z
xyz
0 2 7
∞ ∞ ∞∞ ∞ ∞
from
cost to
from
from
x y z
xyz
0
from
cost to
x y z
xyz
∞ ∞
∞ ∞ ∞
cost to
x y z
xyz
∞ ∞ ∞7 1 0
cost to
∞2 0 1
∞ ∞ ∞
2 0 17 1 0
time
x z12
7
y
node x table
node y table
node z table
Dx(y) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(y), c(x,z) + Dz(y)} = min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2
Dx(z) = min{c(x,y) +
Dy(z), c(x,z) + Dz(z)}
= min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3
32
To start just know directly connected links…tell neighbors
X hears news from Y and Z
Network Layer 4-22
x y z
xyz
0 2 7
∞ ∞ ∞∞ ∞ ∞
from
cost to
from
from
x y z
xyz
0 2 3
from
cost tox y z
xyz
0 2 3
from
cost to
x y z
xyz
∞ ∞
∞ ∞ ∞
cost tox y z
xyz
0 2 7
from
cost to
x y z
xyz
0 2 3
from
cost to
x y z
xyz
0 2 3
from
cost tox y z
xyz
0 2 7
from
cost to
x y z
xyz
∞ ∞ ∞7 1 0
cost to
∞2 0 1
∞ ∞ ∞
2 0 17 1 0
2 0 17 1 0
2 0 13 1 0
2 0 13 1 0
2 0 1
3 1 0
2 0 1
3 1 0
time
x z12
7
y
node x table
node y table
node z table
Dx(y) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(y), c(x,z) + Dz(y)} = min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2
Dx(z) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(z), c(x,z) + Dz(z)} = min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3
In steady state, when have good news tell neighbor
4: Network Layer 4a-23
Distance Vector: link cost changes
Link cost changes: node detects local link cost
change updates distance table (line 15) if cost change in least cost path,
notify neighbors (lines 23,24)
X Z14
50
Y1
algorithmterminates“good
news travelsfast”
Anyone seea problem?
4: Network Layer 4a-24
Distance Vector: link cost changes
Link cost changes: good news travels fast bad news travels slow -
“count to infinity” problem!
X Z14
50
Y60
algorithmcontinues
on!
4: Network Layer 4a-25
Distance Vector: poisoned reverseIf Z routes through Y to get to X : Originally, Z tells Y its (Z’s) distance
to X is infinite (so Y won’t route to X via Z)
In end, Y tells Z infinity will this completely solve count to
infinity problem?
X Z14
50
Y60
algorithmterminates
4: Network Layer 4a-26
Bigger Loops and Poison Reverse
A
E D
CB7
8
1
2
1
2
D (A,D)E
c(E,D) + min {D (A,w)}D
w=
= 2+2 +1 = 5
D (A,B)E
c(E,B) + min {D (A,w)}B
w== 8+6 = 14
Loop back through E! Poison reverse will fix thisD tells E infinity because D’s route to A through E
Loop back through E! Poison reverse will not fix thisB’s route to A is through E but B doesn’t know that
so does not tell E infinityB’s route is through C so no poison reverse
E will try to send through B
A
E D
CB7
8
50
2
1
2
4: Network Layer 4a-27
Count to Infinity Example with Bigger Loop
B will learn bad news C will have told B infinity because its route to A
is through B, so B won’t reroute through CE however will have told B about a good route
to A through D (cost 6)B will choose that route instead and advertise it as the new best to C (cost 6+8 = 14); it will be worse than the old one it advertised to C (old
cost = 1)C will propagate this updated “best” route to D
(cost 15)D will propagate this new “best” route to E
(cost 17)E will update the “best” route to B (cost 19)
Last time it advertised cost 6 to BIt will loop around adding 13 each time (cost of
loop)Will continue until cost E advertises to B is
bigger than 500
A
E D
CB500
8
2
1
2
A
E D
CB1
8
2
1
2
4: Network Layer 4a-28
Comparison of LS and DV algorithms
Message complexity LS: nodes send info on
directly connections to all other nodes More, smaller messages
DV: nodes send info on best paths to all destinations to neighbors Fewer, larger messages
Speed of Convergence LS: O(n2) algorithm DV: convergence time
varies may be routing loops count-to-infinity problem
Robustness: what happens if router malfunctions?
LS: node can advertise
incorrect link cost each node computes
only its own table
DV: DV node can advertise
incorrect path cost each node’s table used
by others • error propagate thru
network
4: Network Layer 4a-29
Oscillations Assume:
Link cost = amount of carried traffic Link cost is not symmetric B and D sending 1 unit of traffic; C send e units of traffic
Initially start with slightly unbalanced routes Everyone goes with least loaded, making them most loaded for
next time, so everyone switches Herding effect! Can happen with any routing protocol that uses dynamic load
info
A
D
C
B1 1+e
e0
e
1 1
0 0
A
D
C
B2+e 0
001+e1
A
D
C
B0 2+e
1+e10 0
A
D
C
B2+e 0
e01+e1
Initially start withalmost equal routes
… B and C go clockwise to A
… B, C and D gocounterclockwise
… B,C,D go clockwise
4: Network Layer 4a-30
Preventing Oscillations
Avoid link costs based on experienced load But want to be able to route around heavily
loaded links… Avoid “herding” effect
Avoid all routers recomputing at the same time Not enough to start them computing at a
different time because will synchronize over time as send updates
Deliberately introduce randomization into time between when receive an update and when compute a new route
4: Network Layer 4a-31
Outtakes
4: Network Layer 4a-32
Distance Vector Algorithm: example
X Z12
7
Y
D (Z,Y)X
c(X,Y) + min {D (Z,w)}w=
= 2+1 = 3
Y
To start just know directly connected links…tell neighbors
D (Y,Z)X
c(X,Z) + min {D (Y,w)}w=
= 7+1 = 8
Z
X hears news from Y and Z
4: Network Layer 4a-33
Distance Vector Algorithm: example
X Z12
7
Y
In steady state, when have good news tell neighbor
4: Network Layer 4a-34
In distance vector algorithms, the installation of a looping route slows down the convergence of the algorithm. Virtually all of the modifications that have been made to distance vector routing since 1969 (e.g., split horizon, poison reverse, etc., etc.) have the same goal, to reduce the number of looping routes that are installed, and hence to decrease the convergence time.
In link state algorithms, the convergence time is completely unaffected by the installation of looping routes. Hence you don't usually see loop- suppression techniques being combined with link state routing. While forwarding loops are possible during the transients, these are not regarded as much of a problem. It is possible to combine loop-suppression techniques with link state routing, it just has never been regarded as worth the trouble.
With either kind of routing algorithm, TTL is used as a loop detection procedure in order to catch the case where something goes wrong.
4: Network Layer 4a-35
DUAL
Loop-free routing algorithm that performs a “diffused” computation of a routing table
Researched and developed at SRI International by Dr. J.J. Garcia-Luna-Aceves
No need for route hold down http://www.cisco.com/univercd/cc/td/doc/cisintwk
/ito_doc/en_igrp.htm Enhanced IGRP integrates the capabilities of link-
state protocols into distance vector protocols DUAL enables EIGRP routers to determine
whether a path advertised by a neighbor is looped or loop-free, and allows a router running EIGRP to find alternate paths without waiting on updates from other routers
4: Network Layer 4a-36
J.J. Garcia-Luna-Aceves. Loop-Free Routing Using Diffusing Computations. IEEE/ACM Trans. Networking, 1:130--141, February 1993.
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