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ABSTRACT Nurjannah (NIM: 108014000082). A Grammatical Cohesion Analysis of Narrative Passages in “Bright 2” Published by Erlangga; A Content Analysis of English Textbook for VIII Grade Students of SMP Pelita 2 Depok. Skripsi of Department of English Education at Faculty of Tarbiyah and Teachers’ Training of ‘Syarif Hidayatullah’ State Islamic University Jakarta, 2015.
Advisor 1: Dr. Alek, M.Pd.
Advisor 2: Zaharil Anasy, M.Hum.
Keywords: Textbook Evaluation, Grammatical Cohesion, and Narrative Passages.
This study is carried out to identify kinds of grammatical cohesion devices existed in six narrative passages which are provided in “Bright 2”, an English textbook which is for eight grade students of SMP Pelita 2 Depok and published by Erlangga. Purpose of the study is learning whether the narrative passages are good or not in term of grammatical cohesion. By learning cohesiveness of a passage, teachers could know whether the passage is an effective language input or not.
Method used in this study is descriptive qualitative. In conducting this study, all narrative passges which considered as reading exercises are used as a unit of data analysis. Meanwhile, technique of the data analysis in this study encompasses six steps, i.e. dividing and numbering each passage into sentences, identifying and underlining every cohesive item found within every sentences, coding every cohesive item found based on Halliday&Hasan coding scheme table, counting the number of cohesive items which have been coded in percentages, describing the result and the last is concluding it.
Result of the study shows that all kinds of grammatical cohesion exist in the six narrative passages. However, complete kinds of grammatical cohesion only exist in passage 1, 5, and 6. The most cohesion device found in the passages is reference with 74%, the next is conjunction with 24%; While, both substitution and ellipsis only reach 1%.
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ABSTRAK Nurjannah (NIM: 108014000082). Sebuah Analisa Kohesi Gramatika pada Teks-Teks Narasi dalam Buku Pelajaran “Bright 2” yang Diterbitkan oleh Erlangga; Sebuah Analisa Isi dari Buku Pelajaran Bahasa Inggris untuk murid Kelas VIII di SMP Pelita 2 Depok. Skripsi Jurusan Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris Fakultas Ilmu Tarbiyah dan Keguruan Universitas Islam Negeri Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta, 2015.
Pembimbing 1: Dr. Alek, M.Pd.
Pembimbing 2: Zaharil Anasy, M.Hum.
Kata Kunci: Evaluasi Buku Pelajaran, Kohesi Gramatika, dan Teks-Teks Narasi.
Penelitian ini dilaksanakan untuk mengidentifikasi jenis-jenis kohesi gramatika yang terdapat di enam teks narasi pada “Bright 2”, sebuah buku pelajaran bahasa Inggris untuk kelas 8 di SMP Pelita 2 Depok dan diterbitkan oleh Erlangga. Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah mengetahui apakah teks-teks narasi tersebut bagus atau tidak dari segi kohesi gramatika. Dengan mengetahui kekohesivan suatu teks, para guru dapat mengetahui apakah teks tersebut bisa dikatakan sebagai sebuah language input yang efektif atau tidak.
Metode yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah deskriptif kualitatif. Dalam melaksanakan penelitian ini, semua teks narasi yang merupakan bahan latihan membaca dijadikan sebagai sebuah satuan analisis data. Sementara itu, tehnik analis data dalam penelitian ini meliputi enam tahapan, yaitu: membagi dan menomeri setiap teks ke dalam kalimat-kalimat terpisah, mengidetifikasi dan menggarisbawahi setiap artikel kohesi yang ditemukan dalam setiap kalimat, memberi kode setiap artikel kohesi yang ditemukan berdasarkan teori Hasan&Halliday, menghitung jumlah artikel kohesi yang sudah diberi kode dalam bentuk persentase, menjelaskan hasilnya, dan yang terakhir adalah menyimpulkannya.
Hasil dari penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa semua jenis kohesi gramatika terdapat pada keenam teks narasi tersebut. Akan tetapi jenis kohesi gramatika yang lengkap hanya terdapat pada teks 1, 5, dan 6. Jenis kohesi yang paling banyak ditemukan pada teks-teks tersebut adalah reffernce dengan 74%, selanjutnya adalah conjunction dengan 24%; Sementara baik substitution dan ellipsis hanya meraih jumlah 1%.
vii
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
﷽
In the name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful. All praises be to
Allah, Lord of the Universe, who has bestowed strength and health upon the
writer in finishing this skripsi. Peace and salutation be upon to our prophet
Muhammad, his family, his companions,and all of his followers.
Alhamdulillah by the grace of Allah the Highest, this skripsi could be
finished after the long, hard, and confusing moments. Thus, she would like to
express her sincere and greatest gratitude and appreciation to her beloved parents
(Mahyuddin and Khodijah) who always pray, support, and motivate her in every
part of her life especially in accomplishment this study. Her sincere and the
greatest of the greatest appreciaton and gratitude are only aimed to her mother
(Thanks for everything which you have given to me, ma…, then I could be
encouraged to finish this study... Sorry ma…for every mistake that I have done,
intentionally or not…). The writer’s sincere and deepest gratitude and
appreciation also go to Mba Tri Rahayu Handayani, M.Ak. and her advisors Mr.
Dr. Alek, M.Pd. and Mr. Zaharil Anasy, M.Hum. for their patient guidance,
kindness, valuable advice, and correction during development and completion of
this skripsi. She also does not forget to give the sincere thanks to her only one
brother Ali Al-Kassyaf, all of her cousins, all of her uncles and aunties, and all of
her nieces and nephews for giving her the colorful life.
In this special occasion, the writer also would like to acknowledge her
sincere, deep and great appreciation and gratitude to the following people:
1. All lecturers of English Education Department who have taught her new
knowledge and have given her gorgeous experiences in this study.
viii
2. Dr. Alek, M.Pd. and Zahril Anasy M.Hum., as the head and the secretary of
Department of English Education.
3. The late Drs. AM. Zainuri, M.Pd. and Miss. Aida Ainul Wardah, as her
academic advisors who have guided and given her valuable academic
services during her study.
4. Prof. Dr. Ahmad Thib Raya, MA., as the Dean of Faculty of Tarbiyah and
Teachers’ Training of ‘Syarif Hidayatullah’ State Islamic University
Jakarta.
5. The principal and the English teacher of SMP Pelita 2 Depok for
permitting and helping the writer to borrow and use the English textbook.
6. All her beloved friends in English Education Department especially to C
Class for academic year 2008 whose names cannot be mentioned one after
another. (Thank you very much for great sharing and also warm and
amazing friendship during this study, guys…!).
7. All in all, thanks a bunch for everyone who has lent a hand to the wrtiter in
anyway.
May Allah, the Almighty bless and reward them all abundantly. Aamiin…
Finally, the writer realizes that this skripsi still has some weaknesses and
shortages. Hence, she would be pleasure to accept any suggestions and corrections
from anyone. The last, writer hopes that this skripsi could be useful to its readers,
particularly to the writer herself.
Jakarta, July 31th 2015
Nurjannah
ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SURAT PERNYATAAN KARYA ILMIAH .......................................................... ii
ADVISORS APPROVAL SHEET ..................................................................... iii
ENDORSEMENT SHEET .................................................................................. iv
ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................... v
ABSTRAK .............................................................................................................. vi
ACKNOWLEDGMENT .................................................................................... vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................... ix
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................... xi
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................ xii
LIST OF APPENDICES ................................................................................... xiii
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 1
A. Background of Study ................................................................................... 1
B. Focus of the Study ....................................................................................... 4
C. Research Question ....................................................................................... 4
D. Objective of the study ................................................................................. 5
E. Significance of the Study ............................................................................ 5
CHAPTER II. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ........................................... 6
A. Textbook ...................................................................................................... 6
1. Notion of Textbook .................................................................................. 6
2. Function of Textbook ............................................................................... 7
3. Criteria of a Good Textbook..................................................................... 8
4. Textbook Evaluation .............................................................................. 10
B. Cohesion .................................................................................................... 14
x
1. Notion of Cohesion ................................................................................ 14
2. Types of Cohesion .................................................................................. 15
3. Grammatical Cohesion Devices ............................................................. 16
C. Narrative Passage ...................................................................................... 28
1. Notion of Narrative Passage ................................................................... 28
2. Schematic Structure of Narrative Passage .............................................. 29
3. Function of Narrative Passage ................................................................ 32
4. Device of Narrative Passage ................................................................... 32
CHAPTER III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .......................................... 35
A. Mesthod of the Study ................................................................................ 35
B. Source of Data ........................................................................................... 35
C. Technique of the Data Collecting .............................................................. 35
D. Technique of the Data Analysis ................................................................ 36
CHAPTER IV. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ............................................ 38
A. Findings ..................................................................................................... 38
1. The Data Description .............................................................................. 38
2 The Data Analysis and Intrepretation ..................................................... 39
B. Discussion ................................................................................................. 50
CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS ................................ 52
A. CONCLUSIONS ....................................................................................... 52
B. SUGGESTIONS ........................................................................................ 52
BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................... 54
xi
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 Aspects for Choosing Textbook….………………….…………... 11
Table 2.2 The Device of Personal Reference ………………….…………... 17
Table 2.3 The Device of Conjunction …………………………..…………. 27
Table 3.1 The Example Table……………………………………………… 37
Table 4.1 The Recapitulation of Grammatical Cohesion ………………….. 38
Table 4.2 Table of Grammatical Cohesion for Passage 1: Two Goats…….. 39
Table 4.3 Table of Grammatical Cohesion for Passage 2: The Ant and the
Dove……………………………………………………………... 41
Table 4.4 Table of Grammatical Cohesion for Passage 3: The Monkey and
the Crocodile…….………………………………......................... 43
Table 4.5 Table of Grammatical Cohesion for Passage 4: Why are Cicadas
Silent in Winter?............................................................................ 44
Table 4.6 Table of Grammatical Cohesion for Passsage 5: Sura and Baya... 46
Table 4.7 Table of Grammatical Cohesion for Passage 6: Lonely Landy….. 48
xii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1 The Device of Demonstrative Reference………..….………..….. 18
Figure 2.2 The Device of Comparative Reference…………….……………. 19
Figure 2.3 Mapping Concept of Grammatical Cohesion…….….....………... 34
Figure 4.1 The Percentage of Grammatical Cohesion………….….………... 39
xiii
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX 1 Summary Of Grammatical Cohesion And Coding Scheme... 57
APPENDIX 2 Reading Passage 1 Two Goats .....….…………………..…... 62
APPENDIX 3 Reading Passage 2 The Ant And The Dove.……………….. 63
APPENDIX 4 Reading Passage 3 The Monkey And The Crocodile.....….... 64
APPENDIX 5 Reading Passage 4 Why Are The Cicadas Silent In Winter?.. 65
APPENDIX 6 Reading Passage 5 Sura And Baya………...…………..….... 66
APPENDIX 7 Reading Passage 6 Lonely Landy.……………………..….... 68
APPENDIX 8 Surat Keterangan Penelitian dari Sekolah............................ 69
1
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, the writer will elaborate general description of this study.
It encompasses background of study, focus of the study, research question,
objective of the study, and significance of the study.
A. Background of Study
As an international language, English is spoken as a native language by
around 377 million speakers while as a second language by around 375 million in
the world.1 There are many institutions that require their employees to master
English. Furthermore, there are also many universities that require their students
to master English. Besides, there are also many products which we daily use make
English as their media of communication. Hence, mastering English means
enabling us to communicate with people from different countries even continents,
opening up opportunities to study abroad or to work in foreign countries, giving
us a better understanding on products we use daily, and gaining more access to
information and technology. In short, English is a really important language to be
mastered in this global era.
Due to the aforementioned reasons, English has been considered as the
first foreign language to be taught and a compulsory subject in Indonesia
secondary schools.2 In teaching English, there are four basic language skills to be
mastered by students. Those are listening, speaking, reading, and writing. In
speaking and writing, students produce the language; hence they are belonging to
productive skills. While listening and reading are included in receptive skills
because language learners receive messages or codes in these skills.3
1 http://www.studyenglishtoday.net/english_language.html. 2 Depdiknas, Peraturan Menteri Pendidikan Nasional, No. 22 Tahun 2006 tentang Standar
Isi untuk Satuan Pendidikan Dasar dan Menengah, (Jakarta: Depdiknas, 2006), p. 11. 3 Jeremy Harmer, The Practice of English Language Teaching, (New York: Longman,
1983), p. 16.
2
Reading, specifically reading comprehension is considered as a difficult
skill to be mastered. Linse in her book states that in teaching reading skills,
teachers have to teach their students to acquire meaning and also analyze and
synthesize what they have read, and those complex activities are elemental
components of reading process.4 Additionally, Harmer argues that even learners
who use English as their mother tongue consider reading skills as difficult to
master because there are many complex skills to be learnt.5
Due to the difficulty in teaching reading skills, language teachers and
learners absolutely need tools to help them achieving their reading learning goals.
One of the tools is a good textbook. This is in line with Sasan and Amir’s
argument in their journal that a good textbook assists and supports teachers to
reach their goals in teaching process.6 The argument is also supported by
Harmer’s statement that a good textbook helps students to understand what they
have to learn and review what they have learned.7 In addition, Richards expresses
that a good textbook must provide effective language models and input.8
One of effective language models and input is passages, and one kind of
passages to be taught in second year of junior high school is narrative passage.
Teaching narrative passage in current curriculum is not only aimed to make
students understand and create the passage, but also to introduce values to
students. Additionally, the kind of narrative passage that should be taught for
second year of junior high school students based on the current curriculum is
fable.9
To be good and effective language models and input, narrative passages
should be readable and the crucial things to determine the readability factors are
4 Caroline T. Linse, Practical English language Teaching: Young Learners, (New York:
McGraw-Hill, 2006), p. 71. 5 Harmer, op. cit., p. 191. 6 Sasan B. And Amir H. R., Evaluation of an ESP Textbook for the Students of Sociology,
Journal of Language Teaching and Research, Vol. 2, No. 5, 2011, pp. 1009-1014. 7 Jeremy Harmer, How to Teach English. New Edition, (Oxford: Pearson Education
Limited, 2007), p. 152. 8 Jack C. Richards, Curriculum Development in Language Teaching, (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2001), p. 254. 9 Kementrian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan 2013, Kurikulum 2013, Kompetensi Dasar SMP,
p. 69.
3
the harmony and the link among sentences in a passage. Those crucial things are
defined as cohesion.10 However, there are some English textbooks used in
Indonesia which do not expose good narrative passages in term of cohesion. Some
narrative passages have excessive usage only on one cohesion device, while
others do not expose some cohesion devices which actually those devices could be
appeared in the passages.
As an empirical evidence of the ‘in cohesive’ passages, the writer has
found two studies which point out it. The first study was carried out by Rofikoh.
The study showed that there are no complete existing cohesion devices within 4
narrative passages which had been analyzed. Furthermore, there are no ellipsis
appeared within those passages.11 The second study was conducted by Fawziah.
The study pointed out that there are only 2 narrative passages having complete
kinds of grammatical cohesion from 6 analyzed passages.12 Therefore, an
investigation of cohesion within learning material passages could be claimed as an
important duty for teachers in consequence to expose effective language models
and input to their students.
Further on the importance of cohesion, Halliday and Hasan argue that
text is used in linguistics to refer to any passage, spoken or written, of whatever
length, that does form a unified whole.13 They also state that cohesion is meant as
a semantic bound between an element and other in a text that is really important to
the interpretation of it.14 A text or a passage in this case has to be a unified whole.
It means that the sentences in a passage should be well connected one and
another. It can be concluded that an analysis of cohesion in a passage is extremely
needed because the analysis could be a measurement for teachers to determine
10 Kushartanti, et al., Pesona Bahasa: Langkah Awal memahami Linguistik, (Jakarta: PT.
Gramedia Pustaka Utama, 2005), p. 96. 11 Karimatul Rofikoh, “A Grammatical Cohesion Analysis of Reading Texts in ‘Get Along
with English’ Published by Erlangga”, Skripsi, (Jakarta: UIN Syarif Hidayatullah, 2013), not published.
12 Syifa Fawziah, “Grammatical Cohesion in Narrative Passages of English Textbook ‘English in Focus 2’ ”, Skripsi, (Jakarta: UIN Syarif Hidayatullah, 2013), not published.
13 M.A.K. Halliday and Ruqaiya Hasan, Cohesion in English, (London: Longman Group Limited, 1976), p.1.
14 Ibid., p. 8.
4
whether the passages are an effective language input or not. Hence, the effective
language input hopefully could convey good learning outcomes.
To be clear about definition of cohesion, examples of ‘cohesive’
sentences and ‘in cohesive’ sentences are as follows:
a. Dhea and Dede bought the book yesterday. She went to the bookstore by bus.
b. Dila and Dinis bought the book yesterday. They went to the bookstore by bus.
The sentences in (a) are ‘in cohesive’ because the pronoun ‘She’ does not
clearly refer to anyone. It is not clear whether ‘she’ leads to Dhea, Dede, or both
of them. If it leads to both, pronoun ‘she’ should be replaced with ‘they’. The
sentences cannot be understood by readers and the meaning becomes ambiguous
because there are no connections between those two sentences. On the other hand,
the sentences in (b) are ‘cohesive’. The pronoun ‘they’ does refer to Dila and
Dinis.
Cohesion is divided into two main parts. They are grammatical cohesion
and lexical or vocabulary cohesion. Grammatical cohesion has four main
branches. They are reference, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction. While,
lexical cohesion has two center kinds. Those are reiteration and collocation.15 In
this study, the writer is intended to investigate cohesion devices within narrative
passages of eighth grade textbook “Bright 2” which is published by Erlangga and
used at SMP Pelita 2 Depok only focused on its grammatical cohesion.
B. Focus of the Study
Referring to the above background of study, focus of the study is
grammatical cohesion analysis within the six narrative passages taken from
English textbook “Bright 2” and used by second year students of SMP Pelita 2
Depok.
C. Research Question
Based on the aforementioned focus of the study, the research question is:
15 Ibid., p. 5.
5
What kinds do grammatical cohesion devices exist in the six narrative
passages of English textbook “Bright 2?”
D. Objective of the study
Referring to the above research question, objective of the study is to
identify the kinds of grammatical cohesion devices exist in the six narrative
passages of English textbook “Bright 2”.
E. Significance of the Study
This study hopefully can contribute to following people:
1. The writer, as partial fulfillment of Requirements for Degree of Strata 1
(S.Pd.) in English Education and enrichment her knowledge as an English
teacher candidate.
2. English Teachers, as an understanding to one criterion of good narrative
passages and an improvement to their skills in choosing textbooks.
3. Other researchers, as a comparison and a starting point to make more
comprehensive studies.
6
CHAPTER II
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Having discussed the background of this study in the previous chapter,
this chapter is intended to discuss further about theoretical frameworks
underpinning this study. It covers three main parts; they are textbook, cohesion,
and narrative passage. The explanation of those parts is as below:
A. Textbook
1. Notion of Textbook
Most teachers use textbook as their media of teaching in a classroom
since it provides materials that should be taught by them. It can be treated as a
guide for teachers about what to teach in classroom which is suitable with
syllabus and curriculum used. A textbook is used in school to facilitate teachers
and students in their teaching learning activities. Therefore, textbook is considered
as one of important instructional media for teachers as well as students
In accordance with the above arguments, John Goodland also states in
Obsorn’s book that a textbook takes control in teaching learning activities as
medium of instructions, except in kindergarten. He points out that dependency to
the textbook increased in conjunction with grade level progress.1 In addition,
Swan as cited in Browers and Brumfit argues that the term of textbook refers to a
coherent body of teaching materials which may not only consist of the coursebook
(s) but also consist of a learning package.2 They illustrate a textbook as a bridge
which information about vocabulary would travel and return into a wall, with
teachers and their knowledge on one side and students on another side.3 Similar
opinion is also argued by Allington and Strange. According to them, “a textbook
1 Jean Obsorn, et al., Reading education: Foundation for a Literate America, (Lexington:
DC. Heath and Company, 1985), p. 46. 2 Michael Swan, “The Textbook: Bridge or Wall?”, in Roger Browers and Christopher
Brumfit (eds.), Applied Linguistics and English Language Teaching, (London: MacMillan Publishers Limited, 1994), pp. 32-33.
3 Ibid., p. 32.
7
serves as a single repository of information on a subject, allowing both the teacher
and the learner to use a single common source for acquiring the desired content.”4
Hence, according to the aforementioned experts, a textbook content has a great
impact on learning activities. From the above explanation, the writer could sum up
that a textbook is one of primary instructional media which provides teaching
materials and is used to facilitate teachers and students in teaching learning
activities.
2. Function of Textbook
According to Pusat Pengembangan Kurikulum dan Sarana Pendidikan,
textbook functions in extending outlook, giving new knowledge, and making
students master their knowledge. Therefore, textbook’s function is not only for
gaining students’ knowledge, but also for monitoring and helping students’
learning activities that is used by students’ parents as a guidance.5
In line with the above argument, Sasan and Amir also express in their
journal that a textbook assists and supports teachers to reach their goals in
teaching process.6 The argument is also supported by Harmer’s statement that a
textbook helps students to understand what they have to learn and review what
they have learned.7
Furthermore, Cunningsworth as cited in Richard has summarized
function of textbook in language teaching as follows:
a. a resource for presentation materials;
b. a source of activities for learner practice and communicative interaction;
c. a reference source for learners on grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation,
and so on;
d. a source of stimulation and ideas for classroom activities;
4 Richard Allington and Michael Strange, Learning through Reading in the Content Areas, (Massachusetts: D.C. Heath and Company, 1980), p. 4.
5 Pusat Kurikulum Badan Penelitian dan Pengembangan Departemen Pendidikan Nasional, Acuan Penulisan Buku Pelajaran yang Sesuai dengan Kurikulum, (Jakarta: Pusat Pengembangan Kurikulum dan Sarana Pendidikan, 2000), p. 1.
6 Sasan B. And Amir H. R., Evaluation of an ESP Textbook for the Students of Sociology, Journal of Language Teaching and Research, Vol. 2, No. 5, 2011, pp. 1009-1014.
7 Jeremy Harmer, How to Teach English, (Oxford: Pearson Education Limited, 2007), new edition, p. 152.
8
e. a syllabus (where they reflect learning objectives that have already been
determined);
f. a support for less experienced teachers who have yet to gain in
confidence.8
Additionally Dudley-Evans and St. John as cited in Richard point out that
materials serve the following functions:
a. as a source of language;
b. as a learning support;
c. as a motivator and stimulator;
d. as a reference.9
3. Criteria of a Good Textbook
There are many experts in the educational field who argue about criteria
of a good textbook. Because textbook is one of primary media in teaching
learning activities, the criteria of a good textbook could be useful for teachers to
evaluate a textbook which will be used. Hence, a good textbook hopefully could
affect positive learnig outcomes. Therefore, the writer is going to mention some
criteria of a good textbook according to some experts.The first criteria come from
Penny Ur, as follows:
Objectives explicitly laid out in an introduction, and implemented in the
material.
Approach educationally and socially acceptable to target community.
Clear attractive layout; print easy to read.
Interesting topic and task.
Varied topic and task, so as to provide for different learner levels, learning
styles, interests, etc.
Clear instruction.
Systematic coverage of syllabus.
Content clearly organized and graded (sequenced by difficulty).
8 Richards, op. cit., p. 251. 9 Ibid., pp. 251-252.
9
Periodic review and test sections.
Fluency practice in all four skills.
Encourages learners to develop own learning strategies and to become
independent in their learning.10
The next is from Richards. He has eight characteristics of what a good
textbook is. The characteristics are as below:
1. It should provide structure and syllabus for a program.
2. It helps standardize instruction.
3. It maintains quality.
4. It is efficient.
5. It provides a variety of learning resources.
6. It provides effective language models and input.
7. It can train teachers.
8. It is visually appealing.11
The third criteria are pointed out by Harmer. He states that, “Good
textbooks often contain lively and interesting materials; they provide a sensible
progression of language items, clearly showing what has to be learnt and in some
cases summarizing what has been studied...”12 He also adds that, “Good textbooks
also relieve the teacher from the pressure of having to think of original material
for every class.”13
The last criteria are argued by Greene and Petty as cited in Tarigan. They
argue that good textbooks have certain qualities as bellow:
The textbook must be interested and attractive toward the learners, so they
will be interested in using textbooks.
The textbook must be able to motivate the learners.
The certain of textbook must be illustrative.
10 Penny Ur, A Course in Language Teaching: Practice and Theory, (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2009), p. 186. 11 Jack C. Richards, Curriculum Development in Language Teaching, (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2001), pp. 254-255. 12 Jeremy Harmer, The Practice of English Language Teaching. New Edition, (New York:
Longman Publishing, 1996), p. 257. 13 Ibid.
10
The textbook should consider the linguistic aspect. So, it will be suitable
with the learners’ ability.
The certain of textbook must be related to the other branch of science.
The textbook must stimulate the personal activity of the learners.
The certain of textbook must be clear in written to avoid the children to be
confused in using textbook.
The textbook must have the clear point of view because it will be the
learners’ point of view.
The textbook must be able to give the balance and emphasize on the value
of the learners.
The textbook must be able to respect to the differences of the individual.14
Referring to the criteria which have been stated by the above experts, it
could be claimed that a good passage is included as one of the criteria of a good
textbook. It could be seen from Richards’ statement that a good textbook should
provide effective language models and input. A passage could be concluded as
one of language models and input since it exposes to language learners how a
language should be presented in written form.
4. Textbook Evaluation
As one of primary media in teaching learning activities, a textbook
should be evaluated in order to get a good textbook. Hamer promotes nine aspects
to be considered for choosing textbook.15 The more specific explanation of those
could be seen in the following table:
14 Henry Guntur Tarigan, Prinsip-Prinsip Dasar Metode Riset Pelajaran Pembelajaran Bahasa, (Bandung: Angkasa, 1993), pp. 20-21.
15 Jeremy Harmer, How to Teach English, (Edinburgh: Longman, 2003), p. 119.
11
Evaluating an English textbook has become a challenging task for
teachers since availability of various English textbooks in public market are high
and keep increasing. Hence, Cunningsworth suggests three factors in selecting
12
textbook. The first one is approaches to evaluation, and these are his favourite
questions to guide an evaluation of a textbook:
How does the coursebook present the present perfect with particular
reference to its meaning and use?
How does it teach the use of articles?
Does it include anything on intonation?
Does it deal with the organization of language above the level of the
sentence, eg in conversation or in continuous writing?
The second factor is deciding on a checklist. Cunningsworth has selected
the most general criteria for evaluation and selection purposes, they are:
Aims and approach.
Design and organization.
Language content.
Skills.
Topic.
Methodology.
Teachers’ books.
Practical consideration.
The third one is selecting the best available coursebook. There are three
stages provided in process of selection of the best available coursebook:
1. Identify the aims and objectives of your teaching programme.
2. Analyze the teaching/learning situation in which the materials will be
used.
3. Draw up a list of potential coursebooks, using information from
publishers, advice from colleagues and your own previous experience.16
Els and his friends also point out that information about textbooks could
be obtained from two sources: the textbook itself (textbook description) and the
users of textbook (textbook evaluation). Textbook description is defined as
16 Alan Cunningsworth, Choosing Your Coursebook, (Oxford: Heinemann, 1995), pp.1-5.
13
collection and description of data on content and form of the textbook itself and it
consists of four descriptions:
1. Authors’ and publishers’ information (Information of authors and
publishers is being the provision of pertinent and verifiable data of a
textbook.)
2. Textbook reviews (The most important merit of reviews is that they
provide prompt information.)
3. Checklist
Theo Van Els and his friends mention main categories of checklist as
follows:
objectives and methodology;
structure of the textbook;
organization of teaching;
didactic conception;
exercises;
motivation and activation of learners;
texts;
grammar;
phonetics;
morphosyntax;
vocabulary;
communicative categories, speech acts;
contrastivity;
thematic goals;
communicative, social, and situational context;
culture and intercultural communication;
4. Textbook description and the development of new descriptive tools.
14
The second source is textbook evaluation. There are two aspects in
textbook evaluation; Users’ judgments and Experimental research into the effects
of textbooks.17
Based on the above explanation, it could be seen that texts or passages of
a textbook are included to them. Penny Ur includes reading texts in the area of
skills and syllabus as a part to be considered. Theo Van Els and his friends also
include text as one of categories of checklist and is needed to be noticed. Hence,
the writer concludes that texts (passages) in a textbook are components of a
textbook which are crucial to be analyzed.
To be more specific explanation to cohesion analysis, the writer discloses
a textbook assessment according to Pusat Kurikulum dan Perbukuan which states
that cohesion is one of items that should be evaluated. Cohesion analysis is
included in language feasibility aspect in the textbook assessment. They point out
that message or materials presented in a textbook have to be cohesive.18
B. Cohesion
To be a good and effective language input, narrative passages within a
textbook should be readable; and the crucial things to determine the readability
factors are the harmony and the link among sentences in a passage. Those crucial
things are defined as cohesion.19
1. Notion of Cohesion
In study of language, some of the most interesting observations are made
not only in terms of components of language, but also in terms of the way
language is used. We know that texts must have a certain structure that depends
17 Theo Van Els, et al, Applied Linguistic and the Learning and Teaching of Foreign
Languages, (London: Edward Arnold Publisher Ltd.,1984), p.298. 18 Standar Mutu Buku Pelajaran Bahasa Inggris untuk SMP dan MTS, SMA dan MA,
(Jakarta: Pusat Perbukuan Departemen Pendidikan Nasional, 2003), p. 4. 19 Kushartanti, et al., Pesona Bahasa: Langkah Awal Memahami Linguistik, (Jakarta: PT.
Gramedia Pustaka Utama, 2005), p. 96.
15
on some factors. Some of those factors are described in terms of cohesion, or the
ties and connections that exist within a text.20
The term of cohesion is familiar in the study of language because the
establishment of cohesive relation between two or more elements in a text is a
necessary component. Cohesion is a part of the system language and it is the most
important thing needed in the cohesion of a text. The term cohesion has been
defined in various ways.
According to Kushartanti, cohesion is elements of language that will
make a text be united by connecting each other semantically.21 That statement is
in line with the simple definition of Haliday and Hasan which states that cohesion
is a semantic relation of meaning that exists within a text.22 It means that cohesion
has function to relate one part of a text and another part of the same text.
Therefore, Renkema defines cohesion as the connection which results when the
interpretation of a textual element is dependent on another element in a text.23
To sum up, the writer concludes that cohesion is semantic concept that
refers to language relevance within a text. As a tie to link one sentence to another,
cohesion refers to the surface relations among the sentences that create a text.
Thus, it will help readers to sort out meaning and usage of a text.
2. Types of Cohesion
In guiding principle of language, grammar is used to express the general
meaning of language and vocabulary is used to express the specific meaning.
Cohesive relation is suitable for that pattern. Therefore, cohesion is expressed
partly through grammar and partly through vocabulary.24 In other words, cohesion
refers to the grammatical and lexical elements on the surface of a text which can
20 George Yule, The Study of Language. Fourth Edition, (New York: Cambridge University
Press, 2010), p. 143. 21 Kushartanti, et al, loc. cit. 22 M.A.K. Halliday and Ruqaiya Hasan, Cohesion in English, (London: Longman Group
Ltd.,1976), p. 4. 23 Jan Renkema, Discourse Studies: an Introductory Textbook, (Amsterdam: John
Benjamins Publishing, Co., 1993), p. 35. 24 Halliday and Hasan, op. cit., p. 5.
16
form connections among parts of the text.25 Based on the statement, cohesion is
divided into two types: grammatical cohesion and lexical cohesion.
Halliday and Hasan explain that grammatical cohesion is a semantic
element connecting that marked by grammatical tools. Grammatical cohesion
devices are reference, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction. Meanwhile, lexical
cohesion is the cohesive effect achieved by the selection vocabulary.26 Lexical
cohesion refers to the rule played by the selective of vocabulary in organizing
relations within a text. Furthermore, Halliday and Matthiessen in their book argue
that lexical cohesion operates within lexis and is achieved through the choice of
lexical items. Lexical cohesion is divided into two main categories: reiteration and
collocation.27
In conclusion, the grammatical cohesion refers to a combination of terms
sentences that form grammatical aspect, and the lexical cohesion refers to a
combination of terms among sentences that form lexical component. Grammatical
cohesion is divided into four kinds. They are reference, substitution, ellipsis, and
conjunction. While lexical cohesion is divided into two kinds; they are reiteration
and collocation.
3. Grammatical Cohesion Devices
Halliday and Hassan as cited in Meyer’s book provide the basic
categories of grammatical cohesion pointing into four categories and referring as
reference, substitution, ellipsis and conjunction.28 These categories have a
theoretical basis and specific types of grammatical cohesion which has also
provided a practical means for describing and analyzing a text.
25 Sanna-Kaisa Tanskanen, Collaborating towards Coherence: Lexical Cohesion in English
Discourse, (Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing, 2006), p. 13. 26 Halliday and Hasan, op. cit., p. 274. 27 M.A.K. Halliday and Christian Matthiessen, An Introduction to Functional Grammar.
Third Edition, (London: Arnold, 2004), p. 535. 28 Charles F.Meyer, Introducing English Linguistics, (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 2009), p. 102.
17
a. Reference
One of options which English grammar offers in creating surface links
between sentences is reference.29 Reference is the relation among elements of a
text.30 It may be established at varying distances and usually serves to relate single
elements that have a function within the clause.31 Reference is divided into three
types which have different uses. They are personal reference, demonstrative
reference, and comparative reference.
1) Personal Reference
Personal reference is a reference by means of function in the speech
situation, through the category of person. The category of personal reference
includes personal pronouns, possessive determiners (possessive adjective), and
possessive pronouns.32 The complete explanation could be seen in the table
below:33
For more deep explanation, the writer gives the examples of personal
reference, as follows:
Personal pronoun:
Three blind mice, three blind mice. See how they run! See how they run!
29 Halliday and Matthiessen, op. cit., p. 534. 30 Halliday and Hassan, op. cit., p. 308. 31 Halliday and Matthiessen, op. cit,. p. 536. 32 Halliday and Hasan, op. cit., p. 43. 33 M.A.K. Halliday, An Introduction to Functional Grammar, (Great Britain: Edward
Arnold, Ltd., 1985), p. 295.
18
They refers to three blind mice.34
Possessive determiner/possessive adjective:
John has moved to a new house. His wife must be delighted with it.
Here, his refers to John.35
Possessive pronoun:
John has moved to a new house. I didn’t know it was his.
In this sentence, his refers to John.36
2) Demonstrative reference
Demonstrative reference is reference by means of location, on a scale of
closeness.37 It is essentially a form of verbal pointing to a person or thing.38 The
following figure will describe the system of demonstrative reference:
From the demonstrative adverbs (here, there, now, then), the use of now
in a text is very rarely cohesive.39
The example of demonstrative reference is:
34 Halliday and Hasan, op. cit., p. 31. 35 Ibid., p. 55. 36 Ibid. 37 Ibid., p. 57. 38 John Langan, College Writing Skills with Readings. Fifth Edition, (New York: McGraw-
Hill, 2001), p. 474. 39 Halliday and Hasan. loc. cit.
19
“Do you play croquet with the Queen today?”
“I should like it very much,” said Alice, “but I haven’t been invited.”
“You’ll see me there,” said the Cat, and vanished.
From the above sentences, there refers to the place where playing croquet
with the Queen will be happened.40
3) Comparative reference
Comparative reference is indirect reference by means of identity or
similarity.41 This reference is divided into two: general comparison and particular
comparison.
General comparison is comparison in expressing similarity or difference.
In general comparison, two things may be the same, similar or different.
Furthermore, particular comparison is comparison that is relating with quantity or
quality. It is expressed with ordinary adjectives or adverbs in some comparative
form.42
The clear explanation about comparative reference devices of general
comparison and particular comparison could be seen in this figure:43
These are the examples of general comparison and particular comparison:
40 Ibid., p. 74. 41 Ibid., p. 37. 42 Ibid., p. 77. 43 Ibid., p. 76.
20
General comparison:
They were two different things.
The word different in that sentence means different to each other.
Particular comparison:
He is a better man than I am.
The sentence is comparison of quality, with an Epithet as comparative, and I as a
reference.
b. Substitution
Another kind of grammatical cohesion is substitution. Substitution is
used when a writer wishes to avoid the repetition of a lexical item, so the lexical
item will be replaced with the other word. Besides substitution as the replacement
of one item by another, it is also a relation in the wording rather than meaning
within a text. In substitution, there is a substitute which is used in place of the
repetition of a particular item.44
In English, the substitute may function as a noun, as a verb, or as a
clause. Hence, there are three types of substitution: nominal substitution, verbal
substitution, and clausal substitution.45
1) Nominal Substitution (one, ones, same)
Nominal substitution is substitution of nominal with an item that is
appropriate with the nominal genus. It is commonly expressed with the substitute
one/ones (singular/plural) and same.
However, one is not only as a substitution but also as personal pronoun
one, cardinal number one, determiner one, and general noun or pronoun one.46 For
example:
“I shoot the hippopotamus with bullets made of platinum because if I use
leaden ones, his hide is sure to flatten them.”
44 Ibid., p. 89. 45 Ibid., p. 90. 46 Ibid., p. 98.
21
In the above example, the use of ones is a nominal substitution and it
replaces bullets in bullets made of platinum.
2) Verbal Substitution (do)
The verb or a verbal group could be replaced by another verb which is
do. It is usually placed at the end of the group.47 For example:
I don’t know the meaning of half those long words, and, what’s more, I
don’t believe you do either!
Do in that sentence substitutes for know the meaning of half those long words.
3) Clausal Substitution (so, not)
Clausal substitution means where a clause could be usually substituted by
so or not. It is the other types of substitution in which what is presupposed is an
entire clause.48 For example:
He would come if he said so.
In the example, the word so substitutes for he would come.49
c. Ellipsis
Ellipsis is like substitution, it is a relationship consisting of particular
form of wording, either a clause or some smaller item.50 However, ellipsis
involves deleting information that get back from some previous context rather
than replacing the information with a word.51 In other word, Halliday and Hasan
argue that ellipsis can be interpreted as substitution without a substitute or simply
called as ‘substitution by zero.’52 Briefly, the writer concludes that ellipsis is an
omitting word that is able to give the meaning back. It could be used to create the
cohesion in a text.
47 Ibid., p. 112. 48 Ibid., p. 130. 49 Ibid., p. 141. 50 Halliday and Matthiessen, op. cit., p. 536. 51 Meyer, op. cit., pp. 104-105. 52 Halliday and Hasan, op. cit., p. 142.
22
Like substitution, ellipsis also has three types; they are nominal ellipsis,
verbal ellipsis, and clausal ellipsis.53
1) Nominal ellipsis
Nominal ellipsis is an ellipsis within the nominal group. For example:
“Which hat will you wear? This is the best.”
In this case, hat as the common noun representing the thing that is omitted.54 The
original sentence should be ‘which hat will you wear? This is the best (hat)’.
Halliday and Hasan state in their book “Cohesion in English” that
nominal ellipsis consists of the elements Deictic, Numerative, and Epithet. The
Deictic is normally a determiner, the Numerative is a numeral or other quantifier,
and the Epithet is an adjective.55
1. Deictic. The word functioning as Deictic is normally the class of
determiner. Deictic forms a relationship between determiners
(demonstrative, possessive, indefinite determiners) and related categories
(each, every, all, both, any, either, no, neither, some, a). The example is:
“The men got back at midnight. Both were tired out.”
The word both functions elliptically. It refers back to two men. The word
ellipsis here is men.56
2. Numerative. Numerative element in the nominal group is showed by a
numeral or other quantifying words which form three subcategories:
ordinal (first, next, last, second, third, etc), cardinal (one, two, three, four,
five, etc), and indefinite quantifier (many, much, more, most, few, several,
a little, lots, a bit, hundreds, etc). Cardinal numerals which are also
frequent in ellipsis, can be preceded by any Deictic that is appropriate in
number, such as the seven, these three, any five, all seven etc.57
3. Epithet. The function of Epithet is expressed by an adjective. For example:
“Apples are the cheapest in autumn.”
53 Ibid., p. 146. 54 Ibid., p. 149. 55 Ibid., p. 147. 56 Ibid., p. 155. 57 Ibid., pp. 161-162.
23
In this sentence we may fairly ask “the cheapest what?” The cheapest is
an elliptical group presupposing some item such as fruit. Hence, the word
ellipsis here is fruit.58
2) Verbal ellipsis
Verbal ellipsis is an ellipsis within the verbal group. For example is:
“Have you been swimming? Yes, I have.”
The verbal group in the answer is have (yes, I have) is the instance of verbal
ellipsis. It stands for I have been swimming.59
In verbal ellipsis, there are two types; they are lexical ellipsis and
operator ellipsis.
1. Lexical ellipsis. It is the type of ellipsis which is the lexical verb is omitted
from the verbal group. However, all the modal operator such as can,
could, will, would, shall, should, may, might, ought to and is to (am to, is
to, are to, was to, were to) cannot function as a lexical verb, just two other
modal operators: (need and dare), can be used as lexical verbs.60 Halliday
and Hasan point out, “Lexical ellipsis is ellipsis ‘from the right’. It always
involves omission of the last word, which is the lexical verb, and may
extend ‘leftward’, to leave only the first word intact.”61 It means that
lexical ellipsis is happened in the last word of the sentence and may
continue to omit a word before. The example which is given by Halliday
and Hasan is in the following sentences:
“John should have been coming every day. I don’t think he has
been coming.”
For ‘has been coming’, we may omit the word ‘coming’or ‘been coming’.
Hence, the second sentence could be ‘I don’t think he has been’ or simply
‘I don’t think he has’.62
58 Ibid., pp. 163-164. 59 Ibid., p. 167. 60 Ibid., p. 170. 61 Ibid., p. 173. 62 Ibid.
24
2. Operator ellipsis. Operator ellipsis is another type of verbal ellipsis. It
also could be stated as ellipsis ‘from the left’ which means that operator
ellipsis involves only the omission of operator without omitting the lexical
verb. The example is:
“Some were laughing and others crying.”
In this sentence, there is an omit word ‘were’ which is functioned as an
operator. The original sentence should be “Some were laughing and others
were crying”.63
3) Clausal ellipsis
Clausal ellipsis means an ellipsis within the clause. The clause in English
is considered as the expression of the various speech functions, such as statement,
question, response, and so on, and has two parts of structure consisting of modal
element and propositional element. Modal element consists of speech function of
the clause such as Subject plus finite element in the verbal group. Besides, the
remaining part of the verbal group is propositional element. Here is the example
of modal element and propositional element:
The Duke was going to plant a row of poplars in the park.64
(modal element) (propositional element)
Furthermore, it is an example of clausal ellipsis:
‘And how many hours a day did you do lessons?’ said Alice, in a hurry to
change the subject.
‘Ten hours the first day’ said the Mock Turtle: ‘nine the next, and so on.’
The two clauses nine the next and ten hours the first day representing we did
lessons ten hours the first day, etc.65
d. Conjunction
The last type of grammatical cohesion device is conjunction. Conjunction
is different from other types of grammatical cohesion which have been discussed
63 Ibid., p. 174. 64 Ibid., p. 197. 65 Ibid., p. 144.
25
before since it has developed as a complementary resource for creating and
interpreting text.66 It means that elements of conjunction are not primarily devices
to link the previous text, but they express certain meaning which presupposes the
presence of other components in a discourse (text).67 In addition, Meyer also gives
the explanation about it, he argues that conjunction does not depend on linguistic
item in the prior context like the other types, but it contains the inclusion of
various kinds of expression that mark relationship between the previous and next
sentence in a text.68 Furthermore, Halliday and Hasan classify four types of
conjunction; they are additive, adversative, causal, and temporal. Each type of
conjunction has different markers which show a relation among parts of a text.69
1) Additive Conjunction
Additive conjunction contributes to give additional information without
changing information in previous clause or phrase. Additive or addition
conjunction is signaled in a text by the coordinating conjunction and and other
transitional expressions such as also, in addition, etc.70
2) Adversative Conjunction
The basic meaning of adversative relation is contrary to expectation. The
expectation is from the content of what is being said.71 Adversative conjunction is
marked in the text by the coordinating conjunction but and other conjunctions
such as however, instead, in contrast, and so on which mark the difference or
contrast between parts of a text.72
3) Causal Conjunction
Causal conjunction marks the relationship of reason, result, and
purpose.73 Causal relationship is marked by expressions such as therefore, as a
66 Halliday and Matthiessen, op. cit., p. 538. 67 Halliday and Hasan, op. cit., p. 226. 68 Meyer, op. cit., p. 107. 69 Halliday and Hasan, op. cit., p. 238. 70 Meyer. loc. cit. 71 Halliday and Hasan, op. cit., p. 250. 72 Meyer. loc. cit. 73 Halliday and Hasan, op. cit., p. 256.
26
result, so, and etc. So is an informal marker of causation. On the other hand,
therefore or as a result are used in more formal text.74
4) Temporal Conjunction
Temporal conjunction specifies the time sequence relationship which
exists between sentences.75 This temporal relation is expressed in its simplest
form by then. Besides, there are still many sequential senses like after that, an
hour later, finally, at last, and other expressions.76 Here is an example of each
conjunction from Halliday and Hasan:
“For the whole day he climbed up the steep mountainside, almost without
stopping.”
- Additive: and in all this time he met no one
- Adversative: yet he was hardly aware of being tired
- Causal: so by night time the valley was far below him
- Temporal: then, as dusk fell, he sat down to rest.77
Additionally, the complete devices of conjunction will be mentioned in a
table on next page:78
74 Meyer, op. cit., p. 108. 75 Halliday and Hasan, op. cit., p. 261. 76 Gillian Brown and George Yule, Discourse Analysis, (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1993), p. 191. 77 Halliday and Hasan, op. cit., p. 239. 78 Ibid., pp. 242-243.
28
C. Narrative Passage
1. Notion of Narrative Passage
Narrative passage is one of passages which should be learnt by junior
high school students. The term of narrative passage has been defined in some
ways. In general, narrative passage tells a story about a series of events. The story
can be fiction or nonfiction. While in specific notion for junior high school
students, narrative passage is an imaginative story in past tense. Besides, the kind
of narrative passage to be taught for second year of junior high school students
based on current curriculum is fable.79
According to Siahaan and Shinoda, “Narration is any written English text
in which the writer wants to amuse, entertain people, and to deal with actual or
vicarious experience in different way.”80 Additionally, Conlin expresses that
narration is usually used to tell about personal experiences.81 She divides narration
into non-fiction and fiction. Non-fiction is a true and actual story or event. On the
contrary, fiction is an unreal story or an event which is not actually happened.82 In
line with Conlin’s statement, Coffey also argues that narration tells a story about a
series of events or actions, and it may be fiction or non-fiction.83
Moreover, Goatly states that “A narrative is a story (possibly fictional)
which is an attempt to make sense of events and happenings in the world.” The
genesis creation myth is the example of narrative that he gives. This story does
not only try to make sense of the origin of life on earth, but more particularly
explains why there are seven days in a week.84
79 Kementrian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan 2013, Kurikulum 2013, Kompetensi Dasar
SMP, p. 69. 80 Sanggam Siahaan and Kisno Shinoda, Generic Text Structure, (Yogyakarta: Graha Ilmu,
2008), p.73. 81 Mary Lou Conlin, Patterns: A Short Prose Reader, (New York: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 1983), p. 9. 82 Ibid., p. 11. 83 Margaret Pogemiller Coffey, Communication through Writing, (Englewood Cliffs:
Prentice-Halls, Inc., 1987), p. 19. 84 Andrew Goatly, Critical Reading and Writing; An Introductory Coursebook, (New York:
Routledge, 2000), p. 33.
29
In addition, Flyyn and McGuire point out that narrative is the way to tell
about a story that has coherent purposes. They also explain that narrative is a story
which happened in past.85 Furthermore, in accordance with Wardiman et al, a
narrative passage usually tells a story in an imaginative way.86 These are some
types of narrative passage:87
Humor Romance
Crime Real-life fiction
Historical fiction Mystery
Fantasy Science fiction
Diary-novels Adventures
Based on the above definitions, the writer concludes that however
narrative passages tell events in past which mostly the events did not exist or
came from imaginary world, the narrative passages could also tell true events.
Additionally, narrative passage is usually made to amuse or entertain its readers.
2. Schematic Structure of Narrative Passage
Narrative passage is a meaningful sequence of events which is told in
words. A good narrative passage is usually arranged with a beginning or
orientation, middle or complication, and the end or resolution. In an orientation,
the characters are introduced. In a complication, the problems in the story are
constructed. In a resolution, the problems are solved.88
Moreover, Flyyn and McGuire point out that in a beginning, there must
be a summary to relate previous events which help readers understand characters
and situations. Scene which usually constitutes middle of a story is fully
developed by events during an action begins, a crisis develops, or a problem is
solved. In ending, full meaning will be shown simply if stories of a narrative
85 Fletcher Flyyn and Thomas G. McGuire, Design 3; Rhetoric and Anthology for College
English. Third Edition, (California: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1982), p. 88. 86 Artono Wardiman, Masduki B. Jahur, and M. Sukirman Djusna, English in Focus; for
Grade VIII Junior High School (SMP/MTs), (Jakarta: Pusat Perbukuan Departemen Pendidikan Nasional, 2008), p. 93.
87 Mark Anderson and Kathy Anderson, Text Types in English 2, (South Yarra: Macmillan Education Australia Pty Ltd, 1997), p. 18.
88 Wardiman, et al, op. cit., p. 98.
30
passage have been connected each other.89 In addition, William Labov as cited in
Goatly elaborates the following elements of a narrative’s generic structure:
Abstract. It is a short summary of the story before a narrative begins.
Abstract is an optional, but it provides a signal that a narrative intends to
begin, and that the writer wishes to keep its readers reading.
Orientation. Orientation gives information about who are in the story,
when the story is taking place, and where the action is happening.
Complicating action. Complicating action and the resolution are essential
elements in a narrative. Complicating action sets off a sequence of events
that influences what will happen in the story.
Resolution. Resolution is provided by last of narrative clauses which
began with the complicating action, bringing the sequence of actions and
events to an end. In other word, in resolution, the characters solve the
problems that have been created in the complication.
Coda. Coda is a bridge out of narrative. It provides a comment or moral
based on what has been learned from the story. It is an optional element
like an abstract.
Evaluation. Evaluation may occur at any point in a narrative, spread in a
text between abstract and coda. Labov defines evaluation as those clauses
which do not belong to the narrative action, but delay its forward
movements.90
Referring to the above explanation, there are three main parts in
schematic structure of a narrative passage, namely orientation, complication, and
resolution. A narrative passage introduces characters, place, and time of the story
in orientation, develops problems in the story in complication, and solves the
problems in resolution. Besides, some optional parts in schematic structure are
abstract where is placed before orientation, coda where is positioned after
resolution, and evaluation where is spread in a text between abstract and coda.
Here is the example of generic schematic structure of a narrative passage:
89 Flyyn and McGuire, op. cit., pp. 90-92. 90 Goatly, op. cit., pp. 31-32.
31
Lonely Landy
One day there was a porcupine named Landy. He was lonely. No
one wanted to play with him, because they were afraid of his spike.
“Dear Landy, we don’t want to play with you because your spikes
are too sharp. We don’t want you to hurt us,” said Cici the rabbit
one day. Landy felt lonely. Landy spent most of his time
daydreaming at the river bank. “I would be happy if there were no
spikes on my body.”
Orientation
Suddenly Kuku the turtle appeared from the river. He came to
Landy and said “What are you thinking of?” Shortly Landy told his
problem. Kuku nodded his head. He said, “Poor you. But it isn’t
your fault. I know your spikes are very useful and helpful for you.
They will realize it someday. Trust me!”
“Thanks Kuku, you are my best friend.”
One day Koko the frog invited all his friends including Landy to
come to his party. But Landy decided not to come. He didn’t want
to mess up the party.
I’ll come with you Landy. I’ll tell everyone that you’re harmless,”
said Kuku. Finally Landy attended the party. Everyone enjoy the
party. Suddenly Tito screamed, “Help… help! The evil wolf is
coming. Save yourself!” Then everyone saved their lives except
Kuku and Landy. Kuku pulled his head and his legs into his shell.
And Landy rolled his body into a ball.
Complication
Unintentionally the evil wolf touched Landy. Of course, the spikes
pricked him. He screamed, “Ouch!” Since his foot was bleeding, he
didn’t chase Landy’s friends any longer. Then he ran away.
“Hooray... hooray..! Long Live Landy! He saved our lives, said
Cici and her friends. They thanked him from then on. Landy wasn’t
Lonely anymore.
Resolution
(Adopted from Bright 2 for Grade VIII)
32
3. Function of Narrative Passage
Wardiman et al state that the functions of narrative passage are
entertaining, amusing, and dealing with an actual experience in different ways.91
In accordance with the writer’s opinion, Mark and Kathy Andersons’ arguments
could conclude complete functions of a narrative passage. They disclose that a
narrative passage provides entertainment as well as excites readers’ emotions, and
provides an issue to think, and also a lesson to teach.92
4. Device of Narrative Passage
In a narrative passage, commonly there are some features or devices that
are used to make narrative passage become clearer or cohesive. Anderson states
that features in grammatical, are:
Noun that identifies the specific characters and place in the story.
Adjective that delivers accurate description of the characters and settings.
Verb which shows the action in the story (active or passive verbs in the
past).
Time words that connect events.93 Time words could be marked by ‘first’,
‘then’, ‘next’, ‘after’, ‘while’, ‘during’, and ‘finally’.94 ‘While’ or ‘at the
same time’ is used to relate two nearby clauses, while ‘after’ or ‘before’ is
used to show sequence.95
In addition, Akhmadi and Safrida argue that the language features which
should be considered in the narrative text are:
Mostly using verbs in past forms.
Using speech marks when the characters are speaking.
Using some adverbs to indicate time.
91 Wardiman, et al, loc. cit. 92 Mark Anderson and Kathy Anderson, Text Types in English 3, (South Yarra: Macmillan
Education Australia Pty Ltd., 1998), p. 3. 93 Ibid. 94 Langan, op. cit., p. 207. 95 Michael G.W. Bamberg, The Acquisition of Narratives: Learning to Use Language,
(Berlin: Walter de Gruyter&Co., 1987), p. 16.
33
Using some relating verbs (was, were) to begin the story.96
Murkato and friends also point out that linguistic features which contains
in the narrative text are as follows:
Specific participants or characters, such as: the Beast, Belle, Maurice, etc.
The use of past tense, for example: “They lived happily ever after.”
The use of past continuous tense, as an examlpe: “It was raining so hard
that he decided to enter the castle.”
A lot of action verbs, such as: asked, arrived, declared, travelling.
Some relational verbs to describe the characters and setting, for example:
“He was good looking and rich. He looked very ugly instead.”
Many connectives or conjunctions to sequence the story, such as: after,
then, finally, and etcetera.97
96 Ali Akhmadi and Ida Safrida, Smart Steps; An English Textbook for Junior High School,
(Jakarta: Ganeca Exact, 2007), p. 174. 97 Mukarto, et al., English on Sky 2 for Junior High School Students Grade VIII, (Jakarta:
Penerbit Erlangga, 2007), p. 124.
Mapping C
GRAMMATICACOHESION
FiguConcept of
AL
ure 2.3 Grammati
Reference
Substitution
Ellipsis
Conjunction
ical Cohesi
R
DeR
CoR
Su
Su
Su
Nom
Ve
Cla
A
T
(‘co
ion
Personal Reference
monstrativeReference
omparativeReference
Nominal ubstitution
Verbal ubstitution
Clausal ubstitution
minal Ellipsis
erbal Ellipsis
ausal Ellipsis
Additive
Adversative
Causal
Temporal
Other ontinuative’)
34
35
CHAPTER III
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This chapter is going to explain how the writer conducts the study. It
covers four main parts. They are method of the study, source of data, technique of
the data collecting, and technique of the data analysis.
A. Mesthod of the Study
In this study, the writer uses descriptive qualitative method by analyzing
narrative passages of textbook “Bright 2” published by Erlangga. This textbook is
an English textbook used by eighth grade students of SMP Pelita 2 Depok. She
analyzes all kinds of grammatical cohesion found within the six narrative
passages in the textbook which included reference, substitution, ellipsis, and
conjunction. What the writer does is grouping the kinds of grammatical cohesion
found based on Halliday and Hasan’ theory, describing those findings, and
concluding the result.
B. Source of Data
The writer takes data from the narrative passages within the textbook
entitled “Bright 2” published by Erlangga and used at SMP Pelita 2 Depok.
C. Technique of the Data Collecting
In collecting data of the study, the writer does several steps. The steps are
as follows:
1. Selecting the Textbook. In this study, the writer chooses the textbook
entitled “Bright 2” published by Erlangga. The book is used by eight grade
students of Pelita 2 Depok Junior High School. She uses this textbook as her
study object since this textbook uses the current curriculum which is 2013
Curriculum, Character Curriculum. The writer wants to know how the
curriculum is implemented in the one of language learning media, textbook.
36
2. Selecting the Passages. Selected passages in this study are all the narrative
passages in the “Bright 2” textbook which are used as reading skill
exercises. In this textbook, there are six selected passages as a unit of
analysis in this study. These are the selected narrative passages:
i. The Ant and the Dove.
ii. The Monkey and the Crocodile.
iii. Two goats.
iv. Why are Cicadas Silent in Winter?
v. Sura and Baya.
vi. Lonely Landy.
D. Technique of the Data Analysis
The narrative passages of the English textbook are analyzed using
document analysis and the analyzing steps are as below:
1. Dividing and numbering each passage into sentences. Each passage is
divided into sentences and numbered to find grammatical cohesion items
within those sentences. For example:
1One hot day, an ant was searching for some water.| 2After walking
around for some time, she came to a spring.|
3To reach the spring she had to climb up blade of grass.| 4While making
her way up, she slipped and fell into the water.|
2. Identifying and underlining every cohesive item found within the
sentences. In this step, every cohesive item found are underlined. For
example:
1One hot day, an ant was searching for some water.| 2After walking
around for some time, she came to a spring.|
The underlined words are items of grammatical cohesion. In the first
sentence there is one cohesive item. It is included as conjunction. While, in
the second sentence there are two cohesive items. They are belonging to
reference and conjunction.
37
3. Coding every cohesive item found based on halliday&hasan coding
scheme table. Table of grammatical cohesion from the above example
passage is presented below:
Table 3.1
The Example Table
Sentence Number
Number of
Devices
Cohesive Items
Reference Substitution Ellipsis Conjunction
Items Type Items Type Items Type Items Type
1 1 - - - - - - One hot day C441
2 2 She R12 - - - - After C411
∑ 1 2
4. Counting the number of cohesive items which have been coded in
percentages. The purpose of this step is to find what kind of grammatical
cohesion mostly existed in a passage and to count each kind of grammatical
cohesion found into percentages using a simple formula explained by Anas
Sudiyono:1
P FNX100%
Notes:
P = the percentage of a kind of grammatical cohesion existed in a passage.
F = the number of each type of grammatical cohesion existed in a passage.
N = the total number of grammatical cohesion items found in a passage.
5. Describing the result. The table of grammatical cohesion for each passage
will be explained in this step.
6. Concluding. The last step is making a conclusion from the result of the data
analysis.
1 Anas Sudiyono, Pengantar Statistik Pendidikan, (Jakarta: Raja Grafindo Persada, 2008),
p. 43.
38
CHAPTER IV
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Having explained the method and the technique of the data analysis in
chapter III, the findings and discussion of this study will be shown in this chapter.
A. Findings
1. The Data Description
In this study, the writer uses narrative passages in English textbook
“Bright 2” that is used in eight grade of Pelita 2 Depok Junior High School. There
are six narrative passages in the textbook which will be analyzed. The analysis
will apply the Halliday and Hasan’s concept of cohesion. The grammatical
cohesion is divided into four kinds; they are reference, substitution, ellipsis, and
conjunction.
The following table shows the recapitulation of grammatical cohesion
found in every narrative passage.
Table 4.1
The Recapitulation of Grammatical Cohesion
Passages Grammatical Cohession
Reference Substitution Ellipsis Conjunction
Two Goats 58 1 1 15
The Ant and the Dove 34 0 0 13
The Monkey and the Crocodile 55 0 0 14
Why are Cicadas Silent in Winter? 65 0 0 26
Sura and Baya 60 1 1 25
Lonely Landy 67 1 1 20
Sub total 339 3 3 113
TOTAL 458
in Percentage 74% 1% 1% 24%
T
T
cohesion.
conjunctio
2 The
T
cohesion
within a p
APPENDI
paragraph
Stc. No.
Numberof
Devices
1 3
2 5
3 3
Subs
Ellips
The above re
The above
The highes
on with 24%
e Data An
Table of gra
found in ea
pasage. The
IX 1). Addi
hs which are
Table of
r
s Referenc
Items Time
There 1
The 4
The 2
Th
stitution, 1%
sis, 1%
Conjunction,24%
ecapitulatio
chart ident
st type of gr
%, substituti
nalysis an
ammatical c
ach passag
e table use
itionally, th
e existed in t
Grammatic
ce S
es Type Items
R22
R23 R23
e Percenta
,
Gramma
on data can b
tifies perce
rammatical
ion with 1%
nd Intrepr
cohesion is u
e along wi
es Halliday
he data inter
the below o
Table 4
al Cohesion
Co
Substitution
Times Typ
Figure 4ge of Gram
Refferen%
atical Cohthe Text
be presented
entage for
cohesion fo
%, and ellips
retation
used to sho
th number
and Hasan
rpretation c
of each table
4.2
n for Passag
ohesive Item
Ellip
pe Items Tim
4.1 mmatical C
nce, 74
hession Wbook
d in the foll
each type
ound is refe
sis with 1%.
ow types of
of usage i
n’coding sc
could be see
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ge 1: Two G
psis
mes Type
Onuptim
An
An
Ev
ohesion
Within
Reff
Sub
Ellip
Con
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of gramm
erence with
.
the gramm
in each sen
cheme table
en in descri
Goats
Conjunctio
Items Time
nce on a
me
1
nd 1
nd 1
very 1
ference
stitution
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njunction
39
rt:
matical
74%,
matical
ntence
e (see
iptive
on
s Type
C444
C111
C231
C443
40
Stc. No.
Number of
Devices
Cohesive Item
Reference Substitution Ellipsis Conjunction
Items Times Type Items Times Type Items Times Type Items Times Type
morning
4 2 He 1 R11 The 1 R23
5 3 He 1 R11 The 1 R23 There 1 R22
6 3 The 2 R23
Every morning 1 C443
7 3 He 1 R11 The 2 R23
8 3 He 1 R11 The 1 R23 There 1 R22
9 6 The 3 R23
One morning 1 C444
Same 1 R31
At the same time 1 C232
10 3 They 1 R14 The 2 R23
11 1 The 1 R23 12 2 There 1 R22
Them 1 R14 13 2 The 2 R23 14 2 The 1 R23 But 1 C21215 2 Him 1 R11
The 1 R23 16 1 One 1 S11 - - - 17 6 They 2 R14
Two (goats) 1 E12 Suddenly 1 C13
The 1 R23 That 1 R22
18 2 The 2 R23 19 8 The 5 R23 Then 1 C451
Then 1 R22 And 1 C11120 6 He 1 R11 After that 1 C411
The 3 R23 And 1 C11121 5 They 1 R14
In the afternoon 1 C444
The 2 R23 Different
1 R33
22 4 This 1 R21 This time 1 C472They 1 R14 The 1 R23
∑ 75 58 1 1 15
The above table shows that reference is used in the most part of the
passage (58 times), while conjunction is used 15 times. On the other hand,
41
substitution and ellipsis are used only once. In reference, cohesive items that often
used are ‘the’, it is even used 5 times within a sentence (sentence 19).
In terms of grammatical cohesion, a good passage should consist of all
kinds of grammatical cohesion in balance manner. This passage only has one
substitution and one ellipsis, whereas there are potentials to make more. For
example:
The black goat then went back to the end of the bridge and let the white
goat pass the bridge first. (Sentence 19)
The sentence could be rephrased as follows:
The black goat then went back to the end of the bridge and let the white
one pass first.
In the above rephrased sentence, ‘one’ is a substitution for ‘goat’, while
the omission of ‘the bridge’ is considered as an ellipsis.
Table 4.3
Table of Grammatical Cohesion for Passage 2: The Ant and the Dove
Stc. No.
Number of
Devices
Cohesive Item
Reference Substitution Ellipsis Conjunction
Items Times Type Items Times Type Items Times Type Items Times Type
1 1 - 0
One hot day 1 C444
2 2 She 1 R12 After 1 C4413 3 The 1 R23 To reach 1 C323
She 1 R12 4 5 Her 1 R12 While 1 C411
She 1 R12 And 1 C111The 1 R23
5 3 The 1 R23 Because 1 C312She 1 R12
6 2 There 1 R22 Luckily 1 C2327 8 That 1 R22 Seeing 1 C341
The 4 R23 And 1 C111It 1 R13
8 4 The 2 R23 And 1 C111There 1 R22
9 3 It 1 R13 Soon 1 C442Her 1 R12
10 5 That 1 R22
Just at that time 1 C447
His 1 R11
42
Stc. No.
Number of
Devices
Cohesive Item
Reference Substitution Ellipsis Conjunction
Items Times Type Items Times Type Items Times Type Items Times Type
The 1 R23 It 1 R13
11 2 The 1 R23 He 1 R11
12 3 She 1 R12 Him 1 R11 The 1 R23
13 4 The 2 R23 Feeling 1 C341His 1 R11
14 2 The 1 R23 Her 1 R12
∑ 47 34 0 0 13
The above table shows that reference is used in the most part of the
passage (34 times), while conjunction is used 13 times. On the other hand, no
substitution or ellipsis is used. In reference, cohesive items that often used are
‘the’, it is even used 4 times within a sentence (sentence 7).
In terms of grammatical cohesion, a good passage should consist of all
kinds of grammatical cohesion in balance manner. This passage does not have
substitution and ellipsis, whereas there are potentials. For example:
Seeing that the ant was in trouble, the dove quickly plucked off a leaf and
dropped it into the water near the struggling ant. (Sentence 7)
The sentence could be rephrased as follows:
Seeing that, the dove quickly plucked off a leaf and dropped it into the
water near the struggling ant.
The above rephrased sentence is deleting ‘the ant was in trouble’ which
already stated in the previous context (sentence 5), and therefore can be
considered as an ellipsis.
43
Table 4.4
Table of Grammatical Cohesion for Passage 3: The Monkey and the Crocodile
Stc. No.
Number of
Devices
Cohesive Item
Reference Substitution Ellipsis Conjunction
Items Times Type Items Times Type Items Times Type Items Times Type
1 1 - 0 0 0 One day 1 C4442 6 He 2 R11 So 1 C311
The 2 R23 Him 1 R11
3 3 The 2 R23 Its 1 R13
4 3 Then 1 R22 The 2 R23
5 10 Now 1 R21 Now 1 C5 The 4 R23 So 1 C311It 2 R13 And 1 C111
6 1 My 1 R13 7 5 He 2 R11 Then 1 C451
The 1 R23 Then 1 R22
8 6 The 3 R23 Then 1 C451Then 1 R22 C451He 1 R11
9 5 I 1 R13 Because 1 C33My 1 R13 Me 1 R13 The 1 R23
10 3 I 1 R13 It 1 R13 The 1 R23
11 5 The 3 R23 So 1 C311 And 1 C111
12 7 They 1 R14
As soon as 1 C442
The 4 R23 And 1 C11113 2 Your 1 R13
The 1 R23 14 3 You 1 R13
The 2 R23 15 5 Now 1 R21 Now 1 C5
I 1 R13 And 1 C111You 1 R13
16 3 The 2 R23 Him 1 R11
17 1 The 1 R23 ∑ 69 55 0 0 14
The above table shows that reference is used in the most part of the
passage (55 times), while conjunction is used 14 times. On the other hand, no
44
substitution or ellipsis is used. In reference, cohesive items that often used are
‘the’, it is even used 4 times within a sentence (sentence 5 and sentence 12).
In terms of grammatical cohesion, a good passage should consist of all
kinds of grammatical cohesion in balance manner. This passage does not have
substitution and ellipsis, whereas there are potentials. For example:
So the crocodile turned around and swam back to the bank of the river.
(Sentence 11)
The sentence could be rephrased as follows:
So the crocodile turned around and swam back.
The above rephrased sentence is deleting ‘to the bank of the river’ which
already stated in the previous context (sentence 8), and therefore can be
considered as an ellipsis.
Table 4.5
Table of Grammatical Cohesion for Passage 4: Why are Cicadas Silent in Winter?
Stc. No.
Number of
Devices
Cohesive Item
Reference Substitution Ellipsis Conjunction
Items Times
Type Items Times Type Items Times Type Items Times Type
1 2 - 0 In the old days
1 C444
And 1 C1112 2 They 1 R14
Different 1 R33
3 3 The 2 R23 But 1 C2124 2 The 1 R23 In the
summer 1
C4445 5 They 2 R14
That 1 R22
The 1 R23
Their 1 R14
6 2 They 1 R14
The 1 R23
7 3 The 2 R23 While 1 C4118 2 They 1 R14 And 1 C111
9 4 They 2 R14 When 1 C411The 1 R23
10
2 The 1 R23 One day 1 C444 And 1 C111
11 2 They 1 R14
Their 1 R14
45
Stc. No.
Number of
Devices
Cohesive Item
Reference Substitution Ellipsis Conjunction
Items Times
Type Items Times Type Items Times Type Items Times Type
12 2 The 1 R23
My 1 R13
13 1 It 1 R13
14 2 Us 1 R14 And 1 C11115 2 The 1 R23
You 1 R13
16 3 You 2 R13 If 1 C3317 3 The 1 R23 But 1 C212
We 1 R14
18 2 We 2 R14 19 0 - 0
20 3 They 1 R14 And 2 C11121 4 The 2 R23 In the
winter 1
C444 And 1 C111
22 2 It 1 R13 And 1 C11123 2 The 1 R23 But 1 C21224 2 They 1 R14
The 1 R23
25 2 We 1 R14
You 1 R13
26 2 Now 1 R21 And 1 C111
27 5 The 2 R23 And 1 C111That 1 R22
Their 1 R14
28 5 The 1 R23 But 1 C212We 1 R14
Now 1 R21
It 1 R13
29 5 We 1 R14 If 1 C33
You 1 R13
There 1 R22
Us 1 R14
30 0 - 0
31 3 The 1 R23 And 1 C111Their 1 R14
32 5 The 3 R23 The next day
1 C411
Their 1 R14
33 6 We 1 R14 That's why
1 C33
The 2 R23 But 1 C212
They 1 R14
∑ 90 65 0 0 26
The above table shows that reference is used in the most part of the
passage (65 times), while conjunction is used 26 times. On the other hand, no
46
substitution or ellipsis is used. In reference, cohesive items that often used are
‘the’, it is even used 3 times within a sentence (sentence 32).
In terms of grammatical cohesion, a good passage should consist of all
kinds of grammatical cohesion in balance manner. This passage does not have
substitution and ellipsis, whereas there are potentials. For example:
While the ants worked hard, the cicadas didn’t do anything. (Sentence 7)
The sentence could be rephrased as follows:
While the ants worked hard, the cicadas didn’t.
The above rephrased sentence is deleting ‘do anything’ because the
above sentence has already been clear without adding ‘do anything’, and that
rephrasing also can make the passage become more cohesive. The rephrasing is
considered as an ellipsis.
Table 4.6
Table of Grammatical Cohesion for Passsage 5: Sura and Baya
Stc. No.
Number of
Devices
Cohesive Item
Reference Substitution Ellipsis Conjunction
Item Times Type Items Times Type Items Times Type Items Times Type
1 1 - 0 a long time ago
1 C444
2 1 - 0 and 1 C111
3 2 They 1 R14
The 1 R23
4 1 They 1 R14
5 3 They 2 R14 but 1 C212
6 2 They 1 R14
Their 1 R14
7 4 They 1 R14 and 1 C111
It 1 R13
Them 1 R14
8 1 It 1 R13
9 1 - 0 And 1 C111
10 1 - 0 suddenly 1 C13
11 2 This 1 R21
My 1 R13
12
13 2 This 1 R21
My 1 R13
14 1 You 1 R13
15 1 I 1 R13
47
Stc. No.
Number of
Devices
Cohesive Item
Reference Substitution Ellipsis Conjunction
Item Times Type Items Times Type Items Times Type Items Times Type
16 1 then 1 C451
And 1 C111
17 2 They 1 R14 After several hours
1 C442
18 1 Their 1 R14
19 1 I 1 R13
20 2 Me 1 R13 Me too
1 S24
21 1 We 1 R14
22 1 You 1 R13
23 2 I 1 R13 Do (have idea)
1 E21
24 1 Us 1 R14
Our 1 R14
25 5 I 2 R13 so 1 C311
The 2 R23
26 3 You 1 R13 And 1 C311
The 1 R23
27 3 You 1 R13 so 1 C311
The 1 R23
28 4 The 2 R23 so 1 C311
We 1 R14
29 1 You 1 R13
30 2 - 0 after 1 C442
finally 1 C462
31 4 They 1 R14 then 1 C451
The 1 R23
Different 1 R33
32 3 The 1 R23 but 1 C212
one day 1 C444
33 2 He 1 R11
The 1 R23
34 1 That 1 R22
35 2 Then 1 R22 then 1 C451
and 1 C311
36 1 They 1 R14
37 3 They 1 R14 because 1 C33
Them 1 R14
38 4 They 1 R14 and 1 C11
Them 1 R14 because 1 C33
39 1 The 1 R14
They 1 R14
40 3 Then 1 R22 and 1 C11
The 1 R23
41 6 They 1 R14 and 1 C11
Then 1 R22
48
Stc. No.
Number of
Devices
Cohesive Item
Reference Substitution Ellipsis Conjunction
Item Times Type Items Times Type Items Times Type Items Times Type
The 3 R23
∑ 83 60 1 1 25
The above table shows that reference is used in the most part of the
passage (60 times), while conjunction is used 25 times. On the other hand,
substitution and ellipsis are used only once. In the passage, cohesive items that
often used are ‘the’ (used 15 times) and ‘they’ (used 13 times). ‘The’ is even used
3 times within a sentence (sentence 41).
In terms of grammatical cohesion, a good passage should consist of all
kinds of grammatical cohesion in balance manner. This passage only has one
substitution and one ellipsis, whereas there are potentials. For example:
They would fight for it and never stop fighting until one of them gave up.
(Sentence 7)
The sentence could be rephrased as follows:
They would fight for it and never stop until one of them gave up.
The above rephrased sentence is deleting ‘fighting’ which already
appeared in the previous context in (sentence 7), and therefore can be considered
as an ellipsis.
Table 4.7
Table of Grammatical Cohesion for Passage 6: Lonely Landy
Stc. No.
Number of
Devices
Cohesive Item
Reference Substitution Ellipsis Conjunction
Item Times Type Items Times Type Items Times Type Items Times Type
1 2 There 1 R22 0 0 one day 1 C444
2 1 He 1 R11 0 0 0
3 5
Him 1 R11 One 1 S11 Because 1 C33
They 1 R14
His 1 R11
4 4
We 1 R14 Because 1 C33
You 1 R13
Your 1 R13
5
5
We 1 R14 one day 1 C444
You 1 R13
Us 1 R13
49
Stc. No.
Number of
Devices
Cohesive Item
Reference Substitution Ellipsis Conjunction
Item Times Type Items Times Type Items Times Type Items Times Type
The 1 R23
6 0 - 0 - 0 - 0 - 0
7 2 The 2 R23
8
3
I 1 R13
There 1 R22
My 1 R13
9 3 The 2 R23 suddenly 1 C13
10 3
He 1 R11 And 1 C111
You 1 R13
11 2 His 1 R11 Shortly 1 C481
12 1 His 1 R11
13 2
He 1 R11
You 1 R13
14 3
It 1 R13 But 1 C212
Your 1 R13
15
4
I 1 R13 And 1 C111
Your 1 R13
You 1 R13
16 2
They 1 R14
It 1 R13
17 1 Me 1 R13
18 2
You 1 R13
My 1 R13
19 4
The 1 R23 one day 1 C444
His 2 R11
20 2 - 0 Come (to the party)
1 E11 But 1 C212
21 2
He 1 R11
The 1 R23
22 2
I 1 R13
You 1 R13
23 2
I 1 R13
You 1 R13
24 2 The 1 R23 Finally 1 C462
25 1 The 1 R23
26 2 The 1 R23 suddenly 1 C13
27 1 Your 1 R13
28 4
Then 1 R22 Then 1 C451
Their 1 R14 And 1 C111
29 4 His 3 R11 And 1 C111
30 2 His 1 R11 And 1 C111
31 2 The 1 R23 Unintentionally 1 C13
32 2
The 1 R23
Him 1 R11
33 1 He 1 R11
34 3
His 1 R11 Since 1 C33
He 1 R11
50
Stc. No.
Number of
Devices
Cohesive Item
Reference Substitution Ellipsis Conjunction
Item Times Type Items Times Type Items Times Type Items Times Type
35 3
Then 1 R22 Then 1 C451
He 1 R11
36 2
He 1 R11
Her 1 R12
37
3
They 1 R14
Him 1 R11
Then 1 R22
38 0 - 0 0 0
∑ 89 67 1 1 20
The above table shows that reference is used in the most part of the
passage (89 times), while conjunction is used 20 times. On the other hand,
substitution and ellipsis are only used once. In reference, cohesive items that often
used are ‘the’ (12 times within the passage) and ‘his’ (10 times within the
passage). ‘His’ is even used 3 times within a sentence (sentence 29).
As in other reading passages, dominant types of grammatical cohesion
within the six narrative passages which had been analyzed is reference. However
there are some overly usages of the cohesion within the passage, as in below
example:
Kuku pulled his head and his legs into his shell. (Sentence 29)
The sentence could be rephrased as follows:
Kuku pulled his head and legs into his shell.
According to the writer, the rephrasing which has just been done does not
only make the sentence (sentence 29) become more cohesive because there is one
‘his’ omitting, but also become more interesting to read.
B. Discussion
Based on the aforementioned data analysis and interpretation, it could be
claimed that all kinds of grammatical cohesion devices exist in the six narrative
passages which have been analyzed. However, not all types of grammatical
cohesion devices exist in each passage. Complete types of grammatical cohesion
are only shown in passage 1, 5 and 6.
51
Although the devices are appropriately applied within the passages, the
results of this study are not aligned with Richards’ argument on characteristics of
a good textbook. According to him, a good textbook should provide effective
language models and input.1 Hence, the textbook is not included as a good
textbook since it does not provide good passages, in term of grammatical
cohesion. In short, good passages in term of grammatical cohesion could be
effective language models and input which could enrich students’ grammatical
form.
The results of this study are in line with 2 previous studies’ results. The
first study found is conducted by Fawziah. The study points out that from 6
analyzed passages; there are only 2 narrative passages which have complete kinds
of grammatical cohesion.2 Moreover, the second study found discloses that there
are no complete devices existed within 4 narrative passages which had been
analyzed. Furthermore, there are no ellipsis appeared within those passages.3
1 Jack C. Richards, Curriculum Development in Language Teaching, (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2001), p. 254. 2 Syifa Fawziah, “Grammatical Cohesion in Narrative Passages of English Textbook
‘English in Focus 2’ ”, Skripsi, (Jakarta: UIN Syarif Hidayatullah, 2013), not published. 3 Karimatul Rofikoh, “A Grammatical Cohesion Analysis of Reading Texts in ‘Get Along
with English’ Published by Erlangga”, Skripsi, (Jakarta: UIN Syarif Hidayatullah, 2013), not published.
52
CHAPTER V
CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS
In this chapter, the writer is about to present the conclusions based on the
findings and discussion in the prior chapter as well as offer suggestions for related
parties.
A. CONCLUSIONS
Referring to the findings and discussion in preceding chapter, some
points could be concluded from this study are as follows:
1. All types of grammatical cohesion i.e. reference, substitution, ellipsis and
conjunction exist in the six narrative passages of the English textbook
“Bright 2”.
2. Complete kinds of grammatical cohesion devices are only shown in
passage 1, 5 and 6.
3. Most of the devices are appropriately applied. Therefore cohesive
narrative passages are established. However the analyzed passages do not
expose all types of grammatical cohesion sufficiently and provide too
much highlights on one type, i.e reference (‘the’).
B. SUGGESTIONS
By revisiting the conclusions of this study, the writer offers some
suggestions regarding cohesion within narrative passages in an English textbook.
The suggestions are:
1. English teachers should consider the availability of cohesive devices when
selecting a textbook as a tool in their teaching learning activities. More
variations of cohesive device could enrich their students’ grammatical
forms well as their vocabularies.
2. Textbook authors and publishers should consider to provide more
variations in grammatical cohesion within an English textbook, and
53
avoiding typos, and also grammatical and punctuation errors to avoid
inaccurate interpretations for its readers.
3. Students should select good reading texts to expose them to effective
language models and input.
4. Other researchers could correlate the research with other aspect in
education such as students’ achievements, schools’ accomplishments,
teachers’ abilities and etc.
54
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Bamberg, Michael G.W. The Acquisition of Narratives: Learning to Use Language. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter &Co., 1987.
Browers, Roger and Christopher Brumfit (eds.). Applied Linguistics and English Language Teaching. London: MacMillan Publishers Limited, 1994.
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Cunningsworth, Alan. Choosing Your Coursebook. Oxford: Heinemann, 1995.
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Fawziah, Syifa. “Grammatical Cohesion in NarrativePassages of English Textbook ‘English in Focus2’ ”, Skripsi, Jakarta: UIN Syarif Hidayatullah, 2013, not published.
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Goatly, Andrew. Critical Reading and Writing; An Introductory Coursebook. New York: Routledge, 2000.
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Halliday, M.A.K and Ruqaiya Hasan. Cohesion in English. London: Longman Group, Ltd., 1976.
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http://www.studyenglishtoday.net/english_language.html.
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Meyer, Charles F. Introducing English Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
Mukarto, et al. English on Sky 2 for Junior High School Students Grade VIII. Jakarta: Penerbit Erlangga, 2007.
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APPENDIX 1
57
Summary of Grammatical Cohesion and Coding Scheme
Types Of Grammatical Cohesion Cohesive Devices Coding
REFERENCE R
1. Pronominals 1
(1) Singular, masculine He, him, his 11
(2) Singular, feminine She, her, hers 12
(3) Singular, neuter It, its, I, me, my, mine, you, your, yours
13
(4) Plural They, them, their, theirs, we, us, our, ours
14
2. Demonstratives and definite article 2
(1) Demonstrative, near This/these, here 21
(2) Demonstrative, far That/those, there, then 22
(3) Definite article The 23
3. Comparatives 3
(1) Identity same, identical (ly), equal 31
(2) Similarity similar (ly), such, additional, 32
(3) Difference different (ly), other different else, otherwise
33
(4) Comparison, quantity eg: more, less, as many; ordinals 34
(5) Comparison, quality eg: as+adjective; comparatives and superlatives
35
SUBSTITUTION S
1. Nominal substitutes 1
(1) For noun Head one/ones 11
(2) For nominal Complement the same 12
(3) For attribute so 13
2. Verbal substitutes 2
(1) For verb do, be, have 21
(2) For process do the same, likewise 22
(3) For proposition do so, be so 23
58
Types Of Grammatical Cohesion Cohesive Devices Coding
(4) Verbal reference do it/that, be it/that 24
3. Clausal substitutes 3
(1) Positive so 31
(2) Negative not 32
ELLIPSIS E
1. Nominal ellipsis 1
(1) Deictic as Head 11
(2) Numerative as Head 12
(3) Epithet as Head 13
2. Verbal ellipsis 2
(1) Lexical ellipsis (‘from right’) 21
(2) Operator ellipsis(‘from left’) 22
3. Clausal ellipsis 3
(1) Propositional ellipsis 31
(2) Modal ellipsis 32
(3) General ellipsis of the clause (all elements but one omitted)
33
(4) Zero (entire clause omitted) 34
CONJUNCTION C
1. Additive 1
(1) Simple 11
i. Additive And, and also 1
ii. Negative Nor, and…not 2
iii. Alternative or, or else 3
(2) Complex, emphatic 12
i. Additive Furthermore, add to that, in addition, besides
1
ii. Alternative Alternatively 2
(3) Complex, de-emphatic By the way, incidentally 13
(4) Apposition 14
59
Types Of Grammatical Cohesion Cohesive Devices Coding
i. Expository That is, in other words, I mean 1
ii. Exemplificatory Eg, thus, for instance 2
(5) Comparison 15
i. Similar Likewise, in the same way, similarly
1
ii. Dissimilar On the other hand, by contrast 2
2. Adversative 2
(1) Adversative ‘proper’ 21
i. Simple 1
ii. +’and’ But 2
iii. Emphatic However, even so, all the same, nevertheless, despite this
3
(2) Contrastive (avowal) In (point of) fact, actually, as a matter of fact
22
(3) Contrastive 23
i. Simple But, and 1
ii. Emphatic However, conversely, on the other hand, at the same time
2
(4) Correction 24
i. Of meaning Instead, on the contrary, rather 1
ii. Of wording At least, I mean, or rather 2
(5) Dismissal 25
i. Closed In any/either case, which ever way it is
1
ii. Open-ended In any case, anyhow, at any rate, however it is
2
3. Causal 3
(1) General 31
i. Simple So, then, therefore, hence 1
ii. Emphatic Consequently, because of this 2
(2) Specific 32
i. Reason On account of this, for this reason 1
ii. Result In consequence, as a result 2
60
Types Of Grammatical Cohesion Cohesive Devices Coding
iii. Purpose With this in mind, for the purpose 3
(3) Reversed causal For, because 33
(4) Causal, specific 34
i. Reason It follows, on this basis 1
ii. Result Arising out of this 2
iii. Purpose To this end 3
(5) Conditional 35
i. Simple Then 1
ii. Emphatic In that case, in such an event, that being so
2
iii. Generalized Under the circumstance 3
iv. Reversed polarity Otherwise, under the circumstance
4
(6) Respective 36
i. Direct In this respect, here, in this regard, with reference in this
1
ii. Reversed polarity Otherwise, apart from this, in other respects, aside from this
2
4. Temporal 4
(1) Simple 41
i. Sequential Then, next, after that 1
ii. Simultaneous Just then, at the same time 2
iii. Preceding Before that, hitherto, previously 3
(2) Conclusive In the end, finally, at last 42
(3) Correlatives 43
i. Sequential First…then 1
ii. Conclusive At first/ originally/formerly…finally/now
2
(4) Complex 44
i. Immediate At once, thereupon 1
ii. Interrupted Soon, after a time 2
iii. Repetitive Next time, on another occasion 3
iv. Specific Next day, an hour later 4
61
Types Of Grammatical Cohesion Cohesive Devices Coding
v. Durative Meanwhile 5
vi. Terminal Until then 6
vii. Punctiliar At this moment 7
(5) Internal temporal 45
i. Sequential Then, next, secondly 1
ii. Conclusive Finally, in conclusion 2
(6) Correlatives 46
i. Sequential First…next 1
ii. Conclusive In the first place…to conclude with, … finally
2
(7) Here and now 47
i. Past Up to now, hitherto 1
ii. Present At this point, here 2
iii. Future From now on, hence-forward 3
(8) Summary 48
i. Summarizing To sum up, in short, briefly 1
ii. Resumptive To resume, to return to the point 2
5. Other (‘continuative’) Now, of course, well, anyway,
5
Notes:
C = Conjunction
S = Substitution
R = Reference
E = Elipsis
62 APPENDIX 2
Reading Passage 1 - Two Goats
1Once upon a time, there lived two goats, a white goat and a black goat.| 2The white goat lived on the west mountain, and the black goat lived in the east
mountain.|
3Every morning, the white goat went down the hill.| 4He crossed a narrow
bridge to go to the east mountain.| 5He liked the grass there.| 6Every morning, the
black goat went down the hill too.| 7He crossed the narrow bridge to go the west
mountain.| 8He liked the grass there.|
9One morning, the two goats crossed the bridge at the same time.| 10They
met at the middle of the bridge.| 11The bridge was so narrow.| 12There was no
room for both them.|
13“Go back!” yelled the black goat to the white goat.| 14But the white goat
didn’t want to go back.|
15“You, go back!” yelled him back to the black goat.|
16No one wanted to go back.| 17They were about to start a fight, when
suddenly the black goat realized that they were two in danger.| 18The river below
the bridge was deep.|
19The black goat then went back to the end of the bridge, and let the
white goat pass the bridge first.| 20After that, he passed the bridge and went up the
hill to eat the grass.|
21In the afternoon, they met again at the different ends of the bridge.| 22This time, they took turn crossing the bridge.|
63 APPENDIX 3
Reading Passage 2 - The Ant and the Dove
1One hot day, an ant was searching for some water.| 2After walking
around for some time, she came to a spring.|
3To reach the spring, she had to climb up a blade of grass.| 4While
making her way up, she slipped and fell into the water.|
5The ant was in a big trouble because she could not swim.| 6Luckily,
there was a dove nearby.| 7Seeing that the ant was in trouble, the dove quickly
plucked off a leaf and dropped it into the water near the struggling ant.| 8The ant
moved towards the leaf and climbed up there.| 9Soon it carried her safely to dry
ground.|
10Just as that time, a hunter nearby was throwing out his net towards the
dove, hoping to trap it.| 11The ant knew what he was about to do.| 12She quickly bit
him on the heel.| 13Feeling the pain, the hunter dropped his net.| 14The dove
quickly flew away to save her life.|
64 APPENDIX 4
Reading Passage 3 - The Monkey and the Crocodile
1One day a monkey wanted to cross a river.| 2He saw a crocodile in the
river so he asked the crocodile to help him.| 3The crocodile told the monkey to
jump onto its back.| 4Then the crocodile swam down the river.|
5Now the crocodile was very hungry so when it was in the middle of the
river it stopped and said to the monkey,| 6“Monkey, my father is very sick.| 7He
must eat the heart of a monkey, then he will be strong again.”|
8The monkey thought for a while then he told the crocodile to swim back
to the river bank.|
9“Because I didn’t bring my heart with me,” said the monkey,| 10“I left it
under the tree near some coconuts”|
11So the crocodile turned around and swam back to the bank of the river.| 12As soon as they reached the river bank, the monkey jumped off the crocodile’s
back and climbed up to the top of a tree.| 13“Where is your heart?” asked the
crocodile.| 14“You are foolish,” the monkey said to the crocodile,| 15“Now, I am
free and you have nothing.”| 16The monkey told the crocodile not to try to trick
him again.| 17The crocodile swam away hungry|
65 APPENDIX 5
Reading Passage 4 - Why are Cicadas Silent in Winter?
1In the old days, ants and cicadas were friends.| 2They were very
different.| 3The ants were hardworking, but the cicadas were lazy.|
4In the summer, the ant families were very busy.| 5They knew that in the
winter they would have to stay in their anthill.| 6They wanted to have enough food
for the whole winter.| 7While the ants worked hard, the cicadas didn’t do
anything.| 8They sang and danced all day.| 9When they were hungry, they could
fly to the farm and get something to eat.|
10One day, the cicadas were singing and dancing.| 11They saw a long line
of ants bring food to their anthill.| 12The cicadas said, “Stop, my silly friends.| 13It’s a very nice day.| 14Come and dance with us.”| 15The ants said, “Don’t you
know about winter?| 16If you don’t work now you’ll have trouble later.”|
17But the cicadas said, “We have strong wings.| 18We can fly anywhere
we want.| 19Stupid ants.”| 20And they continued to sing and dance.|
21In the winter, it rained and snowed all the time and it was very cold.| 22In the anthill, there were singing and dancing.| 23But the cicadas had nothing to
eat.| 24They asked the ants for some food.| 25The ants said, “We thought you could
fly anywhere.| 26Now who is stupid and silly?”|
27The cicadas cried and said that their wings were wet from the rain.| 28The ants said, “We’re sorry, but now it’s too late.| 29If we help you, there won’t
be enough food for us.| 30Sorry, very sorry.”| 31And the ants closed their door.|
32The next day, when the ants opened their door, all the cicadas were
dead!| 33That’s why we can hear cicadas in the summer, but in the winter they are
silent.|
66 APPENDIX 6
Reading Passage 5 - Sura and Baya
1A long time ago in East Java lived two strong animals, Sura and Baya.| 2Sura was a shark and Baya was a crocodile.| 3They lived in the sea.| 4Actually,
they were friends.| 5But when they were hungry, they were very greedy.| 6They
did not want to share their food.| 7They would fight for it and never stop fighting
until one of them gave up.|
8It was a very hot day.| 9Sura and Baya were looking for some food.| 10Suddenly, Baya saw a goat.|
11”Yummy, this is my lunch,” said Baya.|
12“No way!| 13This is my lunch.| 14You are greedy!| 15I had not eaten for
two days!” said Sura.|
16Then Sura and Baya fought again.| 17After several hours, they got very
tired.| 18Sura had a plan to stop their bad behavior.|
19“I’m tired of fighting, Baya,” said Sura.|
20“Me too.| 21What should we do to stop fighting?| 22Do you have any
idea?” asked Baya.|
23“Yes, I do.| 24Let’s share our territory.| 25I live in the water, so I look for
food in the sea.| 26And you live on the land, right?| 27So, you look for the food also
on the land.| 28The boarder is the beach, so we will never meet again.| 29Do you
agree?” asked Sura.|
30After thinking for a while, Baya finally agreed with Sura’s suggestion.| 31Then they started living in the different places.|
32But one day, Sura broke the promise.| 33He was roaming on the land
trying to find food.| 34Baya was very angry to see that.| 35Then Sura and Baya
fought again.| 36They both hit each other.| 37They fought days because both of
them were strong animals.| 38They fought and fought until both of them died
because of tiredness.|
67
39The place where they were fighting was a mess.| 40People then always
talked about the fight between Sura and Baya.| 41They then named the place
‘Surabaya’, from Sura the shark and Baya the crocodile.|
68 APPENDIX 7
Reading Passage 6 - Lonely Landy
1One day, there was a porcupine named Landy.| 2He was lonely.| 3No one
wanted to play with him, because they were afraid of his spike.|
4“Dear Landy. We don’t want to play with you because your spikes are
too sharp.| 5We don’t want you to hurts us,” said Cici the rabbit one day.| 6Landy
felt lonely.| 7Landy spent most of the time day dreaming at the river bank.| 8“I
would be happy if there were no spikes on my body.”|
9Suddenly, Kuku the turtle appeared from the river.| 10He came to Landy
and said, “Landy, what are you thinking of?”|
11Shortly, Landy told his problem.| 12Kuku nodded his head.| 13He said,
“Poor you.| 14But it isn’t your fault.| 15I know, your spikes are very useful and
helpful for you.| 16They will realize it someday.| 17Trust me!”|
18“Thanks, Kuku. You are my best friend.”|
19One day, Koko the frog invited all his friends, including Landy, to
come to his party.| 20But Landy decided not to come.| 21He didn’t want to mess up
the party.|
22“I’ll come with you Landy.| 23I’ll tell everyone that you’re harmless,”
said Kuku.| 24Finally Landy attended the party.| 25Everyone enjoyed the party.| 26Suddenly Tito screamed, “Help… help...! The evil wolf is coming.| 27Save
yourself!”| 28Then, everyone saved their lives except Kuku and Landy.| 29Kuku
pulled his head and his legs into his shell.| 30And Landy rolled his body into a
ball.|
31Unintentionally the evil wolf touched Landy.| 32Of course, the spike
pricked him.| 33He screamed, “Ouch!”| 34Since his foot was bleeding, he didn’t
chase Landy’s friends any longer.| 35Then, he ran away.|
36“Hooray… hooray…! Long live Landy! He saved our lives,” said Cici
and her friends.| 37They thanked him from then on.| 38Landy wasn’t lonely
anymore.
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