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A microenvironmental study of an archaeologicalsite, Arizona BB: 10:3, Whiptail Ruin
Item Type text; Thesis-Reproduction (electronic)
Authors Lytle, Jamie Laverne, 1946-
Publisher The University of Arizona.
Rights Copyright © is held by the author. Digital access to this materialis made possible by the University Libraries, University of Arizona.Further transmission, reproduction or presentation (such aspublic display or performance) of protected items is prohibitedexcept with permission of the author.
Download date 19/01/2021 05:55:21
Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10150/557262
A MICROENVIRONMENTAL STUDY OF
AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE, ARIZONA BB:10:3, V/HIPTAIL RUIN
byJamie Laverne Lytle
A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of the
COMMITTEE ON GEOCHRONOLOGY
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE
In the Graduate College
THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA
1 9 7 1
STATEMENT BY AUTHOR
This thesis has been submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for an advanced degree at The University of Arizona and is deposited in the University Library to be made available to borrowers under rules of the Library.
Brief quotations from this thesis are allowable without special permission, provided that accurate acknowledgment of source is made. Requests for permission for extended quotation from or reproduction of this manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by the head of the major department or the Dean of the Graduate College when in his judgment the proposed use of the material is in the interests of scholarship. In all other instances, however, permission must be obtained from the author.
APPROVAL BY THESIS DIRECTOR
This thesis has been approved on the date shown below:
PREFACE
This thesis was originally proposed as a micro-environmental study of an archaeological site. After investigating various research
techniques, stratigraphy, paleontology, emission spectroscopy, and palynology, it was postulated that the best method for the interpre
tation of the paleoenvironment in this site was palynology.
It is hoped that conclusions formed in this research will:
(l) encourage further use of palynology in Hohokam sites, and (2)
stimulate investigation into and testing of other palynological tech
niques not presently used in archaeology.
I wish to thank my advisors, Dr. Arthur Jelinek, Dr. Richard
Reeves, and especially Professor Terah L. Smiley, my Thesis Director,
for their continued encouragement, criticism, and guidance of this
thesis. Thanks are also extended to Dr. Paul Grebinger (Herbert
Lehman College, Mew York) and Mr. Bruce Bradley (Arizona State Museum,
Arizona) for furnishing their information, time, and energy, and the
pollen samples, and to Miss Sharon Urban and the Arizona State Museum
for access to the site and to artifacts from the site. Thanks for
aid in laboratory techniques and pollen identification are due
Drs. Paul S. Martin and Allen Solomon, and Messrs. James King and
Gerald Kelso (all of The University of Arizona). Suggestions, com
munications and criticisms were forthcoming from Drs. Paul S. Martin,
Allen Solomon, Professor Terah L. Smiley, Messrs. King and Adam
ill
iv
(Department of Geosciences, University of Arizona), Dr. J, Rodney
Hastings (Department of Atmospheric Physics, University of Arizona),
Dr. Emil W. Haury and Mr. Gerald Kelso (Department of Anthropology,
University of Arizona), Dr. David Hendrichs (Department of Agricul
tural Chemistry and Soils) Dr. Charles T. Mason (Herbarium, University
of Arizona) and Dr. David Adam (Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research,
University of Arizona) and from individuals too numerous to acknowledge
individually. The diagrams are by Miss Judith Mikevich.
The positive worth of this thesis is due in large part to the
above mentioned people, any misconceptions or erroneous information
are my own
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS........ .. ............... . vii
LIST OF TABLES . ............... '....................... viii
A B S T R A C T ............................................... ix
1. INTRODUCTION ........................................... 1
Research Before 1950 ............................... 2Research After 1 9 5 0 ............................... 3
2. THE HOHOKAM . . . . ..................................... 7
3. WKIPTAIL RUIN, ARIZONA BB:10:3 ......................... 11
.... Archaeology and the Present Environment............ 11
In RESEARCH AT WHIFTAIL R U I N ............................... 19
Postulated Research............................... . 19Palynological Study................................. 20Sampling Methods and Method of Extraction ........ . 22
Archaeological Samples ......................... 23Stratigraphic Samples ........................... 2UModern S a m p l e s .................. 25Wash Sample............ 25
Interpretation of Pollen Counts . . . . . . . . . . . 26Pollen Groups . . . . . . ........................... 30
Cheno-ams.................................... 30Corapositae.................................... 31Tidestromia.................. 32Quercus......................................... 35T C T ............................................. 35Firms........................................... 35Salix (willow) and Sparganlum-type ............. 38Cylindropuntia . ......................... 39Unidentified Pollen . . . . ..................... UOCultigens ....................... liO
Page
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS— Continued
Page
INTERPRETATION OF PRESEITT D A T A ............ .............. 1*2
House 1 9 ............................................. h2House 2 3 ......................................... .. . h3
6. POLLEN, ENVIRONMENT, AND CLIMATE........................ h$
7. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . ............................. . #APPEI'IDIX A: GLOSSARY OF BOTANICAL TERMS................ 57
LIST OF REFERENCES.................... 60
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
1. U,S. Geological Survey map of Bellota Ranch quadrangle . 13
2. Pollen samples from houses ............................. 27
3. Pollen samples from stratigraphic sections ............ 28
It, Pollen samples inside vessels ..................... .. , 29
Figure Page
vii
LIST OF TABLES
1. Number of pollen grains found in rooms from WhiptailR u i n ................................................. 36
2. Number of grains found in stratigraphic columns inmodern samples and in wash sample from WhiptailR u i n .......................................... 37
Table Page
viii
ABSTRACT
In this thesis, originally proposed as a micro-environmental
study of an archaeological site, Whiptail, Arizona BB:10:3, Pima County, Arizona, the technique postulated to be the most effective
for the interpretation of the paleoenvironment of the site is paly- nology.
Nineteen samples out of 1^0 collected from the rooms during
excavation were extracted and counted. In addition the author col
lected 18 samples from two stratigraphic columns in the rooms. These
samples were also extracted and counted. Two surface samples and one
sample from a wash were collected, extracted, and counted to be used
as control samples. A total of LtO samples were used in this study.
No trends or clusterings are present in the samples from the
rooms. Changes in the stratigraphic column are attributed to a rise in the local water table, the beginning of grazing, or some other unknown localized factor. No climatic change is postulated. Modern
surface samples demonstrate the effect of variations in vegetation on the local pollen rain in a small area.
It is concluded that with the methods presently used in paly-
nology in Southwestern archaeological sites like Whiptail Ruin quan
titative interpretations of the paleoenvironment are not feasible due
to cultural effects on the pollen rain. New palynological methods
which should be tested are suggested.
ix
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
There can be no present without a past, no future without both. That which is is only comprehensible in terms of what was. That which was may explain that which is, but cannot predict that which will be (KcIIarg 1969: $2).
The problem given to this generation is not just to prepare
to cope with the future, but to determine if they are to have any
future at all. Environmentalists are now searching for a way to live
with nature, not to conquer it. Many anthropologists postulate that
"primitive" man's relationship with nature was quite different from
our own. Environmentalists and anthropologists wish to know more
about this relationship. How was man affected by nature, by his en
vironment? How did man affect his environment? The ultimate goal of
paleoenvironmental research in archaeology is to explore the relation
ship between primitive man and his environment. The present goal is
to discover that environment and to make inferences about the
relationship where possible. By applying this research to present
problems and using the information to re-educate the populace we still
may not be able to predict the future, but at least we may ensure that
there will be a future and at best we may help direct it.
Environmental studies of archaeological sites have, with a few
exceptions, not been prevalent in the Southwest until the last two
1
2decades. This movement towards environmental research is due partially
to the introduction of new methods and the refinement of old, but
primarily to the increased interest on the part of archaeologists and
environmental scientists alike. Today the questions asked in archae
ology are not just what cultures lived here, what did they make, and
when, but how did they live, what was their relationship with their
environment? Interest in these types of Questions has increased dra
matically in the past few years. Certainly new methods are available
and knowledge of old and new methods more widespread, but, especially
with the coming generation of archaeologists, the interest has been
spurred by the increased awareness and recognition of the possibility
that in the future man will be unable to live with the environmental
waste that he has created.
Research Before 1950
Prior to the 19$0's there is little information on environment
in archaeological reports in the Southwest other than several brief
descriptions of the present geography and vegetation of a particular
region. Some few exceptions include stratigraphic and paleoclimatic
interpretations in Sayles* and Antovs1 (I9bl) classic paper, Cochise
Culture, and stratigraphic, paleoclimatic, botanic, and zoologic re
search in Haury and Others (195)0), The Stratigraphy and Archaeology
of Ventana Cave. The pioneering work of Douglas in dendrochronology
and stratigraphic studies by Antevs (I9li8) opened the question of the
Indian and climate, specifically the climate during the "Great
Drought," to anthropologists. Bryan was as closely aligned to
3archaeology as was Antevs. Bryan's research (I9lil) includes relating Indian agriculture to periods of alluviation and correlating the stra
tigraphy and archaeology of Ventana Cave (1950). Hack (I9b2) worked
with the problem of environmental change and its effect on modern
Indians, as well as with paleoenvironments. Studies in botany were
conducted by Deevey (l9bb) and Carter (I9b5)> and Sears attempted
pollen analysis of Southwestern archaeological sites (Sayles and
Antevs 19bl).
Research After 1950
After 1950 an increased recognition of the importance of inter
disciplinary studies combining geology, geography, biology and
geochronology (including.palynology) with archaeology is noted. The
pioneering work of Antevs (Sayles and Antevs 19hl; Antevs 19lt8) and
Bryan (1950) in stratigraphy has been continued by geologists, espe
cially those involved with early man sites. Dr. C. Vance Haynes, Jr. (I96I1, 1968), a geologist, is one of the foremost archaeologists dealing with early man in America. His work at Murray Springs is
exemplary in its use of stratigraphy, palynology, and paleontology in
attempting to gain knowledge of paleo-Indian and his association with
the animals and the environment. Eddy (1958) and Schoenwetter and
Eddy (I96U) have added combined alluvial and palynological studies of more recent paleo-Indian sites. Investigations by Antevs (1952, 1955,
1962) into arroyo-cutting and their paleoclimatic implications while
not directly associated with archaeological excavations are certainly applicable to them.
hIn dendrochronology previous work has been refined by Schulman
(1956), Fritts (1965), and others. Present research in dendroclima-
tology, the science which studies the climatic imnlications of tree- rings, at the Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research .of The University of
Arizona may be able to answer many Questions concerning climatic
change and the Indians.Prior to 1950 botanical remains in archaeological contexts
were identified, but little interpretation was made beyond the assump
tion that the Indians were using the vegetal material in some way*
Theoretical research involving plant geography and distribution of
cultivated plants was conducted (Carter 19h5) and has been continued
by Kaplan (1956), Cutler and Whitaker (1961), and others, More care
is taken in the collection and identification of botanical remains
from sites (Cutler 196h; Bohrer, Cutler and Sauer 1969). Especially
indicative of present research in paleobotany is Bohrer*s analysis of
plant material from Snaketown (1970). In this paper she not only
identifies the vegetal remains, but also hypothesizes man-acricultural and man-environmental associations.
One of the techniques used most prolifically in the recon
struction of the paleoenvironment of archaeological sites is paly-
nology. Research in this field has been so great that it is possible
to mention only a few studies. Most of the pollen samples collected
have been used to interpret the environment and climatic change
(Schoenwetter 1962, 1967} Martin 1963; Hevly 196!i; Schoenwetter and
Eddy 196)4; Mehringer and Haynes 1965} Mehringer, Martin and Haynes
51967; Bohrer 1968). Some of this research has dealt with the effect that man has on the vegetation and the resulting pollen rain in a site
(Martin and Byers 1969; Jelinek 1966). Newer areas have been opened
in the analysis of human coprolites (Martin and Sharrock 196h; Kelso
in press) and in room function studies (Hill and Hevly 1968). Because
the association of palynology and archaeology in the Southwest is relatively recent, re-evaluation of previous research and;interpreta
tions are both expected and sought. One such re-examination has been
presented by Kelso (manuscript in preparation) and a similar dis
cussion will be presented in this paper.
Paleontological research started with the simple identification
of bones and other faunal remains collected during the excavation of
a site. Present research involves paleoclimatic and cultural inter
pretation of the associated fauna (Lance 1999; Stein 1963; Lundelius
196b; Guilday 196?), as well as environmental reconstructions of the
relationship between man and animals (Saunders 1970).
Interpretations of paleoclimatology are based mainly on inferences of stratigraphic, palynologic, or dendrochronologic evidence.
This includes the previously mentioned work of Antevs (1992, 1999,
1962), Schulman (1996), Martin (1963), Hevly (196b), Schoenwetter and
Eddy (196b), Fritts (1969), and Mehringer (1967), as well as other
papers more directly involved in paleoclimatology and the paleo-Indian
(Aschmann 1998; Sears and Roosma 1961; Smiley 1961; Woodbury and
Ressler 1962; Leopold, Leopold and Wendorf 1963; and Woodbury 1963). Sadly lacking in this enumeration is research by meteorologists and
6
climatologists. There is a communication gap between archaeologists
and meteorological researchers which must be closed in the future if "
any accurate analysis is to be made of paieoclimatic changes and their
relationship to cultural change.
Areas of research which have been initiated recently or only
superficially explored are total environmental studies and emission spectroscopy. Sabels at Rampart Cave (Martin, Sabels and Shutler
1961) performed an emission spectroscopic analysis of sloth dung to
determine if minerals essential for its existence were present in the
plants which the animal ate. Such studies of trace elements have not
to my knowledge been used in archaeological sites. Total environmental
analysis of archaeological sites is a new area which encompasses a
number of fields. It is especially necessary in sites located in the
desert for the desert is an area of extremes in which environmental
conditions can vary within a few hundred meters. Excavations in
early man sites in the Southwest are making more use of total environ
mental investigations than are other areas of Southwestern archaeology.
Unfortunately, the knowledge of the types of research available and
their limitations is not widespread enough among archaeologists for
research in these fields to reach their full potential in archaeology.
CHAPTER 2
THE HQHOKAM
The Pima and Papago Indians of Arizona named those people who previously inhabited their land the Hohokam. The term means "the
ancient ones" or "those who have gone." The Hohokam lived on the
river floodplains and the deserts of central and southern Arizona.
Their culture included the knowledge of copper and etching, irrigation
and agriculture. Their contacts spread from Mexico to California and
beyond. They may have been the descendants of the early hunters and
gatherers-of the Cochise culture, or, as now hypothesized by Dr, Emil
Haury (personal communication) immigrants from Mexico, It is possible
that their descendants are the modern Pima and Papago Indians of
Arizona. The Hohokam were farming the terraces of the Gila and Salt
rivers in Arizona by A.D. 1, but had vanished or become unrecognizable
by the time Columbus reached the New World. Coronado and his men noted
the ruins of the Hohokam (Nunez Cabeza de Vaca V?h2) and Father Kino
named the most conspicuous adobe structure Casa Grande .(Fewkes 1912).
The first excavations of Hohokam sites took place around the turn of
the 19th century (Mindeleff 1896j Fewkes 1912). The culture was
defined in the 1930*s in the classic report (Gladwin and others 1937) on the excavation at Snaketown, a Hohokam village south of Phoenix.
Since the time of the original definition the culture has been divided
7
8
into Riverine and Desert subcultures (Haury and others 195>0). Various
excavations (Haury 1932; Hayden 1957? Johnson 196b; Wasley and Johnson
196$) of Hohokam sites have been continued, but feu of them have
included a full environmental study. This omission has been due
partly to the lack of initiative and money, but also to the inability
of the excavators to find environmental indicators. One study on soil
was conducted by el Zur (1957) to ascertain if the emigration of the
Indians from the sites was caused by mineral depletion of the soil.
The basic assumption of this research was that the soil on the flood-
plain at Snaketown at the time of the study was the same soil the
Hohokam had farmed hundreds of years ago. The validity of this
assumption was accepted and never discussed, yet, the assumption may
not be tenable. Rain and sheetwash cause weathering and erosion of
the soil. Deposition and erosion of sediment on river terraces occurs
during each flood. It appears unlikely that the sediment on the
terraces of the Gila River has remained unchanged for so many years.
If the basic assumption is not valid then the conclusions of the soil
study are irrelevant to the problem of Hohokam emigration.
The most recent thorough excavation of a Hohokam site was
completed in the mid-I9601s by Dr. Emil Haury. Radiocarbon, palynolo-
gic, paleobotanic, and paleontologic investigations were included in
this re-excavation of Snaketown. Though preliminary reports have been
published (Haury 1965, 1967; Bohrer 1970), the complete analysis of
the excavation may take years to assemble (Haury, personal communication 1970).
9There are four basic periods in the Hohokam culture (Gladwin
and others 1937). The first, the Pioneer period, began at least as
early as the Christian era and possibly hundreds of years before
(Haury 196?). The early pottery is undistinguishable from that of
the early Mogollon, but unique features such as cremation, mosaics,
shell work, irrigation, and carved, stone figurines, were present.
About A.D. 5>00 during the Colonial period new influences (Anasazi,
Mogollon, or Mexican?) contributed to change the Hohokam culture.
The transitional phase between the Colonial period and the Early
Sedentary period, c. A.D. 900, formed the peak of the culture. Hoho
kam artifacts included stone paint palettes whose borders were carved
with geometrical designs or stylized animals, and beautifully carved
stone incense burners (?) and figurines. Finely etched shells, some
inlaid with turquoise and other semi-precious stones were made by
their craftsmen. Irrigation canals totaled many miles in length at
Snaketown. By the end of the Sedentary period (c. A.D. 1100-11^0) the
decline in culture had already started (Wasley and Johnson 196£: 80).
(At this time) a radical change seems to have occurred. Sites which were occupied for as long as several hundred years were abandoned, and new villages were established closer to the river, on the floodplains or on the edge of the first terrace . . . a change in agricultural techniques may be inferred from this change in village location. . . . The abandonment of sites . . . the absence of any evidence for the later occupation of these sites, and the lack of definite evidence for Classic-period canal systems in the Painted Rocks Reservoir, all indicate that reliance must have shifted from canal irrigation to some other types of farming and irrigation.
Haury, however (personal communication 1971) states that the total
length of the canals near Snaketown increased during the next period.
10
Such apparent contradiction demonstrates the state of knowledge about the Hohokam today. Opinions and interpretations change as new excava
tions are conducted and new evidence found.
The Classic period, A.D. 1100 to lltOO, featured a continued
decline of the fine arts and culture. An increased influence from
other peoples is apparent, and, inevitably, the Hohokam culture lost its unique identity. There appear to be instead a number of small
sub-units of culture, each slightly different (Bradley, personal com
munication 1969), Identifiable evidence of the Hohokam disappears c. A.D. IbOO-lliSO.
CHAPTER 3
WHIPTAIL RUIN, ARIZONA BB:10:3
Archaeology and the Present Environment
During the years 1968 to 1970 Paul Grebinger, a former graduate
student, and Bruce Bradley, a former undergraduate student, both in
the Department of Anthropology at The University of Arizona, were in
charge of the excavation of Whiptail Ruin, Arizona BB:10:3 on the
Arizona State Museum survey maps. The site, which encompasses 100 to
2f>0 acres of land, is located in the foothills of the Santa Catalina
mountains, IIO^LL*W longitude, 32°17,H latitude, in the NE - NW-ij- Section
29 T.13S R,16E of the Bellota Ranch quadrangle, Arizona, U.S.G.S, 1£>
minute series. Whiptail Ruin is a quasi-Hohokam site of the Classic
period which is different from contemporary sites in the Tucson Basin
and unlike other ruins previously described (Grebinger, personal com
munication 1969). The ruins in the site are adobe and slant walled
Tanque Verde phase structures with hypothesized adobe walled storage
structures. All of the houses were burned. Whether the destruction
of the houses resulted in abandonment of the site or the site was
burned when it was abandoned (ceremonial burning?) was not determined,
The site has been dated with extrapolated dendrochronological
dates of post-A.D. 1275 and pre-A.D. 1350. Re-analysis of dates in
this area is planned by the Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research of The University of Arizona,
11
12The site is located about one half mile from the Agua Caliente
Ranch east of Old Soldiers' Trail 15-6/10 miles northeast of The
University of Arizona, Tucson, at an elevation of 2728 feet (Fig. 1).
It is in a cul de sac formed by the Santa Catalina mountains to the
northeast, Agua Caliente Hill to the east, and the Rincon mountains to the southeast.
Geologically, Whiptail Ruin is situated on terrace gravel
which has been correlated, with the Jaynes terrace gravel by Pashley
(1966). Of the origin of the Jaynes terrace he says (1966: 136),
"During Jaynes erosion and deposition, Rillito Creek occupied, a new,
lower, and more northerly flood plain, which is marked today by the
position of the Jaynes terrace, and cut into its bank forming an ero-
sional scarp." North-northeast of the site lies Agua Caliente Wash
which is composed of quaternary alluvium. The alluvium consists of
coarse gneissic gravel with large gneissic and granitic cobbles and
boulders. The Santa Catalina mountains, Agua Caliente Hill, and the
Rincon mountains are composed of the Catalina Gneiss which was formed
by late Cretaceous or early Tertiary to mid-Tertiary intrusions, meta
morphism, folding, and faulting. The gneiss has been dated at 2b.9 my
and 29.5 my (Pashley 1966). The formation has been briefly described
(Pashley 1966) as ranging from granitic-gneiss and gneissic-granite
to intruded, banded gneiss. Though areas within the gneiss have not
been defined or described the gneiss grades in places into units of micaceous schists and fine-grained granites.
T 13S
470 000
3 2 * 15'1 10 *4 5 '
SCALE 1:625001 i 0 I 2 3 4 MILES* H K-r , 4 , -f- L-l -T - TT .... .......... .....!■- - --- ■■■■-.■■ ■: --i------ ... ... ,
Figure 1. U.S. Geological Survey map of Bellota Ranch quadrangle
IllSoil on the site and in the area has not actually been mapped
but can be correlated with descriptions of soil compiled by the
National Cooperative Soil Survey (Hendricks, personal communication
1971). The Palos Verdes series which consists of gravelly sand loam may be correlated with the terrace area on which the Whiptail Ruin
reposes. The small wash traversing the site could be part of the Anthony series of sandy loam. The Agua Caliente Wash is best corre
lated with the Arizo series, described as gravelly fine sand which
may contain 35 to 75 percent gravel, as much as 25 percent cobble
stones, and up to 10 percent stones. Until more mapping and research
is done in the area these correlations should be considered tentative.
The area is in a marginal arid to semi-arid climate which is
highly influenced by the terrain. The precipitation in the Tucson
Basin as measured at The University of Arizona meteorological station
averages 10.91 inches, almost half of which occurs during the summer
months of June, July, and August (Green and Sellers 196U). The
average maximum temperature is 82.9°F, the average minimum, 5l.6°F.
The average mean temperature for the basin is 67.3°F, Extreme tem
peratures recorded for the period 1895 to 1962 range from 115°F in
June I960, to 6°F in January 1913, Freezing temperatures generally
start around November 19 and end March 19. The amount of time between
freezes would allow a long growing season for plants the Indians may
have cultivated.
Because much of the pollen found in sediments is contributed
by wind-pollinating plants, knowledge of the prevailing wind and wind
patterns is desired for interpretation of the regional environment.
The prevailing wind direction as measured at The University of Arizona
meteorological station varies during a 2h hour period from SSE (9:00
p,m. to 12:00 a.m.) to WNW (12:00 a.m. to 9:00 p.m,, Green and Sellers
1961:). This direction may be locally different due to thermals and
downdrafts, and the surrounding topography. The topography in which
Whiptail Ruin is located most certainly affects the winds in the site.
The Rincon Mountains southeast of the site may negate much of the
normal wind pattern of the basin. Air drainage and downdrafts asso
ciated with mountain valleys will also have an effect. The total
result of the various factors cannot be predicted. The wind pattern
and prevailing wind direction in the site remain unknown.
The present vegetation of the area is dominated by a creosote-
bush-/Larrea tridentata (DC.) CovilleT- bursage (Franseria dumosa Gray)
association with many saguaros /Garnegiea gigantea (Engelm.) Britt,
and Rose//, various prickly pear and cholla (Opuntia spp. and cylindro-
puntia), and a ground cover of the family types Chenopodiaceae,
Amaranthaceae, and Gramineae. Gray-thorn (Condalia lyciodes Gray)
Mormon tea (Ephedra sp.), desert hackberry (Celtis pallida Torr.),
mesquite /Prosopis juliflora (Swartz) DC.7> and blue paloverde
(Cercidium floridum Benth.) grow near the wash which traverses the site.
About a quarter of a mile north of the site is a warm spring
for which the wash, the ranch, and the hill were named. The spring
was dammed by man in the early 1900*s and now forms a lake. The
present vegetation around the lake includes willow (Salix sp.), cattail
16
(Typha sp.), and other aquatic species of plants. Evidence of man both
prehistoric and historic is present in the numerous pot sherds and
sun-colored glass near the lake. The various peoples were probably
using the spring as a watering hole. Since willow pollen and Typha-
like pollen are present in the samples from the site and reeds were
found in rooms during the excavation of the site, the spring was
probably in existence when the Hohokam were living at Whiptail. Before
the spring was dammed the vegetation was probably typical of both
standing water and a cienega-type environment. There might have been
a small pool of water near the mouth of the spring supporting willows
and cattails and permanently wet ground with sedges (Cyoeraceae sp.)
and other cienega plants farther away. The effects of the spring
might not be felt farther than a few feet from the mouth due to the
high potential evaporation /81t.03 inches to 102.5U inches (Green and
Sellers 196107 of this climate and the high permeability and porosity of the sediment surrounding the spring.
The artifacts found in the site mirror, for the most part,
the surrounding geology. The large stones used as foundation for the
adobe walls are schist and gneiss, derived from the Catalina Gneiss.
Ketates and manos are predominantly gneiss and fine-grained granite,
very similar to large stones also derived from the Catalina Gneiss
which are found in the wash today. There are a few basalt manos and
metates. Pashley (1966) states that volcanic rocks are found at the
base of the Rincon Mountains but neglects to describe the type of
17
volcanic rock. The basalt of the grinding stones best resembles the
vesicular basalt found in the Tucson Mountains. The projectile points
are divided into two groups, the micro- or bird-points, and a few
larger points. The micro-points are predominantly composed of various
types of quartz: clear quartz, milky quartz, and rose quartz. One
very crude point of basalt was found as well as a few of chert. Bases
of obsidian points were also present. The larger points and accompany
ing flakes were mainly chert, though one crude point of porphyritic
andesite (a volcanic rock) was found. The quartz is probably from the
area. Large veins of quartz are found in the Catalina Gneiss and
cobbles of quartz are present in the washes near the site. The vol
canic basalt and adesite may be local or imported. Further geologic
descriptions of the area are necessary before their origin can be
determined. The chert is probably imported, possibly from further south or north.
The Indians took advantage of the natural properties of some
of the rocks in the area. Schist is a foliated metamorphic rock which
breaks very easily into layers. Micaceous schist is grainy and has
fine abrasive qualities. Rectangular pieces of schist, mainly
micaceous, about one quarter to one half inch in width, were made into
saws (serrated edges) and "mescal" knives (ground edges). Other
pieces of flat schist were rounded and made into spindle whorls, One
or two knives were made of a very fine-grained greenish (chloritic)
schist which is not found in the Catalina Gneiss but may be correlated
with schist found at the base of the Rincon Mountains (Douglas Shekel,
personal communication 1971).
18Imported material besides the chert and basalt includes tur
quoise, hematite, and shell, which was made into bracelets and other
jewelry. Imported material was used either for luxury items, or where
no good substitute was present in the local area, but even then very little was brought from outside the region.
CHAPTER h
RESEARCH AT WHIPTAIL RUIN
Postulated Research
There were various means possible to study the changing paleo-
environment of the site during occupation. Each of these methods was
investigated.
There are no apparent stratigraphic units in the site because
the sediment consists of a fairly uniform mass of fine sand, silt,
and clay. Houses were therefore dug in arbitrary units. Two houses
(Nos, 19 and II4) on the south side of the wash were filled with alluvial-type material apparently deposited by a stream. The sediment
consists of poorly sorted gravel, sand, and silt, which grades upward
into coarser material. Because the houses were burned a fairly large
proportion of the base of the fill is composed of mixed sediment,
charcoal, and burnt beams. The lack of sedimentary units and the
uniformity of the fill as well as the apparent difficulty in dis
tinguishing the surface at the time of occupation caused me to
seriously question the feasibility of using sedimentation and stra
tigraphy to reconstruct the paleoenvironment of the site.
The possibility of making an emission spectroscopic study of
cholla buds found in the site was considered (Martin and others 1961).
Comparisons of trace elements in these buds would be made with various
19
20
species of modern chollas in the same and in different locations to
determine if there are any differences in the absorbed minerals.
Variations might possibly be related to differences in precipitation
and temperature if it was found that the same species of chollas
absorb different amounts of different types of minerals under various
climatic regimes. This idea was abandoned when further discussion made it apparent that the time and equipment required were unfeasible for the study.
Deer scapula and other bones were found in a single area of
one floor, which caused the archaeologists to postulate that they had
a ceremonial or tool making use. But, the amount of bone was too
small for a detailed paleontological study.
It was eventually postulated that a palynological analysis of
samples from the site might be the best available method for recon
struction of the environment at the time of occupation by the Hohokam
Indians. Samples were available, since they had been collected by the
archaeologists during the first two years of excavation and interest
was keen. No other Hohokam site with enough pollen for 200 grain
counts had previously been studied. This could be a pioneer investigation.
Palynological Study
When excavation first began the archaeologists were aware of
the technique of pollen analysis and consequently took numerous samples
with the hope that the samples would someday be analyzed. During the
second year of excavation the author collected sediment samples for
pollen analysis from stratigraphic columns in two houses (Nos. 19 and
23).The first purpose of the study was to see if there was any
pollen in the samples. Other palynological investigations of Hohokam
sites had reported too little pollen to count. Bohrer (1970) found
only enough pollen in the trash areas for 200 grain counts. The main problem seems to be a lack of preservation due to high oxidation rates
in the desert caused by high surface temperatures and possibly
accentuated by soil alkalinity (Dimbleby 1937). Preliminary analysis
of a few samples showed that enough pollen was available for 200 grain
counts, The "magic" number of 200 grains was chosen because studies
have shown that after 200 grains the percentages of the different
types of pollen hold relatively constant (James King, personal commu
nication 1969). Higher counts are advisable if there are many dif
ferent types of pollen most of which occur in low percentages. In
that case a LOO grain count or greater will give a more accurate idea
of the actual amount of the various pollen types. Because there were
not a large number of identifiable pollen types in the samples, and
because those types which were most numerous were (with the exception
of Pinus) those most often used for environmental interpretations, it
was theorized that 200 grain counts would be adequate for the present study.
Following the preliminary analysis soil samples from various
areas of the site: rooms, floors, vessels, under vessels and other
21
22
artifacts, and in fill, were extracted and counted to see if some areas
were more profitable than others. All areas so tested contained enough
pollen for 200 grain counts.
Both environmental and room function studies were originally
contemplated when it was ascertained that sufficient pollen was avail
able for the study. Environmental reconstructions from pollen analysis
in sites of the Mogollon culture had been made by Schoenwetter (Schoen- wetter 1962; Schoenwetter and Eddy 1961t) and Hevly (196b) by the
interpretation of the changing arboreal (mainly Pinus and Juniperus)
to non-arboreal (mainly cheno-ams and Compositaes) ratios. Room
function analysis is a very new aspect of palynological research in
archaeological sites. Hill and Hevly (1968) found high percentages
of cheno-am pollen in habitation rooms and kivas and high percentages
of economic pollen in storage rooms in the pollen analysis of rooms
at Broken K Pueblo. It was postulated that such studies could also
be conducted at Whiptail.
Sampling Methods and Method of Extraction
One hundred fifty samples were collected by the archaeologists
during the excavation. Nineteen of those were extracted and counted.
In addition, nine samples were collected from each of two strati
graphic columns. All 18 stratigraphic samples were extracted and
counted. Two surface samples and one sample from the wash were col
lected, extracted, and counted for control purposes, A total of hO
samples were used in this study.
23Archaeological Samples
Samples collected at the site were taken by Paul Grebinger. Four types of samples were extracted and counted: floor samples, vessel samples, samples from prepared pits, and samples from the fill in
the rooms. Floor samples consisted of c. 200 gms of sediment scraped
off the floor with the tip of a trowel. Fill samples were collected
in a similar manner from various levels in the sediment which filled
the rooms. Vessel samples were composed of the sediment at the very
bottom of the inside of the vessels. Samples from prepared pits
(holes with packed dirt sides or plaster lining which were dug in the
ground or floors, possibly used for storage or in food preparation)
were collected at the bottom of the pits.
Ideally, vessels, metates and manos are washed with a dilute
solution of hydrochloric acid in order to obtain pollen adhering to
their surfaces. The washings are then allowed to evaporate and the
remaining sediment extracted like other samples. In this way it is
hoped that pollen from plants ground in the metates or stored in the vessels can be collected. This pollen can give an indication not only
of the plants eaten but also of the habits of the people (i.e., was
one type of metate used for wild footi and another for cultivated food?
Hill and Hevly 1968). Washings were not made of the grinding stones
and vessels at Whiptail Ruin. Metates found in the site were stored
in an open room with artifacts from many sites for some months before
the author began the analysis. Because the probability of
contamination from these other artifacts was so high it was not deemed
profitable to collect pollen samples from the grinding stones and
vessels found at Whiptail. The omission of this technique during
excavation demonstrates the general lack of communication between
palynologists and archaeologists, both of whom are to blame.
All samples collected during excavation were immediately placed in plastic bags, sealed, and labeled for provenience and date. The
samples were also listed in the site records.
Stratigraphic Samples
Stratigraphic samples were collected from fresh columns in two
of the houses (Nos. 19 and 23). The faces chosen were cleaned and
examined for distinguishable stratigraphic units. None were found.
A measuring tape was used to locate sampling intervals 10 cm apart.
These were marked with flags on nails as suggested by Mehringer (1967).
Samples were collected from the bottom-up so that the lower locations
would not be contaminated by fall from the higher samples. Each place
was cleaned anew directly before the sample was collected. Ideally,
(Mehringer 196?: 136), "the sediment is collected in a single large ped or several smaller ones so that before extraction each ped may be
washed with water until surface material has been removed," Due to
the poor cohesion of the sediment this was not possible. About 200
gms of the loose dirt was collected with the tip of a trowel, placed
in a Whirl-pak plastic bag, sealed, and labeled with column, depth,
and house number.
2£?Modern Samples
One modern sample was collected one quarter mile northeast of
the site; another was collected on the eastern perimeter of the site.
The samples were taken in November 1970 and February 1971 respectively,
at times when no major contributor to the pollen rain would be pollinating and consequently skewing the results. The samples were col
lected by picking up small amounts of sediment on the tip of a trowel from ten locations in a £0 meter area and placing them all in a plastic sack. This method of mixing was used to get a sample repre
sentative of the local and regional pollen rain and to eliminate any type of pollen which might be contributed by a single plant in a
localized area. Since more than just the very top soil was collected
the samples probably reflect the pollen rain from a number of years,
rather than just the pollen fallout from the last season of pollination.
Wash Sample
One sample was collected from the wash. A small trowel-full
of sandy sediment was taken from the upper moist layer of sand in the
wash. The dry sand was not collected because it was postulated that
the chances of loss of pollen through oxidation or filtration to lower
levels was higher in the dry sand than in the wet sand. The validity of this hypothesis was not tested.
In the laboratory the samples were extracted according to the
method described by Mehringer (1967) as being most successful in
26
dealing with alluvial samples. Acetolysis was not used in the ex
traction because the combination of the hydrofluoric acid treatment
and acetolysis destroys a large amount of the sample (Kelso, personal
communication 1970), Acetolysis is used to artificially fossilize
pollen so that it may be more easily identified. Since alluvial pollen
is already naturally fossilized it does not necessitate artificial fossilization.
Interpretation of Pollen Counts
A few preliminary statements can be made about the pollen
counts in general. (Mehringer 196? offers a detailed explanation on the interpretation of pollen diagrams.) First, there are no apparent
trends in.any.room (Diagram 1) or in the pollen associated with ves
sels (Diagram 3) or other artifacts. In other words, no house or
association of samples displays a consistently higher percentage of
one type of pollen or any distinctive clustering of two or more types
of pollen. In fact, in a single house the amount of the different
types of pollen may vary by as much as 20 percent. The same is true
of pollen in vessels and pollen under artifacts. Some of the floor
and vessel samples may be post-occupation since it is not likely that
the Indians kept dirt in their jars, and sediment and pollen could
have filtered to the floor after abandonment of the site.
Finally, there are no other studies done in Ilohokam sites in
which enough pollen was found to do complete studies so there is
nothing with which to compare this research.
DIAGRAM I. Pollen samples from houses.
Inside vessel Inside vessel Near vessel Lower fil l, adobe
Floor
Next to vessel Under mono
/Half 099Whole d Total C D 99t
^ // # / / / /
House 19 Floor19-97 Inside vessel 19-141 Step in entryway 19-144 Inside bowl 19-145 Below bowl
House 1818-5 Floor
House 17 17-2 17-5 17-7 17-9
House 16 16-1
House Q13-2 Under stone
House 12 12-1 12-8
House II11-3 Lower f i l l
House 1010-5 Under grinding stone
House 8Prepared pit • Prepared pit
C299000000999%
dORXXRXXXXK
i----
r"~ ~r w xvvvvw w g o
ZXXXXXXKXRRRRR!
8-9 8-11
House 77 -4 Prepared pit 7-10 34 cm above floor
:35RR%3355R%95
C==%22222222%3RXXX
L C3 (t 6&
izaB cm i> '1Em E “’--M i o
ta i 1 >
r=3l3
a <t (
)t<
<f <
? < oA
bra CB i <> <t < oCB a 4a cm B <> <t oa cm a () <> oa c m c m <>
3 m c m i> <> ocm a c m <> o□ a t3 < oa a o
i 3 3 <» i► iI a < ii oP=>a 1a a <a > <>
<> < T#SCALE: 75i_
Percent Figure 1. Pollen samples from houses, no
Diogrom 2. Pollen samples from stratigraphic sections.
/// Half
(T whole a
/CZ3
Total
Wash
Modern^2
Modern^ I
a□□
/o*
X/
7SCALE:
0I 25i 50i_ 75 100_i_____i
0
PercentFigure 2. Pollen samples from stratigraphic sections
Diagram 3. Pollen samples inside vessels.
<9 Half ^
cf W h a le d Total [ 3 ^ 4 ^
: KV-.
17-2
17-7
19-97
19-144
□888888888888b
38888888888b
1
3
3r— i■■ - •*
SCALE:0 25 5 0 75 100L________ l________ I_________i_________I
Percent
Figure 3. Pollen samples inside vessels♦
30
Pollen Groups
Cheno-amsThe group of pollen called cheno-ams is an arbitrary group
composed of pollen of plants in the family Chenopodiaceae and the
genus Amaranthus. Chenopodiaceae are generally known as the goose-
foot family and the Amaranthus as pigweeds. Both grow as weeds in
numerous environmental situations in the Southwest. The pollen of
the two groups is, with a few exceptions such as greasewood
(Sarcobatus), indistinguishable, so the general grouping is made.
Half and whole cheno-am grains were counted separately. This was
originally done because it was thought that there might be a relation
ship with the quality of preservation, i.e., the more half cheno-ams
the poorer the preservation. Such a correlation might have been in
dicated by high peaks of half cheno-ams accompanying low troughs of
whole cheno-ams. This theory was not supported, for many high peaks
of whole cheno-ams occur with peaks of halves. In other words, high percentages of half cheno-ams occur when there are large amounts of
cheno-ams. Half cheno-ams were also counted because they occurred
in unusually high percentages. If all were counted as wholes it was
feared that they would be over-represented. The large amount of half
cheno-ams may be due to erosion before preservation, preservation, or
preparation of the samples. Because the preservation is generally
poor in all of the samples, this factor is probably the cause.
In the site the cheno-ams vary from c . 30% to c. 80% of the
samples (Diagrams 1 and 3). These percentages are larger than those
31found in the modern counts of the Sonoran Desert vegetation at this
altitude (Hevly, Mehringer and Yocum 1965), and, in general, larger
than the modern surface samples taken at the site (Diagram 2). These
higher percentages may be due to two factors: (1) cultural influence,or (2) environmental change. Martin (1963), Martin and Byers (196$), and Jelinek (1966) interpret large amounts of cheno-am pollen to be due to cultural influence as produced by disturbance or by use of the
plants. Schoenwetter (1962j Schoenwetter and Eddy 19610 and Hevly
(1961;) interpret increased percentages of cheno-ams and decreased percentages of pine pollen as indicative of environmental change.
For reasons which will be stated later I favor the factor of cultural
influence,
Compositae
Compositae are members of the sunflower family, some common
plants of which include the goldenrod, aster, daisy, and thistle.
Compositae pollen are separated into two groups, low spine and high
spine. The high spines in this study were designated as those grains
with spines larger than Ip in length. I now believe that it would
have been better to use the division of l.$p to 2,0 pas-suggested by Hevly and others (196$) because the length of many of the spines is
on the borderline of lu and the distinction thus becomes very sub
jective. High spines vary from 2% to 11$ in the archaeological
samples (Diagrams 1 and 3), from 6.$% to 30.$# in the samples from the stratigraphic columns (Diagram 2), and $.$# to 6.$# in the surface
32samples (Diagram 2). The wash sample contains ll.££ high spine Com-
positaes. The low spine Compositaes vary from «*>£ to 18*5$ in the
archaeological samples, from 6% to 23$ in the stratigraphic columns, and from 20$ to 30.5$ in the surface samples. The wash sample con
tains 29$ low spines. No trends or clusterings are apparent in the Compositaes. There are equivalent peaks of lh$ in a prepared pit
(Diagram 1, Sample 7-it) and above a step in an entryway (Diagram 1, Sample 19-litl). Neither high spines nor low spines were dominant in
any house or association or in the whole site.
Tidestromia
Tidestromla is an insect pollinated annual in the family
Amarahthaceae which is distinguishable from the pollen in the genus
Amaranthus and so given a count of its own. Within the site Tides
tromia varies from 2$ to 30$ (Diagrams 1 and 3)• Percent Tidestromia
in the stratigraphic columns ranges from 3*£$ to 30$ (Diagram 2).
The modern surface samples contain 1$ and 2.5$ Tidestromia and the
wash sample contains no Tidestromia (Diagram 2).
Tidestromia is usually found as trace amounts in modern
samples and in samples from alluvium in the Sonoran Desert (Martin
1963; Hevly and others 1965). There is only one other study known
which has high percentages of Tidestromia and that is Casas Grandes
in northern Mexico (David Adam, personal communication 1970; Gerald
Kelso, personal communication 1971). In the Casas Grandes study the
peak of Tidestromia is associated with the silting of a reservoir.
33As the reservoir silted in, disturbance continued, and conditions re
mained favorable for its growth. At Whiptail the highest peak of 3d?
is found in a vessel, but it is within 6# of a floor peak. The
question now is why there are such high percentages. A number of
possibilities are present. First, the plant may have been used by the Hohokam. There is no ethnobotanical evidence to support such use
(Castetter 1935; Castetter and Underhill 1935), but it is still a possibility.
Kearney and Peebles in Arizona Flora (196U) describe the en
vironment of Tidestromia lanuginosa (Nutt.) Standi., the Tidestromia
found in Pima County where the site is located (Kearney and Peebles
196U: 258): "The whitish mats of this plant are conspicuous soon
after summer rains on the deserts in southern Arizona, and are well
adapted for checking the blowing of sandy soils." Herbarium sheets
in The University of Arizona Herbarium record collection of T.
lanuginosa in a wide variety of environmentsz by streams, in sand,
in gravel, on mesas, bajadas, pediments, and in association with
numerous different plant communities: mariola (Parthenium incanum
H.B.K.), snake-weed /Guterrezia microcephala (DC.) Gray^Z, white thorn
(Acacia constricta Benth.), and Mormon tea; desert salt-bush (Atriolex
polycarpa Torr. and A. linearis Watts.); and mesquite, yucca (Yucca sp.) and Acacia sp. From personal observation and discussion with
Drs. Mason (Department of Botany, University of Arizona) and Martin
(Department of Geosciences, University of Arizona) Tidestromia sp.
is found in disturbed soils♦ Since occupation would have resulted in
disturbed soils, this factor and possibly some other unknown cultural
factor could have created a favorable environment for the Tidestromia.
The high percentages could also be an artifact of preservation.
Tidestromia is a very distinctive pollen type and quite easily identified, Even when it is crushed it is still distinguishable. Through
unconscious selection, bias towards Tidestromia may have entered the counts thus increasing its percent relative to less easily identi
fiable pollen types.For reasons previously stated the high percentages of Tides
tromia in the samples were probably caused by the increased abundance
of the plant in the site and the distinctive shape of the pollen.
Where do Tidestromia grains occur in the samples? There is
once again no real trend. There are differences in amounts, but they
do not occur in any one locality or association. Perhaps the dif
ferences are due to a seasonal factor since Tidestromia blooms from
June to October. One interesting item is noticed. When Tidestromia
percentages are added to the rest of the cheno-ams they even the
degree of differences in the cheno-am distribution. Perhaps conditions
were better for Tidestromia at different times or in different places.
The high peak and low trough of Tidestromia both occur in the same
house (No. 17), both inside jars. This could mean that either the
two samples were not contemporaneous or that Tidestromia is an arti-
i fact of preservation and that the preservation in the two vessels wasj
3b
35not the same. It is also possible that Tidestromia had a ceremonial
or other use and was stored in only one of the vessels.
Quercus
The amount of Quercus (Tables 1 and 2) or oak found in the
room samples from Whiptail (0.£$ to 6%) is generally less than the
percentage in the surface samples from the site (both 1&% ), The
smaller amount of oak in the occupation samples from the site is
possibly due to oxidation of the oak grains. Research into the oxi
dation of pollen and spores (Havinga 196U) shows that Quercus cor
rodes very rapidly under oxidation conditions: "When interpreting
pollen diagrams of mineral deposits, it should never be overlooked
that there is a possibility of the pollen composition having been
changed by selective corrosion . . . the fairly frequent phenomenon
of under-representation of Quercus in sand spectra is usually over
looked" (Havinga 196!|; 632). The rate of oxidation increases with
high temperatures. The houses were burned. This and the high soil
temperatures on desert sand support the hypothesis of a depletion of Quercus due to oxidation.
TOT
The pollen group TCT (Tables 1 and 2) is composed of grains
in the families Taxodiaceae, Cupressaceae, and Taxaceae. Trees represented might be junipers or cypress. Percentages of TCT in the
samples were low, generally below 1$ in the archaeological samples though one sample (17-7) contained 15 grains. Percent of TCT in the
36
Table 1. Number of pollen grains found in rooms fromVIhiptail Ruin. ---Grains present during scanning.
I IW? .2
0 i o to nj1 i 1 1 8 1O JZ V {X UO ^ H 10 % "to•o 9 3 6 8 5 §
3BEh <D
2*8rC 5
§s s §<D <D£ O T3s s 3tt -i {C d O «H O eHHouse samples S to h y ^ •HPL, O 0Eh O* dCO s ^ ^
4)
I
I
i8tos
sit■<§
c0•81 f
s8 r—I O£5 •HCO<D
§
<D _ d d0) *riO U d rt •H O C *H O CO§ %r
s<DI4)S
1I
<Dd0)i•Ecdi
19-1U5 Below 50 118 168 16 5 L 2 2 * i !* 2 1vessel '
19-97 Inside 23 9L 117 20 18 29 3 * 1 ! 1 6vessel ' i
19-lUl Entryway 16 108 121; 28 7 26 1 1 2 5 1 519-litL Inside 21 76 97 17 30 Ll 1 1 3 3 7
vessel18-S Floor LI 101 1L2 12 20 8 1 3 2 1 2 , ! 5 2 2
17-9 Lower L3 89 132 8 29 8 1 3 : 1 7 8fill :
17-7 Next to 23 95 118 20 12 2 -> 15 12 5 i : 8 3 Ljar
8 817-5 In vessel 39 91 130 22 13 L 1 * *,
12
17-2 In vessel 18 L3 61 5 1L 60 1 3 13 1 1 1 10 6 1916-1 Floor 22 70 92 18 31 2L 1 5 * 2 12 * 5 -K 2 8
13-2 Under 25 72 97 19 37 31 •5C- 5 1 1 * L 5stone
12-8 Under gr. 29 72 101 31 15 33 2 * * 3 3 6stone j :
12-1 Next to 31 85 116 10 19 38 2 l 5 1 3 -1 i ! 1 2bowl ■
11-3 Lower Lo 99 139 15 18 1L 1 2 2 * 3 I : 6fill
10-5 Under gr. 6L 93 157 21 1 15 * 1 i * : 1 3stone
8-11 Prepared 62 11L 176 L 2 . 7 1 1 2 L i 2pit r
8-9 Prepared 51 111 162 L 9 10 1 1 3 1 * X 3 1 5pit
7-10 Middle 36 108 ILL 21 10 1L 2 1 1 1 3 1 ^ 1 1fill
7-U Prepared 31 96 127 28 1 2L 1 3 K 1 3.5 7 4 7pit
Unid
en a
rbor
eal
37
Table 2. Humber of grains found in stratigraphic columns in modern samples and in wash sample from VJhiptail Ruin. ^Grains present during scanning.
House 19I? cm s 37 U2 61 Ul 22 . 1 3 5IS cm 10 S6 66 U3 38 32 3 -X-
2S cm 6 72 78 28 26 583S cm 7 66 73 US 15 60 * •RUS cm 11 80 99 39 12 U9SS cm 12 70 82 Ul IS 526S cm 16 79 9S 52 12 287S cm 27 70 97 39 2U 28Floor 18 91 109 20 17 U6 1
House 23S cm 3S 60 95 2U U3 6 3 1 u 3IS cm 36 86 122 26 30 7 12S cm 38 65 103 25 U6 9 1 23S cm S8 66 12U 13 22 25 1 1US cm SO 7U 12U 18 23 15 1SS cm 38 91 129 1U 22 13 16S cm 62 79 1U1 18 18 7 17S cm SS 71 126 13 18 12 2 28S cm 3S 72 107 21 27 2U 2 * 1MS #1 21 67 88 11 UO 5 1 9 15MS //2 3S Ul 76 13 61 2 2 U 15 3¥S UO 68 108 23 58 0 5 2 6 13
3 1 * R 13 U '3
5 R 9 2 2
1 1 * 5 2 1
* 1 1 1 2 2
R * 6 I)7 >
1 1 5 i6* U 82 2 3
i
3 1 1 5 3 91 1 3 3 6
1 2 U 7* R 1 1 R U 1 6
7 3 9R 2 7 12
5 2 2 1 1 2 2
2 3 1 2 2 5 1 10
1 7 5 5i
1 1 * U 2 63 1 1 3 2 15 2
i
3 1 2 1 2 7 5 U
38
surface samples was slightly higher than most of the archaeological
samples (2$ to h»5%)• The low number of grains in the archaeological
samples may again be due to the lack of preservation. This pollen
type, round with few apparent features, is not distinctive, and there
are many broken grains in the samples which cannot be identified.
Pinus
The low pine counts (0$ to 1%, Diagrams 1 and 3) agree with
the surface samples from the site (O.£o to 1%, Diagram 2). The
nearest abundant pines are in the Santa Catalina and the Rincon
Mountains. The occurrence of pine in the samples would be dependent
upon the wind patterns or on aboriginal use of pine. As was pre- - -viously stated, the wind•pattern is unknown and essentially unpre
dictable. The use of pine is verified, because charcoal of pine found
in the rooms shows that pine beams were used in the house structures.
Salix (willow) and Sparpanium-tvpe
Two of the pollen types represent standing or running water.
Sparganium-type pollen consists of pollen from a number of plants,
all associated with water ("aquatic or semi-aquatic," Kearney and
Peebles 1961;: 61;), One possible source is cattail or Typha sp. The
pollen from Typha normally occurs in groups of four, or tetrads, but
quite often these tetrads will be broken. A single grain from the
tetrad would be identified as Sparganium-type pollen. Willow and
Sparganium-type pollen do not usually occur in sediment in the Sonoran
Desert (Hevly and others 1969). /Percent of both types ranges from
390% to 2% in the site (Diagrams 1 and 3) and in stratigraphic and sur
face samples (Diagram 1)7• There are two ways to explain the occur
rence of Salix and Sparganium-type pollen in the site. Pollen from
mountain canyons where conditions would be favorable for the growth
of these plants could have been carried to the site by the wind.
However, a more likely source of the pollen is the natural spring
located within a quarter mile of the site. Willow and cattail are
presently growing around the man-made lake. It is quite probable that
they were growing there when the Indians occupied Whiptail, especially
since, as previously mentioned, remains of reeds used in the roofing
of some of the houses were found during the excavation. Salix and
Sparganium-type pollen could have been introduced either with the plants or with drinking and cooking water carried from the springs.
Cylindropuntia
Cylindropuntia pollen refers to pollen which is produced by
cholla cactus. It is found in low percentages (0% to 2%) but consis
tently in the samples from the rooms (Diagrams 1 and 3)• Cylindro
puntia grains are found in percentages up to in the samples from
the Snaketown trash mounds (Bohrer 1970). Modern samples (Hevly and
others 1963) record percentages of less than 3# Opuntia-type pollen (which would include cylindropuntia pollen) in a transect in the
Sonoran Desert. In a study of pollen in sediments located in a
creosotebush-bursage floral association like that growing on the site
today, only one Opuntia-type grain was found in 13 samples
(Schoenwetter and Doerschlag 1970). The samples of modern pollen from
the surface of the site and from the wash contained no Opuntia or
cylindropuntia pollen (Diagram 2). A probable interpretation of the
cylindropuntia pollen found in the site is that the people were eating
the chollas. This theory is supported by the presence of cholla buds
in the houses. Ethnographic data indicates that cholla (Opuntia
fulgida Engelm.} 0. versicolor Engelm; and 0. echinocarpa Engelm and Bigel.) buds and joints are collected, pit-baked, and dried for future
use by modern Papago Indians ( Castetter and Underhill 193?).
Unidentified Pollen
Pollen labeled "unidentifiable" (Tables 1 and 2, Diagrams 1,
"2, and 3) refers to those grains which are pollen, but which due to poor preservation (corrosion, crushing), cannot be identified as to
type. "Unidentified arboreal" grains are those pollen which most
closely resemble pollen from arboreal plants, but which, again, due
to poor preservation, cannot be further defined. Pollen which is most similar to grains from non-arboreal plants but which cannot be further
identified are placed in the group "unidentified non-arboreal" pollen.
Cultigens
The lack of pollen from cultivated plants is something of a
mystery. High amounts of pollen from cultivated plants such as corn,
squash, and beans are seldom found in an archaeological site, but it
is unusual not to find any. At first one might postulate that all of
the samples represent post-occupation sediment, but that would not be
h i
true for samples found under artifacts. There is no pollen of culti-
gens even there. The next possibility is that the inhabitants were more dependent upon gathering than upon cultivation for their suste
nance. In the storage rooms jars of corn and beans were found. It
is possible that cultivated food was brought to the storage rooms before it was taken to the habitation rooms. Pollen which remained
on the plants when they were harvested would be dropped in the storage
rooms and little would be left on the plants by the time the food
reached the cooking pots. Dr. Emil Haury (personal communication 1971) hypothesizes that the majority of the cooking was done outside the
houses. If this is true, then it would help to explain why no grains
of cultivated plants are present in the habitation rooms.
CHAPTER $
INTERPRETATION OF PRESENT DATA
With the methods that were used the question might be asked, "What environmental interpretations can be made from the pollen samples
from Whiptail Ruin?" There are a few. First, in general, the same
plants now growing in the area of Whiptail Ruin were growing there c. A.D. 1300: Chenopodiaceae, Amaranthaceae, Compositae, Gramineae,
Mormon tea, Liliaceae (Yucca elata Engelm.?), and cholla. No Tides-
tromia is growing on the site presently.
There are two stratigraphic columns (Diagram 2) from which
environmental interpretations can be attempted, but the problems are
numerous• There are no stratigraphic units and no dates, though all
but the floor samples are probably post-occupation.
House 19There is no real change until 2$ cm below the surface. This
lack of change is interpreted to be the result of one single period
of continuous deposition. In general the samples below 25 cm in the column agree well with the modern surface samples from the site,
especially with the sample collected next to the site. The major
difference between the stratigraphic samples and the surface samples
is that Tidestromia is represented by very low amounts in the modern
surface samples (l$ to 2.55b, Diagram 1) but found in higher
h2
k3
percentages (3.5# to 30%) in most of the samples in the stratigraphic column (Diagram 2). Tidestromia grows along the sides of washes and
streams and on arroyo banks. If the alluvium was indeed deposited
during a flood, then it is quite likely that more pollen from Tides
tromia would be incorporated into the alluvium than would be found on
the desert floor. However, this theory is not supported by the sample
from the wash. This sample contains no Tidestromia. There may be
some other unknown factor such as selective grazing that prevents its growth in the wash today (Terah Smiley, personal communication 1971).
At 2$ cm below the surface there is a drop in cheno-ams and Tidestromia and a rise in the Compositaes. In the early 1900's the
spring was dammed and a lake formed. The formation of the lake may
have caused a change in the level of the local water table which re
sulted in a more favorable environment for the Compositaes. /Com
positaes are usually associated with higher water tables than cheno-
ams (Martin 1963; Schoenwetter and Eddy 196LX7. Or the change may
indicate initial grazing. Without dates one can only theorize.
House 23There is only one major difference between the stratigraphic
column from House 19 and that from House 23. In House 23 there is a
major rise in the Compositaes, especially the low spines, and a decline in the cheno-ams and Tidestromia from 35> cm to 2% cm below the surface.
From 2$ cm to 1$ cm the low spines decline and the cheno-ams rise.
Then there is another reversal from l£ cm to £ cm when the cheno-ams
Uidrop lower than before and the low spines climb to their previous high.
The column in House 19 has only one major change at 25 cm below the
surface. The differences in the two columns is probably a local
phenomena. Such localized differences in the pollen rain are supported
by the modern surface samples from the site. The second surface sample
contains over 20 more low spines than the first sample and 30% fewer cheno-ams. These differences may be due to drainage patterns or some other factor. •
The sample from the wash indicates one interesting phenomena.
This is the only sample, modern or old, that contained more whole
cheno-ams than half cheno-ams, I would have postulated that since
there is more erosion in a wash than on the surface, there should be
fewer whole cheno-ams and the general preservation should be poorer,
but this does not appear to be true. This phenomena suggests that
some factor other than erosion may be responsible for the half cheno-ams
CHAPTER 6
POLLEN, ENVIRONMENT, AND CLIMATE
Originally the study was conceived as a micro-environmental
investigation of the site. The question arises, "Are environmental
interpretations justified in pollen studies of archaeological sites?"
Through research and reading I have come to the conclusion that with
the techniques now in use it is difficult if not impossible to inter
pret the regional or even the local natural environment from pollen
samples taken in an archaeological site.
There are a number of problems in interpreting the environment
from pollen samples in any locality. Initially there is the question of equating pollen with vegetation. Research on this relationship was
conducted by Davis and Goodlett (i960) at a pond in Vermont. The
total amount of vegetation surrounding the pond was measured. The
percentages of the various flora growing around the pond were then
compared with the percentages of the plants represented in the pollen
samples to see if there was good correlation. To the contrary they
found that, "the pollen composition of the sediments shows little
relation to the composition of the vegetation. Nearly all the tree
species observed in the present vegetation are represented in the
sediments, but quantitative relations are almost completely lacking"
(Davis and Goodlett I960: 353). The lack of positive relationship
between the vegetation and the pollen rain is partially due to differ
h6
ences in pollen production, differential dispersion of pollen, and
pollen preservation. Some plants produce more pollen per plant than
others, and the rate of pollen production can change in time (Kehringer
1967). Physical characteristics of pollen can affect their areal dis
tribution. Once the grains have been deposited differential preserva
tion may change the picture that pollen gives of the vegetation. It
has already been noted that Quercus oxidizes very quickly under well-
aerated conditions. This often causes oak to be under-represented in
the pollen record. Other pollen types also oxidize quite readily or
are more susceptible to degradation by fungus or bacteria. What types
will be under-represented depends upon the kind of degradation or
corrosion which takes place in the samples. Another factor which may affect the in situ preservation of pollen and about which, to my
knowledge, nothing is known is the differential filtration of pollen
through the strata. Does pollen remain in the sediment in which it is
initially deposited or can it be transported to lower levels by per
colating rain or groundwater? If it can be carried in this manner is
there selectivity in the pollen transport due to the different sizes
and buoyancy of the various pollen types? These questions are
especially important when dealing.with alluvial sediment and it is
precisely this type of sediment from which most of the pollen samples
from archaeological sites in the Southwest are collected. Until these
problems are studied environmental interpretations can be made only
with caution and with full knowledge of the limitations present.
h i
The interpretation of pollen from alluvial samples presents
additional problems because the preservation is often poor, i.e., the
grains have been crushed, broken, or corroded. Faegri and Iversen
(1961;: 120) suggested, "If more than half of the pollen grains of
deciduous trees (conifer pollen is more resistant) show traces of cor
rosion, the sample should be discarded, since a distortion of the
spectrum due to the total disappearance of part of the pollen flora
must be suspected.” If one were to abide by this theory then much of
the Southwest would lack any pollen work at all. Interpretations can
be made if the limitations of poor preservation are recognized. Some
of these limitations have been expressed well by Mehringer (196?: 138).
Preservation of the pollen grains is important in their identification. Divisions which can be made within a family or genus on .the basis of minute morphological details or slight size differences cannot be accomplished in poorly preserved material. Thus, in the alluvial fossil pollen record, in which the pollen is not commonly well-preserved, it would be unrealistic to attempt more precise identifications and it is more practical and less misleading to work only with the major pollen groups.
The interpretations I make include, I hope, ample recognition of these
limitations.
The main problems are apparent in making environmental inter
pretations of archaeological sites. These are sampling procedures
and cultural influence on the pollen rain.
In most of the previous studies of archaeological sites occu
pied in the last 2000 years one sample was taken from each floor and analyzed (Schoenwetter 1962; Schoenwetter and Eddy 1961;; Hevly 1961;;
Hill and Hevly 1968), In one study of a late Pueblo site the authors
U8describe their method of sampling (Hill and Hevly 1968: 200). "Each
sample consisted of about 200 gins of soil from an area measuring about hO cm in diameter and l/2 cm in depth." No statistical studies
have been made in any of these investigations to ascertain if this one
sample is representative of the whole floor. In an unpublished study
(Gerald Kelso, personal communication 1971) as much difference was
found in samples taken in various parts of one floor as was found in
the whole site. In the present study there are three floor samples
from House 19. Pollen sample (PS) 19-lh!? was taken below a vessel
(Diagram 1). It contained 7h^ cheno-am pollen, 2% Tidestromia, and
10.5% Compositae. PS 19-lhl, taken above the step in the entryway,
contained 62$ cheno-ams, 13$ Tidestromia, and 16.$$ Compositae
(Diagram l). The 83 cm sample (Diagram 2) from the floor of the
stratigraphic column contained $h% cheno-am grains, 23$ Tidestromia,
and 18.5>$ Compositae, While three samples from one house are not
statistically significant, the different pollen percentages within this house do suggest that more than one sample is necessary for the
interpretation of the environment or of the activities which took
place on a room floor. Perhaps the sample for a room should consist
of small amounts of sediment taken from many areas in the room and
mixed together as the modern surface samples in this study were col
lected. Another method might be to take a series of random samples
from the floor, analyze all of them, and make interpretations from
the mean of the percentages of all of the samples rather than from
the percentages of a single sample. These various methods should be
h9
tested to see which one results in percentages most representative of
an entire floor.
The effect of cultural influence on the pollen rain within
sites has been considered by a few, but not by those who have conducted
most of the research, Hevly (1961*) estimated a possible 1%% rise in
cheno-am pollen in a cultural context,- Jelinek, however, in a study
in the Middle Pecos River valley of New Mexico (1966) interpreted any
percentage of cheno-am pollen above l\Q% to be due to cultural activity.
(The pollen in sedentary cultural levels varied from h.5% to 80%.) He
arrived at this figure because the ltO% level was below those percent
ages which correlated with the presence of sherds. The sherds were
thought to be indicative of more sedentary habits which were more dis
ruptive to the natural vegetation than had been the activities of the
hunters and gatherers. Hevly (196b) gives no reason for his 1$%
estimate. It would appear that he may have grossly underestimated
the effect of man on the pollen rain. Schoenwetter (1962; Schoenwetter and Eddy 196b) has neglected to account for any cultural influence of
cheno-am pollen at all. He has devised an adjusted pollen sum in
which pollen from plants indicative of riparian conditions or a
cienega situation were discarded (cattails, sedges or Cyperaceae,
cottonwood or Populus, birch or Betula, alder or Alnus, and willow).
Pollen which occurred in very small percentages (Ephedra, Cactaceae,
the Mallow family or Malvaceae, "other" Gompositae, Liguliflorae a
relation of the dandelion, Douglas fir or Pseudotsuga, and spruce or
Picea) were retained because (Schoenwetter and Eddy 196b: 71), "Their
inclusion inside or outside the pollen sum can make little difference,"
The "Ambrosiaea" which consists of pollen indistinguishable from
Ambrosia (ragweed) have been excluded because (Kelso n.d.: 33)> "some
prefer wet and some dry conditions, although most favor disturbed
soils," The grasses were retained (Schoenwetter and Eddy 196L: 71),
"As there are so many species involved in the grass pollen spectrum
each with its own ecological adaption. . . . " (which appears to be
the same reason that the "Ambrosiaea” were discarded). The cheno-ams
minus Sarcobatus were left in the adjusted sum, even though it was
recognized that they are indicative of disturbed soil. The economic
types, maize (Zea), beeweed (Cleome), and squash (Cucurbita), were
excluded. Except for the deletion of the economic types there is no
effort to provide for the effects of cultural influence on the pollen rain.
The lack of multiple working hypotheses is very apparent in
previous research (e.g., Schoenwetter 1962; Schoenwetter and Eddy
196L; Hevly 196b; and Hill and Hevly 1968). In one pollen spectra
Schoenwetter (Schoenwetter and Eddy 196b) while noting that all of
the samples contain maize interprets the adjusted pollen sum to be
indicative of conditions unlike any of the modern vegetation in the
region. Pollen from two superimposed fireboxes are considered to
reflect a change to dryer conditions, while the pollen from a burial
in the same floor indicated conditions similar to those now present
at the site. Kelso (n.d.) states that such a shift "would require
a mechanism on the order of a major glaciation" (n.d.: b9).
51Hevly (19614) makes no interpretation of single diagrams, but
interprets the composite picture of all of the pollen spectra instead
. . . the fossil record from the archaeological sites may be interpreted as two types of environmental changes superimposed on one another. . . . Periods of decreased effective moisture occurred between 1100 to 1300, 600 to 900, and 200 to foOO A.D. with intervening periods of increased effective moisture from 1300-1500, 900-1100, and I4OO-6OO A.D. Superimposed on this pattern is one of changing seasonal dominance of precipitation, as indicated by the pine pollen proportions (Hevly 196U: 108-109).
Though Hevly initially asked whether the pollen changes could be due
to cultural influence and decided negatively, he neglected to consider whether the changes that he sees could be due to the superposition of
sites. His samples are taken from a number of sites which cover more
than a thousand years. Each site lasts approximately as long as his
time periods. Another reasonable interpretation could be that as
each site is settled the amount of cheno-ams would rise. They would
peak when the disturbance was greatest, presumably around the time of
abandonment approached (Kelso n.d.). This can be seen rather well in
a recent study by Zubrow (1971), In the Grasshopper area of northern
Arizona the number of sites decreased around A.D. 1100 and the size
of the sites started increasing. At this same time the pine pollen
percentages decreased and the cheno-am percentages increased. This
is interpreted as a cultural change caused by a climatic change. But
another interpretation could be that as the size of the sites started
increasing the amount of disturbed ground per site increased too,
thus making a larger area favorable for the growth of cheno-ams and
consequently increasing the absolute amount of cheno-am pollen produced.
22
This interpretation is supported, by the fact that in the graphs com
paring the number of sites and the pine pollen percentages through
time, the pine pollen drop comes after the drop in the number of sites (but the limitations of dating techniques must be remembered).
In what ways could cultural activities affect the pollen rain
on the floors of the sites? First, one must consider the type of
conditions favored by the Ghenopodiaceae and the Amaranthus spp..
These plants are both weeds which grow best in disturbed soil. Dis
turbed soil would be quite prevalent around an archaeological site
during occupation. In addition various activities could skew the
pollen on the habitation floors. Pigweed (Amaranthus palmer! S. Wats.)
was used for greens and the seeds were collected for food by the
Papago Indians (Castetter and Underhill 1932). Various Amaranthus
spp. were boiled and eaten much like spinach, or boiled then fried
in lard, or boiled and canned by the Pueblo and Navajo Indians (Cas
tetter 1932). Kearney and Peebles (196b.) state that "The Indians use the leaves (of the Ghenopodiaceae) for greens and the seeds of certain
species for making mush and cakes . . . ." (Kearney and Peebles 196b:
221). Use of these and other plants on different areas of a habitation
floor would produce vast differences in the percentages of the various
pollen types in samples taken from these floors. Such activities have
been largely ignored by previous investigators.
Further support for cultural influence on the pollen rain is
presented by Martin (1963). In samples from the area of the Dry Prong
Reservoir a drop in heliophytym such as.Mormon tea and a rise in pine
f>3pollen frequencies was noted in areas associated with archaeological
sites. No contemporaneous rise of Pinus was found in samples col
lected in desert alluvium.
From the previously mentioned considerations I conclude that the pollen in an archaeological site like Whiptail Ruin is indicative of; (1) what plants were utilized, and (2) what plants were more favorably influenced by the artificial environment produced by man and the consequently reduced•percentages of pollen from the natural vegetation. Thus quantitative interpretations of the natural environment cannot be made with the methods used today, and if the environment cannot be interpreted then neither can the causal climate.
Are there any methods available but not presently used through which environmental interpretations can be made? Dr. Arthur Jelinek
(1966) suggests a technique which has possibilities. His data con
sist of pollen and artifacts from two cultures, hunters and gatherers,
and a more sedentary people. By correlating the pollen percentages
with the artifacts he finds that the pollen from plants which favor
disturbed areas (cheno-ams) have a high positive correlation with the
pot sherds (indicative of sedentism), and that the Gramineae (the
assumed natural vegetation) correlates positively with the chipped
stone and bone. By assuming a constant percentage of cheno-ams
(below those percentages associated with the pot sherds) he recalcu
lates the percentages of the other pollen types and then interprets
environmental changes from these percentage changes. His interpretations are supported by the paleontological evidence from the site. This method should be tested in other contexts.
By extracting and counting the number of pollen grains per
gram of sediment absolute changes in the pollen rain may be shown.
With present methods only relative percentages are found. It is pos
sible that one plant may increase in abundance. The amount of pollen
will also increase. With relative percent counts when one pollen
type increases all of the other types decrease in relation to that
pollen type. With an absolute count one could tell whether the de
crease of a pollen type or types was absolute or relative. One would
still have to determine if the increases or decreases were due to cul
tural factors, but the foundation for interpretations would be more
firmly laid. Absolute counts might be one method to test Dr. Jelinelc's technique. Per gram counts of Gramineae may substantiate the inter
pretations he makes on the relative percentages.
Finally, collaboration with climatologists and meteorologists should be sought to ensure the best climatic information and models
possible.
CHAPTER 7
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Some general statements concerning environmental and paly-
nological research in archaeological sites in the Southwest and some
specific conclusions on the palynological investigations of Whiptail
Ruin can be made from this study.
1. Environmental studies are a new and relatively unexplored
research area in archaeology in the Southwest.
2. Lack of pollen preservation often hinders environmental
studies in excavations in the Southwest, but research should be con
tinued. The present investigation was the first to find sufficient pollen for 200 grain counts in all areas of a Hohokam site.
3. Samples from the site display no functional differences between
rooms. No cultivated pollen was found. The samples suggest that
statistical tests should be made on methods of collecting pollen
samples which are representative of a house floor.
It. Samples from stratigraphic columns display no apparent changes
until the surface is approached. Differences between the columns and
changes in the columns are attributable to local differences in vege
tation and the pollen rain. This is supported by variations of
pollen spectra from the modern surface. No climatic change is postulated.
5* Present methods in palynology are not adequate for the interpretation of environment and environmental changes in sites such as
Whiptail Ruin. Cultural effects on the pollen rain must be dealt
with before accurate environmental interpretations can be made. Promising techniques include per gram pollen counts and their corre
lation with paleontological finds and artifact types. Contact between
climatologists and archaeologists should be sought.
7
APPENDIX A
GLOSSARY OF BOTANICAL TERMS
Scientific Term Common Term
Acacia const.ricta V/hite thorn
Alnus sp. Alder
Amaranthaceae Pigweed familyAmaranthus sp. Pigweed
Ambrosia sp. Ragweed
Betula sp. Birch
Cactaceae Cactus family
Carnegiea gigantea SaguaroCeltis pallida HackberryCercidium floridum Blue paloverde
Ghenopodiaceae Goose foot family
Cleome sp. Beeweed
Compositae Sunflower familyCondalia lyciodes Gray thornCucurbita sp. GourdsCupressaceae Cypress family
Cylindropuntia Cholla
Cyperaceae Sedge family
Ephedra sp. Joint fir including Mormon tea
Eriogonum sp. Wild buckwheat
5>7
£8Scientific Term Common Term
Franseria dumosa Bursage
Gramineae Grass familyGuterrezia microcenhala Snake-weed
Junipcrus sp. Juniper
Larrea tridentata Creosotebush
Lipuliflorae Related to the DandelionLiliaceae Lily family
Malvaceae Mallow familyNyctaginaccae Four o'clock family
Onagraceae Evening primrose family
Opuntia sp. Prickly pear, including chollaParthenium incanum Mariola
Picea sp. SprucePinus sp. Pine
Polemoniaceae Phlox family
Populus sp. Cottonwood or aspen
Potomageton sp. PondweedProsopis .juliflora MesquitePseudotsuga sp. Douglas firQuercus sp. OakRosaceae Rose familySalix sp. "Willow
Sarcobatus vermiculatus Greasewood
Sparftanium sp Bur-reed
Scientific Term Common Term
Taxaceae
Taxodiaceae
Tidestromia lanuginosa
Yew family
Typha sp. Cattail
Umbelliferae Parsley family
Yucca sp. Yucca
Zea sp. . Maize
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