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The Asia-Pacific Journal | Japan Focus Volume 13 | Issue 11 | Number 3 | Mar 16, 2015
1
Africa and China's 21st Century Maritime Silk Road アフリカと中国21世紀の海のシルクロード
Alvin Cheng-Hin Lim
Abstract: This paper considers Africa's place in
China's 21st Century Maritime Silk Road. The
Maritime Silk Road is a major component of the
"Belt and Road" development framework
announced by Chinese President Xi Jinping in
late 2013. While the People's Republic of China
has been actively engaged in Africa since 1960,
t h e M a r i t i m e S i l k R o a d p r o m i s e s a n
intensification of Chinese investment on the
continent, especially in infrastructural projects
including the construction of railways, airports
and deepwater por ts . The paper wi l l
contextualize these development projects in
China's new normal of single-digit growth, and
explain that the "Belt and Road" should be seen
as one of China's new engines of growth. The
paper will conclude with an examination of the
question of whether China is engaged in
neocolonialism in Africa.
Keywords: China, Africa, Development,
Infrastructure, Silk Road
Introduction: Encountering China in Yola
In August 2011 I arrived in Yola, the capital of
Nigeria's Adamawa State, to start work as an
assistant professor at the American University of
Nigeria (AUN). Tiny Yola, which resembles a
large village, is very different from Nigeria's
cosmopolitan megacity Lagos, and Adamawa
State is a region with one of the lowest levels of
development in Nigeria. As such I was very
surprised when I encountered a plethora of
Chinese products in this sleepy corner of Nigeria.
Our faculty houses were equipped with DVD
players, refrigerators, washing machines, water
dispensers, and other consumer electronic
products from Chinese multinational firms like
Haier and Cway. Apart from these consumer
products, Oasis Bakery in our neighborhood was
owned and managed by a hardworking
expatriate from China who had chosen to settle
in Nigeria.
In a seminar I conducted that semester on
Chinese investment in Nigeria, one of the
APJ | JF 13 | 11 | 3
2
Nigerian participants observed that AUN's
campus police had purchased Jincheng
motorcycles for its security patrols.1 Another
Nigerian participant recounted his visit to the
athletes' accommodations constructed by China
Civil Engineering Construction Corporation for
the 2003 All-Africa Games in the Nigerian capital
city Abuja:
I have personally visited this Games
Village and in my opinion it is an
a m a z i n g r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e
relationship between China and
Nigeria. The houses were very well
constructed with very nice parking
spaces and a neat environment. The
furnishing of the houses was also
remarkable as there were adire (local
Nigerian fabric) curtains inside. This
il lustrates the good working
relationship between Nigeria and
China as the Chinese are sensitive to
our preferences.2
These instances of the Chinese presence in
Nigeria are part of a vast wave of Chinese
investment and economic engagement in Africa,
a wave which will intensify under China's
development plans for what it has described as
the 21st Century Maritime Silk Road.
The "Belt and Road" and China's New Normal
In September 2013 Chinese President Xi Jinping
announced, during a speech at Nazarbayev
University in Astana, Kazakhstan, the strategic
vision of the Silk Road Economic Belt, a
transcontinental zone of economic development
stretching from China across Central Asia and
the Middle East to Europe, an area that maps
over the ancient trade routes of the Silk Road.3
The following month President Xi announced in
a speech to the Indonesian parliament the
strategic vision of the 21st Century Maritime Silk
Road, a zone of economic development that
maps along the key ports and maritime trade
routes of the South China Sea and Indian Ocean.4
Both strategic visions come together under the
"Belt and Road" framework, which offers Chinese
funding, expertise, and industrial technology in
the implementation of massive infrastructural
projects in the geographical areas coming under
the Silk Road Economic Belt and 21st Century
Maritime Silk Road. These projects, ranging from
the construction of airports and railways to the
redevelopment of deepwater ports, represent
important opportunities for Chinese companies
to expand and diversify their businesses by going
APJ | JF 13 | 11 | 3
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global.5 It is not just these Chinese companies
who will benefit from the projects, of course.
China's partner countries can expect to accelerate
their economic development thanks to the
improvements in their infrastructure, without
having to worry about political interference in
their internal affairs.6 The Chinese government
takes a long-term view of the "Belt and Road"
projects. As Foreign Minister Wang Yi mentioned
in a speech in Nairobi, Kenya in January 2015:
"When Premier Li Keqiang visited
the headquarters of African Union
last year, Chairperson of African
Union Commission Ms. Nkosazana
Dlamini Zuma said that African
people cherish a dream that one day
the capitals of all African countries
will be l inked by high-speed
railways. As a good friend of Africa,
China is willing to make efforts to
help African friends realize the
dream. It is a century project that
requires comprehensive planning
and gradual advancement."7
Wang Yi in Nairobi, January 2015.
The "Belt and Road" initiatives come at a key
period for China. After enjoying double digit
GDP growth in the first decade of the 2000s,
China's growth has decelerated to what its
leadership has described as a new normal of
single digit growth.8 At the annual meeting of the
National People's Congress in March 2015,
Premier Li Keqiang announced that the
government has lowered the annual growth
target to 7%.9 This contrasts with previous
decades when China enjoyed an average growth
rate of approximately 10% between 1978 and
2013, with 11.5% between 2003 and 2007. In 2012
and 2013 growth decelerated to 7.7%, ushering in
the new normal of medium-to-high growth and
development, and triggering the need for the
Chinese government to find new engines of
growth.10 The "Belt and Road" framework can be
placed in this context as one of China's new
engines of growth, offering fresh sources of
employment and business opportunities to
enable China to achieve what President Xi has
highlighted in his political theory of the "Four
Comprehensives" as the national goal of a
moderately prosperous society.11 In particular,
the employment opportunities created by the
"Belt and Road" initiatives will be needed for the
15 million students who are expected to graduate
from universities, technical and middle schools
and join the workforce in 2015, as well as the 3
million surplus rural labourers who are also
expected to join these students on the
employment market. 1 2
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Africa and the 21st Century Maritime Silk Road
The African continent's position on the "Belt and
Road" is located at the far west of the 21st Century
Maritime Silk Road. Historically, the eastern
coast of Africa is remembered as the westernmost
stop on Admiral Zheng He's epic 15th century
voyages across the Indian Ocean. In 2005 there
was great fanfare in the Chinese press when
Mwamaka Sharifu, a Kenyan girl who was
reportedly the descendant of one of Zheng He's
Chinese sailors, received a scholarship from the
Chinese government in commemoration of the
600th anniversary of Zheng He's first voyage
across the Indian Ocean.13 The infrastructural
projects to be undertaken in Africa under the
"Belt and Road" framework include the
development of deepwater ports in coastal cities
including Bizerte, Tunisia; Dakar, Senegal; Dar es
Salaam, Tanzania; Djibouti, Djibouti; Libreville,
Gabon; Maputo, Mozambique; and Tema, Ghana.
These will be key sites of the transcontinental
exchange of manufactured goods and
commodities between Asian and African
economies along the Maritime Silk Road.14 These
ports are also likely to be developed as industrial
hubs , fo l lowing the model of China 's
development of the new Cameroonian deepwater
port of Kribi. While China Harbor Engineering
Company started constructing the new port in
June 2011, the development plan also includes
the creation of a 260 square kilometer industrial
zone, as well as roads and railways connecting
Kribi to major cities in Cameroon, projects which
will be undertaken by other Chinese companies.15
In Kenya, China is constructing a railway
connecting the capital city Nairobi with the port
city of Mombasa. This will eventually be
expanded into a regional rail corridor connecting
Kenya-one of the African gateways to the
Maritime Silk Road-with Uganda, Burundi, and
South Sudan.16
As the Kribi port development project in
Cameroon shows, Chinese firms have been active
in Africa long before the 2013 announcement of
the 21st Century Maritime Silk Road. According
to statistics compiled by the State Council of
China in 2013:
China has become Africa's largest
trade partner, and Africa is now
China's second largest overseas
construction project contract market
and the fourth largest investment
destination … Up to now, China has
completed 1,046 projects in Africa,
building 2,233 kilometers of
railways and 3,530 kilometers of
roads, among others, promoting
intra-African trade and helping it
integrate into the global economy.17
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Serve the revolutionary people of the world, 1971.
An early infrastructural project was the TanZam
railway between Tanzania and Zambia, which
was built between October 1970 and June 1975,
and involved not just Chinese financing, but also
the participation of 50,000 Chinese engineers and
laborers, 65 of whom perished during the
arduous construction.18 The beginning of the
engagement of the People's Republic of China
with Africa dates back a decade earlier to 1960,
when China provided an interest-free loan of 100
million RMB to Guinea's newly independent
socialist government for the construction of a
slate of aid projects including factories,
plantations, and paddy fields. Other newly-
decolonized African states received similar aid
packages from China.19 Over the subsequent
decades, China's engagement with Africa
changed in tandem with changes in its domestic
political economy. The rise of China's private
corporations after the economic liberalization of
the 1980s saw a transition from state-owned
enterprises to private businesses in the
implementation of Chinese development projects
overseas.20 Recent examples of such projects
include China Railway Group's Light Railway in
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, the first phase of which
was recently completed;2 1 China Railway
Construction Corporation's Abuja-Kaduna
railway in Nigeria, which was completed in
December 2014, and which is the first phase of a
larger railway modernization project connecting
Lagos with Kano;22 and the Lobito-Luau railway
in Angola, also built by China Railway
Construction Corporation, which will eventually
be connected to the Angola-Zambia and the
Tanzania-Zambia railways.23 Likewise, Chinese
engineering firms like China Civil Engineering
Construction Corporation, China Airport
Construction Group Corporation, and China
Harbour Engineering Company are constructing
airports across the continent, including airports
in Angola, Comoros, Djibouti, Gabon, Kenya,
Nigeria, Sudan, Tanzania, and Togo.24 Apart
from the transportation sector, Chinese
companies are also involved in Africa's energy
sector, including hydropower dams in Ethiopia
and Uganda;25 biogas development in Guinea,
Sudan and Tunisia; and solar and wind power
plants in Ethiopia, Morocco, and South Africa.
Other economic sectors Chinese companies are
actively involved with in Africa include
agriculture, construction, healthcare, mining, and
industrial manufacturing. A recent count
estimates over 2,000 Chinese companies are
engaged across almost every country on the
African continent.26
To finance these and other projects under the
APJ | JF 13 | 11 | 3
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"Belt and Road" framework, China has created a
number of key financial institutions. In
November 2014, President Xi announced the
creation of a 40 billion USD Silk Road Fund. The
bulk of its financing will come from the Chinese
government, with the remainder from China
Investment Corporation, China Development
Bank Capital Company, and the Export-Import
Bank of China.27 In July 2014, China and its
partners in the so-called BRICS bloc-Brazil,
Russia, India, and South Africa-contributed 100
billion USD to establish the New Development
Bank, an alternative to the U.S.-dominated World
Bank and International Monetary Fund for
emerging economies to raise funds for
infrastructural development.28 China also
established the Asian Infrastructure Investment
Bank in 2014, with other founding members from
across Asia, the Middle East, and other countries
including New Zealand and the United
Kingdom. Like the Silk Road Fund and the New
Development Bank, the Asian Infrastructure
Investment Bank offers funding for infrastructure
projects.29 China has also created smaller
investment vehicles to finance infrastructural and
other overseas business projects.30 The deepwater
port development projects listed earlier, for
example, will be partly financed by investment
vehicles set up by China and Thailand.31
The Neocolonial Question
Hillary Clinton in Zambia, June 2011.
While China has cancelled the debts of some of
its crisis-stricken partner countries, or offered
them grants or zero-interest loans to pay for
Chinese development projects,32 most of the loans
issued by Chinese financial institutions have to
be repaid by the recipient countries. In certain
cases, China allows its partners to pay for their
development projects by bartering their local
products, in particular natural resources. China
and a number of African states have had such
countertrade arrangements since the 1980s, and
since then China has received key primary
products including oil, rubber, and minerals as
payment for development loans.33 These deals
involving extraction of natural resources have led
to accusations that China is engaging in
neocolonialism in Africa, as was voiced by U.S.
Secretary of State Hillary Clinton during a visit to
Zambia in June 2011.34 Such criticisms have also
been voiced by a number of African leaders who
are concerned about China's growing economic
clout.35 While popular African perceptions of
APJ | JF 13 | 11 | 3
7
China's economic engagement remain generally
positive across the continent,36 positive public
opinion concerning the benefits of Chinese
investment to their local economies are on the
decline.37 Foreign Minister Wang Yi's recent
announcement that Chinese diplomacy in 2015
will focus on building international cooperation
for the "Belt and Road" reflects the government's
sense of urgency,38 especially given a recent
diplomatic setback in Sri Lanka,39 and India's
continued deferral, arising from old suspicions of
what it calls the "string of pearls" geopolitical
threat.40 from accepting China's invitation to
participate in the "Belt and Road."41
The continued acceptance of Chinese investments
over the past five and a half decades by African
states and their people is an important sign that
China's presence in Africa should be seen as that
of a partner in economic development rather
than that of an aspiring neocolonial hegemon.42
In historical context, the criticisms of China's
engagement with Africa in the Western press
today echo Western colonial fears in the 1930s of
Japan's growing influence in Africa.43 A number
of African and Western experts have joined the
public conversation in critiquing the accusations
of neocolonialism voiced by Secretary of State
Clinton and others. The Zambian economist
Dambisa Moyo, for instance, has pointed out that
the empirical evidence of China's activities in
Africa shows that its interests are purely
commercial and that it has no interest in
undermining the political structure, much less
the sovereignty, of its African partners.44 (The key
exception is China's interest in keeping its
partners from offering diplomatic recognition to
Taiwan. A country will break relations with
Beijing should it recognize Taiwan as "China";
but even in this situation Chinese enterprises in
the country have been known to continue
functioning despite the loss of diplomatic
relations.45) The political economist Deborah
Brautigam reminds us that China's swaps of
infrastructure for resources with its African
partners are based on its positive experience with
swapping its own oil for Japanese industrial
technology in the late 1970s. The industrial
infrastructure and technological training thus
received from Japan formed one of the bases for
China's subsequent economic take-off in the
1980s. As such, China sees the s imilar
arrangements it has made with its partner
countries in Africa and elsewhere as similarly
offering mutual benefits for their economic
development.46
While China's overseas investments are certainly
open to scrutiny, it is essential to consider these
in the context of projects from other countries: it
is by no means necessarily true that Chinese
projects offer worse outcomes than those from
the West . 4 7 Indeed, when looked at in
comparative perspective, it is clear that China's
infrastructural investments in particular fill a
development gap in Africa that the West has
APJ | JF 13 | 11 | 3
8
largely ignored, 48 and that China's massive
imports of African commodities have accelerated
African trade and expanded the market for
African exports,49 creating the conditions for the
continent's dramatic recent economic growth.50
Africa's recent rapid growth, which mirrors
China's own economic take-off three decades
earlier, suggests that, like the Chinese enterprises
that came before them, African enterprises, given
the right economic conditions, will be able to
hold their own against competition from Asia
and the West. The implication is that the
neocolonial narrative about China's engagement
with Africa is defeatist in its dire prognosis about
the ability of African enterprises to compete
against Chinese and other multinational
corporations in the global market. Consider the
case of textiles. While the textile industry in some
African economies failed to withstand
competition from China and other global
competitors, the same industry in other African
economies like Kenya's and Madagascar's was
able to meet the international competition and
recover and grow.51 Indeed, the textile industry is
one of the mature industries that the Chinese
government has encouraged to move offshore, to
allow Chinese industry to move up the value
chain, and Chinese entrepreneurs from the textile
and other mature industries have settled and
taken up citizenship in African countries like
Lesotho, further developing the local economies
with their industrial knowledge, and deepening
the commercial and technical know-how of their
local colleagues and employees.52 Such capacity
building can accelerate the movement of African
industries up the value chain, as was the
experience of the mature Chinese enterprises
themselves in the 1990s and 2000s. Africa's
movement up the industrial value chain can
already be seen in the emergence of an
indigenous automobile industry.53 This shows
that, rather than defeatism, optimism is
warranted when projecting the probable
outcomes of China's continued engagement with
Africa.
Alvin Cheng-Hin Lim is a research fellow with
the Longus Institute for Development and
Strategy, and is the author of Cambodia and the
P o l i t i c s o f A e s t h e t i c s
(http://www.amazon.com/dp/1135132593/?tag
=theasipacjo0b-20) (Routledge 2013). He received
his Ph.D. in Political Science from the University
of Hawaii at Manoa, and has taught at
Pannasastra University of Cambodia and the
American University of Nigeria.
E m a i l : a l v i n c h @ h a w a i i . e d u
(https://apjjf.org/mailto:alvinch@hawaii.edu).
W e b :
https://manoa-hawaii.academia.edu/AlvinLim
Recommended citation: Alvin Cheng-Hin Lim,
"Africa and China's 21st Century Maritime Silk
Road", The Asia-Pacific Journal, Vol. 13, Issue 10,
No. 1, March 16, 2015.
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Notes
1 Joseph Ishaku, "Chinese Products' Presence in
Nigeria: The Case of Motorcycles" (seminar
paper, American University of Nigeria, 2011), 7.
2 Lawrence Osekhale Iriogbe, "China in Africa:
Nigeria as a Case Study" (seminar paper,
American University of Nigeria, 2011), 6.
3 Wu Jiao and Zhang Yunbi, "Xi proposes a 'new
S i l k R o a d ' w i t h C e n t r a l A s i a
(http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2013-09/0
8/content_16952304.htm)," China Daily,
September 8, 2013, accessed March 12, 2015.
4 Wu Jiao and Zhang Yunbi, "Xi in call for
b u i l d i n g o f n e w ' m a r i t i m e s i l k r o a d
(http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2013-10/0
4/content_17008940.htm),'" China Daily, October
4, 2013, accessed March 12, 2015.
5 Deborah Brautigam, The Dragon's Gift: The Real
Story of China in Africa (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2009), 103-104. Zhang Yuzhe,
"With New Funds, China Hits a Silk Road Stride
(http://english.caixin.com/2014-12-03/10075841
9.html)," Caixin, December 3, 2014, accessed
March 12, 2015.
6 Shi Ze, "'One Road & One Belt' & New Thinking
With Regard To Concepts And Practice
(http://newparadigm.schillerinstitute.com/medi
a/one-road-and-one-belt-and-new-thinking-
with-regard-to-concepts-and-practice/)," 30th
Anniversary Conference of the Schiller Institute,
October 18, 2014, accessed March 12, 2015.
7 "Wang Yi: China Is Ready to Work for Africa's
D r e a m o f B u i l d i n g
(http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/wjb_66330
4/wjbz_663308/activities_663312/t1227709.shtml
)," Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the People's
Republic of China, January 11, 2015, accessed
March 12, 2015.
8 Kenneth Rapoza, "Double Digits No More,
China & India Govts Want To Grow Slow
(http://www.forbes.com/sites/kenrapoza/2012
/04/10/double-digits-no-more-china-india-
govts-want-to-grow-slow/)," Forbes, April 10,
2012, accessed March 12, 2015.
9 Chen Jia, Dai Tian, Zhao Yinan, "Growth rate
s l o w s , s t r u c t u r a l r e f o r m p r e d i c t e d
(http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2015two
session/2015-03/05/content_19723073.htm),"
China Daily, March 5, 2015, accessed March 12,
2015.
10 "China aims at medium-to-high speed of
growth with twin engines: gov't report
(http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2015-03/0
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11 "Xi's 'Four Comprehensives' a strategic
APJ | JF 13 | 11 | 3
15
b l u e p r i n t f o r C h i n a
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5/c_134039426.htm)" Xinhua, March 5, 2015,
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1 2 "China faces arduous task of ensuring
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14 Atul Aneja, "China steps up drive to integrate
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15 Shannon Tiezzi, "What's It Like to Have China
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16 Cheng Lu, "Return of maritime Silk Road does
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17 "China-Africa relations: something besides
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1 8 "Backgrounder: China's major railway
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19 Brautigam, Dragon's Gift, 31-34.
20 Brautigam, Dragon's Gift, 79.
21 "China-funded light rail project puts Ethiopia
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22 Chen Boyuan, "Chinese company completes
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APJ | JF 13 | 11 | 3
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25 Peter Bosshard,"China's Global Dam Builder at
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26 "China-Africa relations." Ronald Ssekandi and
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27 Zhang Yuzhe, "Gov't Said to Name Three to
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28 Zhang Yuzhe, "With New Funds."
29 "Asian Infrastructure Development Bank to be
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015-01-02/news/57611692_1_ai ib-as ian-
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30 Zhang Yuzhe, "With New Funds."
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32 Brautigam, Dragon's Gift, 136-137.
33 Brautigam, Dragon's Gift, 56.
34 "Clinton Chastises China on Internet, African
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35 Lamido Sanusi, "Africa must get real about
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36 Pew Research Center, "Chapter 2: China's
I m a g e
(http://www.pewglobal.org/2014/07/14/chapt
er-2-chinas-image/)," Global Opposition to U.S.
Surveillance and Drones, but Limited Harm to
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2015.
37 Katie Simmons, "U.S., China compete to woo
A f r i c a
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8/04/u-s-china-compete-to-woo-africa/)," Pew
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38 "China's 2015 diplomacy focuses on 'Belt and
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39 Chen Qin and Huang Shan, "Sri Lanka Tells
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12, 2015.
40 Shee Poon Kim, "An Anatomy of China's
' S t r i n g o f P e a r l s ' S t r a t e g y
(http://www.biwako.shiga-u.ac.jp/eml/Ronso/
387/Kim.pdf)," The Hikone Ronso 387 (2011),
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Touring Indian Ocean to Keep China's
S u b m a r i n e s a t B a y
(http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/20
15-03-09/modi-tours-indian-ocean-to-keep-
china-and-its-submarines-at-bay)," Bloomberg,
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41 "China invites India to join its Maritime Silk
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42 The growing American military presence in
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F o r Y e a r s
(http://www.thenation.com/article/179324/us-
military-has-been-war-africa-sly-years)," The
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See also Nick Turse, "US Special Forces Are
Operating in More Countries Than You Can
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special-forces-are-operating-more-countries-you-
can-imagine)," The Nation, January 20, 2015,
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43 Richard Bradshaw and Jim Ransdell, "Japan,
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2015.
44 Dambisa Moyo, Winner Take All: China's Race
for Resources and What It Means for Us (London:
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45 Brautigam, Dragon's Gift, 67-69.
46 Brautigam, Dragon's Gift, 46-48.
47 Barry Sautman and Yan Hairong, "Gilded
Outside, Shoddy Within: The Human Rights
Watch report on Chinese copper mining in
Zambia (https://apjjf.org/-Yan-Hairong/3668),"
The Asia-Pacific Journal 9 (2011), accessed March
12, 2015.
48 Barry Sautman and Yan Hairong, "Trade,
Investment, Power and the China-in-Africa
D i s c o u r s e
(https://apjjf.org/-Yan-Hairong/3278)," The
Asia-Pacific Journal 9 (2009), accessed March 12,
2015.
49 Dambisa Moyo, "Beijing, a Boon for Africa
(http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/28/opinion
/beijing-a-boon-for-africa.html)," New York Times,
June 27, 2012, accessed March 12, 2015.
5 0 "The Hopeful Continent: Africa Rising
(http://www.economist.com/node/21541015),"
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12, 2015. World Bank, Africa Rising: A Tale of
Growth , Inequa l i ty and Grea t Promise
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APJ | JF 13 | 11 | 3
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51 Brautigam, Dragon's Gift, 219.
52 Brautigam, Dragon's Gift, 222-223.
53 Farai Gundan, "Made In Africa: Three Cars
Designed And Manufactured In Africa
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