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A/572041
UNDERSTANDINGTERRORISMChallenges,Perspectives,and Issues
4TH EDITION
GUS MARTINCalifornia State University, Dominguez Hills
fSAGELos Angeles | London | New Delhi
Singapore | Washington DC
Brief Contents
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Part t. Terrorism: A Conceptual Review
1. Terrorism; First Impressions
2. The Nature of the Beast: Defining Terrorism
3. Beginnings: The Causes of Terrorism
Part H, TheTerrorists
4. Terror From Above: Terrorism by the State
5. Terror From Below: Terrorism by Dissidents
6. Violence in the Name of the Faith: Religious Terrorism
7. Violent Ideologies: Terrorism From the Left and Right
8. Terrorist Spillovers: International Terrorism
9. Emerging Terrorist Environments: Gender-Selective PoliticalViolence and Criminal Dissident Terrorism
Part III. The Terrorist Trade and Counterterrorism
10. Tools of the Trade: Tactics and Targets of Terrorists
11. The Information Battleground: Terrorist Violence and theRole of the Media
12. The American Case: Terrorism in the United States
XVHI
XIX
1
7
8
29
56
91
92
130
158
192
244
277
309
310
353
381
Part IV. Securing the Homeland 429
13. Counterterrorism: The Options 430
14. A New Era: Homeland Security 472
15. What Next? The Future of Terrorism 503
APPENDIX: MAP REFERENCES A-l
GLOSSARY G-l
INDEX 1-1
PHOTO CREDITS C-l
Note: Appendix: Historical Examples, which presents a more extensive version of the timeline printedin the front and back of this book, is available on the companion study site at www.sagepub.com/martin4e.
Detailed Contents
AlOOf THf AlSffOlJ - 3TOII
A Conceptual Review 71. Terrorism: First Impressions 8
i • • . i
0>EMIWG VIEWPORT: THE IDEOLOGY
| 8First Coosideiations 10• An Overview of Extremism; and Terrorism 10• Terrorism at First Glance 11: Sources of Extremism and
Terrorism 12Conceptual Considerations: Understanding
Political Violence 13The Significance of Symbolism 13Political Violence: Mala Prohibita
or Mala in Se? 14The Just War Doctrine 15
The Past as Prologue:Historical Perspectiveson Terrorism 16
Antiquity 17The Roman Age 17The Ancient and Medieval Middle
East 17The Dark Ages: Prelude to Modern
Terrorism 18The French Revolution 18
CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 1.1. THE GUNPOWDER
PLOT OF GUY FAWKES 19
Nineteenth-Century Europe:Two Examples From the Left 20
The Modern Era and the War onTerrorism 21
Terrorism and Criminal Skill: Three Casesfrom the Modern Era 22
Case 1: Anders BreMk 22Case 2: Theodore 'Ted" Kaczyaski 23Case 3: Ramzi Yousef 24
Chapter Summary 25
Key Terms and Concepts 26
Discussion Box: Total War 26
On Your Own 27
Recommended Websites andWeb Exercise 27
Recommended Readings 28
2. The Nature of the Beast: DefiningTerrorism 29OPENING VIEWPOINT: ARE "HATE CRIMES"
ACTS OF TERRORISM? 29
Understanding Extremism: The Foundationof Terrorism 31
Defining Extremism 32Common Characteristics of Violent
Extremists 33The World of the Extremist 34
Defining Terrorism: An OngoingDebate 35
Guerrilla Warfare 35A Sampling of Formal Definitions 36The American Context: Defining
Terrorism in the United States 37
CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 2 .1 .
THE PROBLEM OF LABELING THE ENEMY IN
THE NEW ERA OF TERRORISM 39
Types of Terrorism 40A Definitional Problem: Perspectives on
Terrorism 41Perspective 1: Four Quotations 41Perspective 2: Participants in a Terrorist
Environment 43Perspective 3: Terrorism or Freedom
Fighting? 47Perspective 4: Extremism or
"Mainstreamism"? 48The Political Violence Matrix 49
Combatants, Noncombatants, and the
Use of Force 49
Chapter Summary 51
Key Terms and Concepts 51Discussion Box: Cold War
Revolutionaries 52
On Your Own 54
Recommended Websites and WebExercise 54
Recommended Readings 55
3. Beginnings: The Causes ofTerrorism 56
OPENING VIEWPOINT: THE CASE OF
CARLOS 56
Political Violence as the Fruitof Injustice 59
Sociological Explanations of Terrorism:Intergroup Conflict and CollectiveViolence 59
CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 3 . 1 . PROFILES
OF VIOLENT EXTREMISTS: LEILA KHALED
AND ABU NIDAL 63
Psychological Explanations of Terrorism:Rationality and Terrorist Violence 65
Criminological Explanations ofTerrorism: The Path to PoliticalCriminality 68
CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 3.2. WOMEN
AS TERRORISTS 71
Political Violence as Strategic Choice 73Making Revolution: Acts
of Political Will 73
Perception and Cultural Disconnect:Adversaries in the War onTerrorism 75
Moral Justifications for PoliticalViolence 77
Moral Convictions of Terrorists 77
CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 3.3. A VIET
CONG DIRECTIVE ORDERING SELECTIVE
TERRORISM 79
Delineating Morality: SimplifiedDefinitions of Good and Evil 80
Seeking Utopia: Moral Ends ThroughViolent Means 81
Moral Purity: Codes ofSelf-Sacrifice 81
Understanding Codes ofSelf-Sacrifice 85
Chapter Summary 85
Key Terms and Concepts 86
Discussion Box: Bloody Sunday andBlack September 87
On Your Own 88
Recommended Websites and WebExercise 88
Recommended Readings 89
Part II. The Terrorists 914. Terror From Above: Terrorism
by the State 92
OPENING VIEWPOINT: STATE TERRORISM AS
DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN POLICY 92
The State as Terrorist: A State TerrorismParadigm 95
Understanding State Terrorism: StatePatronage and Assistance 96
State Sponsorship: The PatronageModel 97
State Sponsorship: The AssistanceModel 99
Violence Abroad: Terrorism as ForeignPolicy 102
Moral Support: Politically SympatheticSponsorship 106
Technical Support: LogisticallySupportive Sponsorship 106
Selective Participation: Episode-Specific Sponsorship 107
Active Participation: JointOperations 108
CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 4 . 1 . CALCULATION
OR MISCALCULATION? THE THREAT FROM
WEAPONS OF MASS DESTRUCTION AND THE
IRAQ CASE 109
Violence at Home: Terrorism as DomesticPolicy 110
Legitimizing State Authority 111State Domestic Authority 112Unofficial Repression: Vigilante
Domestic State Terrorism 113Repression as Policy: Official Domestic
State Terrorism 114CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 4.2. CLEANSING
SOCIETY 116
Mass Repression: Genocidal DomesticState Terrorism 117
CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 4.3. THE KHMER
ROUGE: GENOCIDAL STATE TERRORISM IN
CAMBODIA 118
Death Squads in Latin America 120The Problem of Accountability: Monitoring
State Terrorism 123
Chapter Summary 125
Key Terms and Concepts 126Discussion Box: Authoritarianism and
Democracy 127
On Your Own 128
Recommended Websites and WebExercise 128
Recommended Readings 129
5. Terror From Below: Terrorism byDissidents 130OPENING VIEWPOINT: THE TUPAMAROS 130
The Rebel as Terrorist: A Dissident TerrorismParadigm 133
Revolutionary Dissident Terrorism:A Clear World Vision 134
Nihilist Dissident Terrorism: Revolutionfor the Sake of Revolution 135
Nationalist Dissident Terrorism:The Aspirations of a People 136
Revolutionaries, Nihilists, andNationalists: Freedom Fighters? 137
CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 5 . 1 . CHECHEN
TERRORISM IN RUSSIA 138
Warring Against the State: AntistateDissident Terrorism 139
Intensities of Conflict: Antistate TerroristEnvironments 139
CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 5.2. THE PALESTINIAN
MOVEMENT 141
Defeat Is Unthinkable: The Terrorists'Faith in Victory 143
Warring Against a People: CommunalTerrorism 144
Ethnonationalist CommunalTerrorism 144
Religious CommunalTerrorism 146
Ideological CommunalTerrorism 149
Operational Shifts: Dissidents and theNew Terrorism 150
The New Dissident TerroristMorality 150
CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 5.3. CHILD
SOLDIERS 151
Terrorist Cells and Lone Wolves:New Models for a New War 152
Chapter Summary 153
Key Terms and Concepts 154
Discussion Box: The Tamil Tigers 154
On Your Own 156
Recommended Websites and WebExercise 156
Recommended Readings 157
6. Violence in the Name of the Faith:Religious Terrorism 158OPENING VIEWPOINT: THE JOURNEY OF ABU
MUSAB AL-ZARQAWI 158
Primary and Secondary Motives: TheIdiosyncratic Quality of ReligiousTerrorism l6l
Understanding Jihad as a PrimaryReligious Motive: An Observationand Caveat 162
CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 6.1 . JIHAD:
STRUGGLING IN THE WAY OF GOD 163
A Case of Secondary Religious Motive:The Protocols of the Learned EldersofZion 164
Historical Cases in Point: Fighting, Dying,and Killing in the Name of the Faith 165
Judeo-Christian Antiquity 165CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 6.2. THE CONQUEST
OF CANAAN 166
Christian Crusades 166The Assassins 167A Secret Cult of Murder 168Modem Arab Islamist Extremism 168Cult Case: Mysticism and Rebellion in
Uganda 169State-Sponsored Religious Terrorism in the
Modern Era 170National Case: Iran 171Regional Case: Pakistan and India 173
CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 6.3. ASSAULT ON
MUMBAI 174
Dissident Religious Terrorism in theModern Era 175
Regional Case: Religious Zealotry in theMiddle East 176
Movement Case: The InternationalMujahideen (Holy Warriors forthe Faith) 179
Organization Case: Al-Qa'ida's ReligiousFoundation 180
National Case: The AlgerianJihadis 183
Cult Case: Aum Shinrikyo(Supreme Truth) 184
The Future of Religious Terrorism 186
Chapter Summary 188Key Terms and Concepts 188Discussion Box: The One True
Faith 189
On Your Own 190Recommended Websites and Web
Exercise 190Recommended Readings 190
7. Violent Ideologies: Terrorism fromthe Left and Right 192OPENING VIEWPOINT: RACIST SKINHEADS AS A
SUPPORTIVE ENVIRONMENT 192
Reactionaries and Radicals: The ClassicalIdeological Continuum 194
An Ideological Analysis: From the LeftFringe to the Right Fringe 196
Ideologies and Ideals 199Left-Wing Ideologies and Activism 204
CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 7 . 1 . REQUIRED
READING ON THE "NEW LEFT" 205
For the Exploited: Class Struggle 207For the People: Leftist Nationalism 208Special-Interest Extremism 209Problems on the Radical Left 210
Class Struggle and National Liberation: TheTerrorist Left 211
CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 7.2. VANGUARD
THEORY 212
Regional Case: Latin America 213Regional Case: Europe 216
Right-Wing Activism and Extremism 221Political Parties and Dissident
Movements 222Tradition and Order 223Right-Wing Nationalism 224Religion and Mysticism 225
Race and Order: The Terrorist Right 226
CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 7.3. VIOLENT
REACTIONARIES: CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
EXTREME RIGHT 227
Regional Case: Europe 228Violent Ideologies in the New Era of
Terrorism 232The "New Terrorism" 232The Terrorist Left in the New Era 232The Terrorist Right in the New Era 234
Chapter Summary 236
Key Terms and Concepts 237
Discussion Box 7.1: Young NationalistIdealists 239
Discussion Box 7.2: Order FromChaos 240
On Your Own 242
Recommended Websites and WebExercise 242
Recommended Readings 243
8. Terrorist Spillovers: InternationalTerrorism 244OPENING VIEWPOINT: TERRORISM IN THE AGE
OF GLOBALIZATION 244
CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 8 . 1 . THE CHANGING
ENVIRONMENT OF INTERNATIONAL
TERRORISM 246
Defining International Terrorism 248Expanding the Struggle: The Spillover
Effect 249Unambiguous International
Implications 252Terrorist Environments and
International Terrorism 253Globalized Revolution: Reasons for
International Terrorism 255Ideological Reasons: Modern "isms"
and International RevolutionarySolidarity 256
CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 8.2: COOPERATION
BETWEEN TERRORISTS: THE EUROPEAN
CONNECTION 257
Practical Reasons: Perceived
Efficiency 258Tactical Reasons: Adaptations
of Revolutionary Theory toInternational Operations 259
Historical Reasons: Perceptions ofInternational Terrorism 260
Globalized Solidarity: International TerroristNetworks 26l
CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 8.3. A REMARKABLE
EXAMPLE OF INTERNATIONAL TERRORISM: THE
9.
JAPANESE RED ARMY AND THE LOD (LYDDA)
AIRPORT MASSACRE 262
Cold War Terrorist-Networking
Theory 262International Terrorist
Environments 263The International Dimension of the New
Terrorism 265Movement Case: The Afghan Arabs at
War 265Organization Case: Al-Qa'ida and
International Terrorism 267
CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 8.4. BEYOND
AL-QA'IDA 270
Wartime Case: Terrorist Violence inIraq 271
Postscript: The "StatelessRevolutionaries" 272
The Japanese Red Army 272Al-Qa'ida 272Palestinian Nationalism 273
Chapter Summary 274
Key Terms and Concepts 274
Discussion Box: UnderstandingTerrorist "Spillovers": MiddleEastern and North AfricanSpillovers in Europe 275
On Your Own 275
Recommended Websites and WebExercise 276
Recommended Readings 276
Emerging Terrorist Environments:Gender-Selective PoliticalViolence and Criminal DissidentTerrorism 277
OPENING VIEWPOINT: THE JANJAWEED
CAMPAIGN AGAINST "ENEMY" WOMEN IN
DARFUR, SUDAN 277
Culture and Conflict: Gender-SelectedVictims of Terrorist Violence 279
Gender-Selective Terrorism AgainstMen 280
Background to Terrorism AgainstWomen: Cultural Repression andViolence 281
An Emerging Recognition: TerrorismAgainst Women 284
Responding to Gender-SelectivePolitical Violence 287
Protecting the Enterprise: Criminal DissidentTerrorism 288
The Criminal and Political TerrorismNexus 289
CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 9 . 1 : LEBANON'S
BEKA'A VALLEY 289
Traditional Criminal Enterprises 290Criminal-Political Enterprises 290Case in Point: The Logic of
Narco-terrorism 291
CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 9.2: THE TRI-BORDER
AREA OF SOUTH AMERICA 292
A Global Problem: Regional Cases ofCriminal Dissident Terrorism 294
Regional Case: Latin America 294Regional Case: Asia 299Regional Case: Europe 301
Chapter Summary 304
Key Terms and Concepts 305
Discussion Box: Political ViolenceAgainst Women: Gender CommunalTerrorism? 305
On Your Own 307
Recommended Websites and WebExercise 307
Recommended Readings 308
Part III. The Terrorist Trade andCounterterrorism 30910. Tools of the Trade: Tactics and
Targets of Terrorists 310
OPENING VIEWPOINT: THE ENGINEER 310
The Purpose: Terrorist Objectives 314Typical Objectives 314Playing to the Audience: Objectives,
Victims, and Constituencies 316
The New Terrorism and NewObjectives 319
The Means: Terrorist Methods 320Concept: Asymmetrical Warfare 321An Introduction to Common Methods
of Terrorists 323Weapons Old and New 324
CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 10 .1 . THE AL-QA'IDA
"TERRORIST MANUAL" 335
The Focus-. Terrorist Targets 337The Symbolism of Targets 339
CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 10.2. THE SYMBOLISM
OF TARGETS: TERRORIST ATTACKS AGAINST
THE UNITED STATES 341
The Outcome: Is Terrorism Effective? 342Media and Political Attention 343Having an Impact on an Audience 343
CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 10.3. TACTICAL
HORROR: DIGITAL, VIDEO, AND AUDIO
TERRORISM 344
Forcing Concessions From an EnemyInterest 345
Disruption of Normal Routines 345Provoking the State to Overreact 346Effective Terrorism: The King David
Hotel Bombing 347
Chapter Summary 348
Key Terms and Concepts 349
Discussion Box: Attacks Against theU.S. Marine and French ParatrooperHeadquarters in Beirut 350
On Your Own 351
Recommended Websites and WebExercise 351
Recommended Readings 352
11. The Information Battleground:Terrorist Violence and the Role of theMedia 353
OPENING VIEWPOINT: MEDIA-ORIENTED TERROR
AND LEBANON'S HEZBOLLAH 353
Two Perspectives: The Media andGovernments 354
The Perspective of the Media 354The Perspective of Governments 355
Understanding the Role of theMedia 356
Publicizing the Cause 356Spreading the Word: Mass
Communications and the Terrorists'Message 357
CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 11 .1 . DELIVERING THE
MESSAGE 358
No More Printing Presses: MassCommunications and the"New Media" 36l
Truth and Consequences: ReportingTerrorism 362
CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 11.2. AL
JAZEERA 363
A New Battleground: The Warfor the Information HighGround 366
Practical Considerations: Using theMedia 367
Information Is Power: The Media as aWeapon 370
Problems on the New Battleground:The Risk of Backlash 372
The Public's Right to Know: Regulating theMedia 373
The Free Press 374
CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 11.3.
SELF-REGULATION AND THE AMERICAN
MEDIA 374
The State-Regulated Press 376
Chapter Summary 377
Key Terms and Concepts 378
Discussion Box: Freedom of Reportingand Security Issues 378
On Your Own 379
Recommended Websites and WebExercise 379
Recommended Readings 380
12. The American Case: Terrorism in theUnited States 381
OPENING VIEWPOINT: LYNCHING—VIGILANTE
COMMUNAL TERRORISM IN THE UNITED
STATES 381
An Introduction to the American Case 383Weighing the Origins of Terrorism in
the United States 385Background to Terrorism: Left-Wing
Activism and Ideological Extremism inAmerica 386
Origins of the Modern Civil RightsMovement 387
The Rise of Black Power 387Growth of the New Left 388
Left-Wing Terrorism in the UnitedStates 389
CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 12 .1 . SEEDS OF
TERRORISM: RADICALS ON THE AMERICAN
LEFT 390
Generational Rebellion: New LeftTerrorism 392
Civil Strife: Ethnonationalist Terrorismon the Left 395
The Revolution Continues: LeftistHard Cores 399
Case: The United FreedomFront 400
Single-Issue Violence on the Left • 401Background to Terrorism: Rightist
Activism and Ideological Extremism inAmerica 402
Religious Politics and the"Christian Right" 403
Rise of the AntigovernmentPatriots 403
CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 12.2.
CONSPIRACY THEORIES ON THE AMERICAN
RIGHT 405
Racial Supremacy: An Old ProblemWith New Beginnings 407
Racial Mysticism 408Race and the Bible: The Christian
Identity Creation Myth 408Right-Wing Terrorism in the United
States 409CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 12.3. SEEDS OF
TERRORISM: REACTIONARIES ON THE
AMERICAN RIGHT 409
Homegrown Racism: The Legacy
oftheKuKluxKlan 411Racial Mysticism: Neo-Nazi
Terrorism 413
Patriot Threats 415Case in Point: Moralist Terrorism 417
International Terrorism in the UnitedStates 420
The Spillover Effect in the UnitedStates 420
The New Terrorism in the UnitedStates 421
Chapter Summary 425
Key Terms and Concepts 425
Discussion Box: Domestic Terrorism inthe American Context 426
On Your Own 427
Recommended Websites and WebExercise 427
Recommended Readings 428
Part IV. Securing theHomeland 42913. Counterterrorism: The Options 430
OPENING VIEWPOINT: THE DEATH OF OSAMA
BIN LADEN 430
Responding to Terror: The Scope ofOptions 432
Use of Force 432Operations Other Than War 432Legalistic Options 433
Warlike Operations: Counterterrorism andthe Use of Force 434
Maximum Use of Force: SuppressionCampaigns 435
CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 13 .1 . OPERATION EL
DORADO CANYON 439
War in the Shadows, Part 1: CoerciveCovert Operations 439
Surgical Use of Force: SpecialOperations Forces 443
CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 13.2. HOSTAGE
RESCUES 446
Operations Other Than War: RepressiveOptions 448
War in the Shadows, Part 2: NonviolentCovert Operations 448
Knowing the Enemy:Intelligence 450
Hardening the Target: EnhancedSecurity 451
Long-Term Coercion: EconomicSanctions 453
Operations Other Than War: ConciliatoryOptions 455
Reasoned Dialogue: DiplomaticOptions 455
Responding to Grievances: SocialReform 458
Giving Them What They Want:Concessionary Options 459
Applying the Rule of Law: LegalisticOptions 460
Law Enforcement andCounterterrorism: The GlobalPerspective 460
CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 13.3. THE ROLE OF
THE "INTERNATIONAL POLICE" 461
Domestic Laws andCounterterrorism 462
International Law: Legalistic Responses
by the World Community 463
Chapter Summary 466
Key Terms and Concepts 467Discussion Box: The Utility of Elite
Counterterrorist Units 469
On Your Own 469
Recommended Websites and WebExercise 470
Recommended Readings 470
14. A New Era: Homeland Security 472OPENING VIEWPOINT: THE CAPTURE OF MIR
AIMAL KANSI 472
Homeland Security in Perspective 473The Threat From Homegrown
Jihadists 474Crisis and Homeland Security 476
CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 14 .1 . DHS AREAS OF
RESPONSIBILITY 482
Homeland Security in the UnitedStates 482
Counterterrorist Laws 482
• Homeland Security Agencies 484The U.S. Intelligence Community:
Mission and Challenges 488
CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 14.2. WAGING WAR IN
THE ERA OF THE NEW TERRORISM 488
Civil Liberties and Securing theHomeland 492
Security and Liberty 492
CHAPTER PERSPECTIVE 14.3. THE UNITED
KINGDOM: SUSPENDING CIVIL LIBERTIES IN
NORTHERN IRELAND 493
Achieving Security 494Balancing Civil Liberties and Homeland
Security 496
Chapter Summary 499
Key Terms and Concepts 500
Discussion Box: After the Next9-11 500
On Your Own 501
Recommended Websites and WebExercise 501
Recommended Readings 502
15. What Next? The Future ofTerrorism 503
OPENING VIEWPOINT: CARNIVORE 503
An Overview of Near-TermProjections 504
Terrorism by States and Dissidents 506Whither the "Old Terrorism"? 507
The Future of Terrorism: New Threats 508Terrorist Environments in the 21st
Century 508
The World in Conflict: Future Sourcesof Terrorism 510
High-Tech Terrorism 514Soft Targets and Terrorist
Symbolism 517Controlling Terrorism:
New Challenges 517Government Responses 518Societal Responses 518Countering Extremism 518New Fronts in a New War 518The Continued Utility of Force 520Countering Terrorist Financial
Operations 520The Case for International
Cooperation 522Threats to the Homeland: Prospects for
Terrorism in the United States 524The Future of International
Terrorism 524The Future of the Violent Left 524The Future of the Violent Right 525
Chapter Summary 525
A Final Thought 526
Key Terms and Concepts 527
Discussion Box: Toward BigBrother? 527
On Your Own 527
Recommended Readings 528
APPENDIX: MAP REFERENCES A-l
GLOSSARY G-l
INDEX 1-1
PHOTO CREDITS C-l
Note: Appendix: Historical Examples, which presents a more extensive version of the timeline printedin the front and back of this book, is available on the companion study site at www.sagepub.com/martin4e
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