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Pakistan Affairs
ALL ABOUT PAKISTAN AFFAIRS
LIST OF SUFFIS AND ULEMA`S
1. Hazrat sheikh bukhari2. Hazrat datta ghanj baksh3. Hazrat khuwaja mohiddin chushti4. Hazrat bhaw-al-din zikriya5. Hazrat fareed-al-din6. Hazrat Alla-al-din sabbir7. Hazrat majadid alaf saani8. Hazrat shah wali ullah9. Hazrat sheikh abdul haq muhdas10. Hazrat lal shebaaz ali qalander
11. Hazrat abdul-latif bhitai12. Hazrat syed ali hamdani13. Hazrat jalal-al-din sulheti14. mulana mohd qasim nanutuye15. mulana Ahmed ali khan brelwi16. mulana mehmood-al-hassan devbandi17. mulana ubaid allah sindhi18. mulana ashraf ali khanuwi19. mulana shabbit ahmed usmani
Mahmud Ghaznavi (977 - 1030)
Mahmud ghaznavi was the muslim ruler of ghazni who gained fame by raidingindia on seventeem times from 1000 to 1027 A.D. On each occasion he defeatedhindu kings and returned to Ghazni with enormous wealth.He is the person whobring Islam in sub-continent by capturing the Sommnath.
Sheikh Ahmed Sirhindi (RA)
Sheikh Ahmed Sirhindi was a muslim saint and scholar who flourished during thereigns of Akbar and Jahangir. He differed with etheistic view of Sheikh Mubarakand his sons Faizi and Abul Fazl.Jahangir imprisoned him for his religious activitiesbut released him shortly afterwards. Sheikh ahmed Sirhindi propounded thedoctrine of Wahdatul Shahud which successfully countered the Bhakti philosophyof Wahdatul Wujud.
Ibrahim Lodhi (1517-26)
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Ibrahim Lodhi was the last lodhi sultan of Delhi. He was defeated by Babur in theFirst Battle of Panipat in 1526.
MUGHAL EMPIRE
After defeating the Ibrahim lodhi ,The mughal empire had been came in existenceby Zahir-ul-din Babur
1. Zahir-ul-din Babur2. Humayun3. Akber4. Jahangir5. Shahjahan6. Orangzeb alamgir7. Bhadur Shah Zafar
Downfall of muslim rule (CAUSES)
1.Ignorance of religious beliefs2. Lack of solidarity3. Centralization of mughul Administration4. No law of succession5. Weakness of Character6.Educational Decline7. Military weakness8. No naval Force
Establishment of British rule
The british east India company was struggling for gaining ground to establishitself permanently on the subcontinent since 1600 A.D. The other Europeancolonialist powers had lost their will to keep themselves in row with the Englishbecause of their superiority on seas. Lord Clive established English influence onsound footing and returned to england in 1787When no rival European power was left on the scene , the English took advantageof the unsettled conditions of India and consolidated themselves politically.Theyclevely played one local ruler against the other and conquered India with themight of india.They demonstrated a great diplomati skill and employed improved
arms with a better knowledge of warfare. The indian rulers at last fell a victim totheir own entanglement. They were either forced to accept the authority of EastIndia Company or to be completely wiped off.This process of expansion of thebritish occupation od India continued in one form orthe other.Kingdom afterkingdom fell and then English finally pushed themselves ahead to succeed themughuls.Jehad Movement
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Jehad Movement was started by Syed Ahmed Barelvi and his companions in the
first half of the 19th century.This movement aimed at taking back control of India
from the british and the Sikhs. Jehad movement met some sucess in its early stage
when the Mujahideen defeated Sikh army and captured Peshawar.
Two Nation Theory
It is the theory that the hindus and muslims are two different nations because
each of them has a separate religion, language, architecture, culture and way of
life. This theory formed the basis of the pakistan movement which finally led to
the creation of pakistan in 1947. Allama Iqbal and Quaid-e-Azam were the
greatest exponents of Two-NationTheory.
In the view of Allama Iqbal:
"India is a continent of human groups belonging to different races , speaking
different languages and professing different religions....Even the Hindus do notform a homogeneous group. The principle of European democracy can not b
applied to india without recognizing the fact of communal groups The muslims
demand for the creation of a muslim india within India is, therefore, perfectly
justified"
According to Quaid-e-Azam
"We maintain and hold that Muslims and Hindus are two major nations by any
definition or test of a nation.We are a nation of a hundred million and what is
more we are a nation with our own distinct culture and civilization, language and
literature, art and architecture, names nad nomenclature, sense of values and
proportion"
Hindi-Urdu Controversy (1867)
Hindi- Urdu Controversy became the focus of nation attention in 1867 when some
hindus of benarus tried to replace urdu with hindi as the court language. Sir syed
ahmed was disappointed at the anti-Muslim attitude of Hindus.
War of Independence (1857)
The muslim of the Sub-continent fought a war of Independence in 1857 to
overthrow the British Raj.However, this war could not succeed because it lacked
competent leadership, coordination troops , military and financial resources and
modern weapons. After the war, the British held the muslim responsible for this
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catastrophe and unleashed a wave of oppression and repression on them
M.A.O college Aligarh
In 1875, Muhammad Anglo-Oriental High school was founded by Sir syed ahmed
khan. Two years later, in 1877 it was given the status of a college. It functioned
from 1877 to 1919 and educated thousands of muslim students who formed the
vanguard of pakistan movement.This college was given the status of a muslim
university in 1920,after the death of Sir syed ahmed khan.
Deoband Movement
Deoband movement was a socio-religious movement of Indian in the later half of
the 19th century. It was started by Maulana Mohd Qasim Nanautvi in 1866. It
aimed at educating the muslims in purely religious subjects by keeping english out
of its syllabus. It laid stress on Arabic and Persion languages.
Nadva-tul-Ulema, Lucknow
In 1894, Nadva-tu-Ulema, lucknow was founded by Maulana Abdul Ghafoor andMaulana Shibli Nomani. Nadva aimed at reforming Muslim society by imparting
both ecclesiastical and secular knowledge to muslims
Anjuman Himayat-e-Islam, Lahore
Anjuman himayat-e-Islam ,lahore was established in 1884. Khalifa hameeduddin
and Maulvi Ghulam Ullah were elected as its first president and secretary
respectively.Later on, the Anjuman opened many educational and welfare
institutionsion Lahore. Out of these Islamia college Railway road became very
famous. The students of Islamia college arranged the annual meeting of muslimleague at Lahore on 23rd march 1940 which passed lahore resolution.
First Constituent Assembly
First constituent assembly held its first meeting on 10th august,1947.Originally it
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comprised of 69 members of Central legislature belonging to punjab,sindh,NWFP
and Baluchistan.Later on,the numer of members was raised to 79.This first
constituent assemble was dissolved by ghulam mohammad in oct,1954.
Objectives Resolution
The Contituent Assembly approved the objective resolution on 12th mar,1949.It
embodied the basic principles for the future contituent of pakistan.The objective
resolution stated that the sovereignty belonged to Allah and declared that the
Muslims of pakistan would lead their lives according to the principles of Islam and
The minorities would b free to practise their religions.
Ulema`s 22 Points
The Govt of pakistan convened a convention of Ulema from 21-24th jan 1951 at
karachi.The convention was attended by 31 muslim religious scholars belonging to
all sects od Islam.The Ulema agreed on 22 points
Establishment of pakistan (Initial problems and events)
1. Demarcation of boundaries .....Radcliffe`s Award
2. Congress Reaction
3. Uprooting of muslim in punjab
4. Refugees problem and their resettlement5. Division of Armed forces and Military Assets
6. Division of financial Assets
7. Canal Water Dispute
8. Accession of Princely states (junagarh,kashmir and hyderabad)
9. economic problems and political problems
10. Constitutional problem
11. Death of Quaid-e-Azam
Indus water Treaty
Indus water treaty was signed by india and pakistan in 1960to resolve the
outstanding canal water dispute between the two countries
Rann of Kutch
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Rann of Kutch is a wide stretch of marshy land situated towards the south-east of
pakistan. In 1965 this area became a scene of border clash betweem india and
pak.
Six Points of Mujid-ur-rehman
In feb 1966, Sheikh Mujib the leader of Awami league announced his 6 points,
which demanded maximum autonomy for East pakistan.Later on, these points
became the basis for the separation movement by Bengalis.
Liaquat - Nehru Pact
Liaquat Ali khan and Nehru signed a pact on 8th april 1950 in delhi.According to
this agreement, both the countries agreed to protect the rights of their minorities
and undertook to stop propaganda against each other.
Simla Accord
The 1971 Indo-pak was abd the insurgency of bengalis resulted in the separation
of east pakistan. The way brought in its wake many issue, which included the
release of PoWs, trial of selected PoWs, return of Baharis to pakistan and
recognition of bangladesh . In july 1972, Z.A.Bhutto and Indira Gandhi signed anAccord in simla which is historically known as simla accord
Languages of pakistan
Pakistan is a multi-lingual country. About thirty-one distinct languages are spoken
in pakistan, not counting a number of dialects, but no single language is commonly
spoken or understood in all parts of the country.Many of the languages are spoken
by a relatively small proportion of the population and some are not even
commonly written, but sentiment and association among the speakers is almost
invariably opposed to absorption into one of the larger units. With minor exceptionall the languages are also spoken outside the country
Ratio of languages of pakistan
1. Urdu ( 7.6 )
2. Punjabi ( 44.1 )
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3. Pushto ( 15.4 )
4. Sindhi ( 14.1 )
5. Balochi ( 3.6 )
6. Saraiki ( 10.5 )
7. Others ( 4.7 )
POPULATION OF PAKISTAN BY RELIGION
According to census of 1981 , religion-wise population of pakistan was as under
1. Muslim = 81,450,057
2. Christians = 1,310,426
3. Hindus = 1,276,116
4. Ahmadis = 104,244
5. Bhuddist = 26396. Parsis = 7007
7. Others = 103,155
Economics of Pakistan (Five Year Plans)
So far the government of pakistan has launched the following nine five year plans.
( 1975 to 1978 ) is regarded as no plan period
1. First five year plan (1955-60)
2. Second five year plan (1960-65)
3. Third five year plan (1965-70)
4. Fourth five year plan (1970-75)
5. Fifth five year plan (1978-83)
6. Sixth five year plan (1983-88)
7. Seventh five year plan (1988-93)
8. Eighth five year plan (1993-98)
9. Ninth five year plan (1998-2003)
Important Rivers Of Pakistan
PUNJAB : Jhelum , Chenab , Ravi , Sutlej
SINDH : Hub , Mir Nadi , Arl Nadi
NWFP : Indus , Kabul , Swat , Bara , Chitral , Zhob , Panjkora , Gomal , Kurram
BALUCHISTAN : Hangol , Nari , Bolan , Dasht , Mula , Rakhshan , Pashin Lora
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The Largest in Pakistan
Air Lines : PIA
Air Port : Quaid-e-azam International Airport , Khi
Bank : State bank Of pakistan.The largest commercial bank is Habib bank Ltd withRs. 194.6 billion desposit
Barrage : Sukkur Barrage
City : Karachi, Estimated population 9.9 millions
Canal : Lloyd Barrage Canal
Dam : Tarbela Dam (vol 148 million cubic metres)
Desert : Thar (sindh)
Division : Kalat division (baluchistan),Area 1,38,633 sq km
District : Khuzdar (baluchistan)
Fort : Rani Kot (sindh)
Gas Field : Sui Gas Field, Baluchistan
Hospital: Nishtar Hospital , MultanHydro-Electric Power Station : Tarbela (3478 MW)
Industrial Unit : Pakistan Steel Mills , Karachi
Industry : Textile Industry
Island : Manora (karachi)
Jungle : Chhanga Manga (kasur)
Lake (Artificial) : Keenjhar Lake (sindh)
Lake (natural): Manchhar Lake, Dadu (sindh)
Library : The punjab public Library,Lahore (punjab)
Mine : Salt Mines , Khewra (punjab)
Mosque : Shah Faisal Mosque , Isl
Motorway : Lahore-Islamabad,motorwayMuseum : National Museum, karachi
Newspaper : Jang (urdu) ; The news (eng)
Nuclear Reactor : Karachi Nuclear Power plant (KANUPP)
Oil Field : Dhurnal Oil Field
Park : Ayub National Park , Rawalpindi
Radio station : Islamabad
Railway station : Lahore
River : Indus river
University : Punjab University , lahore
The Longest in Pakistan
coast : Balochistan (771 kms long)
Frontier : Pak-Afghan border (2252 kms)
Railway Platform : Rohri (sindh),Length 1894 feet
Railway track : Karachi to Landi kotal
Road : Karachi to peshawar
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Tunnel (railway) : Khojak baluchistan (2.43 miles)
Tunnel (road) : Lowari (5 miles)
Tunnel (water) : Warsak Dam Tunnel (3.5 miles)
The Tallest in pakistan
Tower : Minar-e-pakistan (height 196 feet 8 inches)
Minart : Four Minarets of Shah faisal Mosque with height of 286 feet each
Mountain pass : Muztagh Pass (Height 19030 feet)
Mountain peak : K-2 (karakoram) height 28269 feet
Mountain Passes Of Pakistan
1. Muztagh Pass
2. Karakoram Pass
3. Khan kun Pass
4. Zagar Pass
5. Kilik Pass
6. Khunjrab Pass
7. Mintaka Pass
8. Dorath Pass
9. Babusar Pass
10. Shandur Pass
11. Lowari Pass
12. Buroghil Pass
13. Khyber Pass
14. Shimshal Pass
15. Ganshero Pass
16. Tochi Pass
17. Gomal Pass
18. Durgai Pass
19. Malakand Pass
Foreign Banks Operating In pakistan
1. ABN Amro Bank N.V.
2. Albaraka Islamic Bank BSC (EC)
3. American Express Bank Ltd
4. Standard Chartared Grindlays Bank Ltd
5. Bank of Tokyo Mitsubisho Ltd
6. Bank of Ceylon
7. Citibank N.A
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8. Deutsche Bank A.G
9. Emirates Bank International Ltd
10. Habib bank A.G Zurich
11. Mashreq Bank P.S.C
12. Oman Internation Bank S.O.A.G
13 Rupali Bank Ltd14. Standard Chartered Bank
Saindak Metal (Pvt) Ltd.
The Saindak Metal is the first important metal mining project in pakistan.It is
designed to produce 15810 tonnes of blister copper annually which contained gold
(1.47 tonnes) and silver (2.76 tonnes)
Metallic Minerals In Pakistan
Alum : Kalat , Khairpur , Peshawar , Quetta
Antimony : Karangli , Qila Abdullah , Shekran
Arsenic : Gilgit , Londku
Bauxite : Dhamman , Jhal , Muzaffarabad , Niazpur
Chromite : Lasbela , Malakand , Muslim bagh , Raskoh
Copper: Koh Marani , Kalat , Maranj , Pishin , Saindak
Gold : Chitral , Gilgit , Karak , Mardan , Lasbella
Iron Ore : Chitral , Chilgazi , Kalabagh, Rashkoh
Lead : Chiral , Khuzdar , Lasbella , Mardan
Magnesite : Kalat , Khumhar , Abbottabad , Zhob
Manganese : Haji Mohd Khan , Abbottabad , Zhob
Silver : Saindak (baluchistan)
Non-Metallic Minerals In pakistan
Asbestos : Char Bagh , Chitral , D.I Khan , Zhob
Calcite : Lasbella , ZhobChina Clay : Hazara , Multan , Peshawar , Rawalpindi
Coal : Dandot , Degari , Makarwal
Dolomite : D.I Khan , Jhimpir , Rawal pindi
Flourite : Chitral , Dir , Hazara
Glass sand : Bande sadiq , Mianwali , Salt Range
Graphite : Chitral , Hazara , Khyber
Gypsum : Dadu , D.I khan , Hyderabad , Kohat , Sibi , Quetta
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Limestone : Daudkhel , D.I Khan , Hyderabad , Kalat , Rohri
Marble : Attock , Chagi , Gilgit , Hazara , Mardan, Swat
Natural Gas : Dhurnal , Kandhkot, Mayal , Mari , Sui ,Tut , Uch
Precious Stones : Chitral , Hunza , Malakand , Swat
Salt : Bahadur Khel , Khewra , Kalabagh
Silica : Dandot , Hazara , Jangshahi , MakarwalSulphur : Chitral , Hyderabad , Kalat , Koh sultan
NATIONAL ANTHEM OF PAKISTAN
National Anthem of pakistan was written by renowned poet " Hafeez Jullundari "
in 1954.The anthem consist of 50 words arranged in 15 lines.Renowned musician
"Abdul Karim Chhagle" composed the Anthem.A total number of 11 male and
female singers took part in its musical composition.Pakistan national anthem was
first played on 13th august,1954 before "Shah of Iran Raza Shah Pehlavi".
National Saving Organization (NSO)
The NSO works under the Directorate of National Saving. The directorate has 12
regions and 365 branches in pakistan. It offers many saving schemes which
include saving account,Defence Saving Certificates, Khas Deposit Certificates ,
Postal Life Insurance , Mahana Amdani Accounts and Prize Bonds
National Holidays
1. Pakistan republic day (23rd march)
2. Labour day (1st may)
3. Bank Holiday (1st july)
4. Independence day (14th aug)
5. Defence day (6th sep)
6. Death Anniversary of Quaid-e-Azam (11th sep)
7. Birth Anniversay of Allama Iqbal (9th nov)
8. Birth Anniversary of Quaid-e-Azam (25th dec)
In addition, The govt of pakistan notifies holidays on Eid-ul-Fitr and Eid -ul-
Uzha,Ashura Muharram and Eid Milad-un-Nabi according to islamic Calendar
Press Organization of pakistan
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1. APNS : All-Pakistan News Agency
2. PFUJ : Pakistan Federal Union of Jounalists
3. APNEC : All-Pakistan News Employees Confederation
4. NECP : Newspapers Editors Council of Pakistan
NEWS AGENCIES OF PAKISTAN
1. APP : Associated Press of Pakistan
2. INP : Independent News of Pakistan
3. IPS : Islamabad Press Service
4. PPI : Pakistan Press International
More Information of pakistan
* Syed Ahmed khan wrote " Khutbat-i-Ahmadiya " on 1869 in reply to william
muir`s " Life of Mohammad"
* Sir syed retired from service in 1976
* The total area of pakistan is 796096 square kilometres (307374 sq mi )
* There are 27 divisions and 108 districts in pakistan
* The total number of primary schools are 169,087,middle schools are 19180 and
high schools are 13108.
* The number of registered doctors are 92248, Nurses are 40114 and Dentists are
4622.
* The first postage stamp of pakistan issued on 9th july, 1948
* The first census of pakistan was conducted on 9th feb,1951
* Gen. Ayub khan took over as the president on 17th feb ,1960 and Gen. A M
Yahya khan took over on 31st mar.1969.
* PPP was founded by ZA bhutto on 30th nov,1967.
* The 1973 Constitution of pakistan promulgated on 12th april, 1973.
* Dr. Abdul Salam was awarded Nobel Peace Prize in Physics on 15th oct,1979.
Foriegn policy of pakistan
1.Foriegn policy
2.Principles of Pakistan foriegn policy
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3.SIX important phases of pakistan policy
4.Relation of pakistan and Super power (USA)
5.Relation of pakistan and Russia
6.Relation with Islamic world (Relation with
Afghanistan,Iran,Turkey,Saudiarab,Bangladesh)
7.Importance of kashmir problem in indo-pak relation8.Importance of foriegn policy
9.Pakistan and OIC,SAARC,NAM and ECO
Cultural Heritage of Pakistan
The land where the Islamic Republic of Pakistan is situated today had been a seat of worldsleading Civilizations from the time immemorial. There is plenty of evidence from the pre-historic and historic period to support this argument, e.g. fossil jaws of apes, circa 14millions years old found from Pothohar. They belong to a species named SivapithecusPakininsis, said to be the ancestor of Man. A 2 million years old earliest stone hand axe.Now on display in Islamabad Museum, Islamabad.
The legacy of our predecessors at the time of our independence, on August 14, 1947, cameto us as a treasure which may be called as Pakistans national heritage. So rich anddiversified is this heritage that Pakistani nation can be proud of its glorious past, be Islamic,Post Islamic or pre-Islamic period as far back as pre-historic times. No other country of theworld can produce the treasure of by gone days as can be found in Pakistan. It is nowincumbent upon us to treasure our national heritage and save it from further deteriorationand theft.The establishment of NFCH is much appreciated and a great interest is shown by thegeneral public hence since its establishment in 1994 hundreds of proposals were receivedfrom different agencies and individuals for the conservation, preservation and publication ofthe Pakistans national heritage. It is hoped that with the continued patronage of thegovernment, the Philanthropists and the Business Community to the NFCH we shall be able
to achieve the aforesaid goal.
The Cultural Heritage of Pakistan is spread over the centuries, starting from pre-historictimes to the present day and which may be summarized in the following periods:
Indus Civilization:
Gandhara Civilization:
Islamic Period:
Sikh Period:
British Period:
Post independence Period__________________
Pakistan's Historical Background
Pakistan emerged on the world map on August 14,1947. It has its roots into the remote
past. Its establishment was the culmination of the struggle by Muslims of the South-Asian
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subcontinent for a separate homeland of their own and its foundation was laid when
Muhammad bin Qasim subdued Sindh in 711 A.D. as a reprisal against sea pirates that had
taken refuge in Raja Dahir's kingdom.
The advent of Islam further strengthened the historical individuality in the areas now
constituting Pakistan and further beyond its boundaries. Stone Age Some of the earliestrelics of Stone Age man in the subcontinent are found in the Soan Valley of the Potohar
region near Rawalpindi, with a probable antiquity of about 500,000 years. No human
skeleton of such antiquity has yet been discovered in the area, but the crude stone
implements recovered from the terraces of the Soan carry the saga of human toil and labor
in this part of the world to the inter-glacial period. These Stone Age men fashioned their
implements in a sufficiently homogenous way to justify their grouping in terms of a culture
called the Soan Culture. About 3000 B.C, amidst the rugged wind-swept valleys and foothills
of Balochistan, small village communities developed and began to take the first hesitant
steps towards civilization. Here, one finds a more continuous story of human activity,
though still in the Stone Age.
These pre-historic men established their settlements, both as herdsmen and as farmers, in
the valleys or on the outskirts of the plains with their cattle and cultivated barley and other
crops. Red and buffer Cultures Careful excavations of the pre-historic mounds in these areas
and the classification of their contents, layer by layer, have grouped them into two main
categories of Red Ware Culture and Buff Ware Culture. The former is popularly known as the
Zhob Culture of North Balochistan, while the latter comprises the Quetta, Amri Nal and Kulli
Cultures of Sindh and South Balochistan. Some Amri Nal villages or towns had stone walls
and bastions for defence purposes and their houses had stone foundations. At Nal, an
extensive cemetery of this culture consists of about 100 graves. An important feature of this
composite culture is that at Amri and certain other sites, it has been found below the very
distinctive Indus Valley Culture. On the other hand, the steatite seals of Nal and the copperimplements and certain types of pot decoration suggest a partial overlap between the two.
It probably represents one of the local societies which constituted the environment for the
growth of the Indus Valley Civilization.
The pre-historic site of Kot Diji in the Sindh province has provided information of high
significance for the reconstruction of a connected story which pushes back the origin of this
civilization by 300 to 500 years, from about 2500 B.C.. to at least 2800 B.C. Evidence of a
new cultural elements of pre-Harappan era has been traced here. Pre-Harappan Civilization
When the primitive village communities in the Balochistan area were still struggling against
a difficult highland environment, a highly cultured people were trying to assert themselves
at Kot Diji, one of the most developed urban civilizations of the ancient world whichflourished between the years 2500 and 1500 B.C. in the Indus Valley sites of Moenjodaro
and Harappa. These Indus Valley people possessed a high standard of art and craftsmanship
and a well developed system of quasi pictographic writing, which despite continuing efforts
still remains undeciphered. The imposing ruins of the beautifully planned Moenjodaro and
Harappa towns present clear evidence of the unity of a people having the same mode of life
and using the same kind of tools. Indeed, the brick buildings of the common people, the
public baths, the roads and covered drainage system suggest the picture of a happy and
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contented people. Aryan Civilization In or about 1500 B.C., the Aryans descended upon the
Punjab and settled in the Sapta Sindhu, which signifies the Indus plain. They developed a
pastoral society that grew into the Rigvedic Civilization. The Rigveda is replete with hymns
of praise for this region, which they describe as "God fashioned". It is also clear that so long
as the Sapta Sindhu remained the core of the Aryan Civilization, it remained free from the
caste system. The caste institution and the ritual of complex sacrifices took shape in theGangetic Valley. There can be no doubt that the Indus Civilization contributed much to the
development of the Aryan civilization. Gandhara Culture The discovery of the Gandhara
grave culture in Dir and Swat will go a long way in throwing light on the period of Pakistan's
cultural history between the end of the Indus Culture in 1500 B.C. and the beginning of the
historic period under the Achaemenians in the sixth century B.C. Hindu mythology and
Sanskrit literary traditions seem to attribute the destruction of the Indus civilization to the
Aryans, but what really happened, remains a mystery. The Gandhara grave culture has
opened up two periods in the cultural heritage of Pakistan: one of the Bronze Age and the
other of the Iron Age. It is so named because it presents a peculiar pattern of living in hilly
zones of the Gandhara region as evidenced in the graves. This culture is different from the
Indus Culture and has little relations with the village culture of Balochistan. Stratigraphy aswell as the artifacts discovered from this area suggest that the Aryans moved into this part
of the world between 1,500 and 600 B.C. In the sixth century B.C., Buddha began his
teachings, which later on spread throughout the northern part of the South-Asian
subcontinent. It was towards the end of this century, too, that Darius I of Iran organized
Sindh and Punjab as the twentieth satrapy of his empire.
There are remarkable similarities between the organizations of that great empire and the
Mauryan empire of the third century B.C., while Kautilya's Arthshastra also shows a strong
Persian influence, Alexander of Macedonia after defeating Darius III in 330 B.C. had also
marched through the South-Asian subcontinent up to the river Beas, but Greek influence on
the region appears to have been limited to contributing a little to the establishment of theMauryan empire. The great empire that Asoka, the grandson of Chandragupta Maurya, built
in the subcontinent included only that part of the Indus basin which is now known as the
northern Punjab. The rest of the areas astride the Indus were not subjugated by him. These
areas, which now form a substantial part of Pakistan, were virtually independent from the
time of the Guptas in the fourth century A.D. until the rise of the Delhi Sultanate in the
thirteenth century. Gandhara Art Gandhara Art, one of the most prized possessions of
Pakistan, flourished for a period of 500 years (from the first to the fifth century A.D.) in the
present valley of Peshawar and the adjacent hilly regions of Swat, Buner and Bajaur. This
art represents a separate phase of the cultural renaissance of the region. It was the product
of a blending of Indian, Buddhist and Greco-Roman sculpture. Gandhara Art in its early
stages received the patronage of Kanishka, the great Kushan ruler, during whose reign theSilk Route ran through Peshawar and the Indus Valley, bringing great prosperity to the
whole area. Advent of Islam The first followers of prophet Muhammad (Peace be upon him),
to set foot on the soil of the South-Asian subcontinent, were traders from the coast land of
Arabia and the Persian Gulf, soon after the dawn of Islam in the early seventh century A.D.
DAWN OF ISLAM
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The first permanent Muslim foothold in the subcontinent was achieved with Muhammad bin
Qasim's conquest of Sindh in 711 A.D. An autonomous Muslim state linked with the
Umayyed, and later, the Abbassid Caliphate was established with jurisdiction extending over
southern and central parts of present Pakistan. Quite a few new cities were established and
Arabic was introduced as the official language. At the time of Mahmud of Ghazna's invasion,
Muslim rule still existed, though in a weakened form, in Multan and some other regions. TheGhaznavids (976-1148) and their successors, the Ghaurids (1148-1206), were Central Asian
by origin and they ruled their territories, which covered mostly the regions of present
Pakistan, from capitals outside India. It was in the early thirteenth century that the
foundations of the Muslim rule in India were laid with extended boundaries and Delhi as the
capital. From 1206 to 1526 A.D., five different dynasties held sway. Then followed the
period of Mughal ascendancy (1526-1707) and their rule continued, though nominally, till
1857. From the time of the Ghaznavids, Persian more or less replaced Arabic as the official
language. The economic, political and religious institutions developed by the Muslims bore
their unique impression. The law of the State was based on Shariah and in principle the
rulers were bound to enforce it. Any long period of laxity was generally followed by
reinforcement of these laws under public pressure. The impact of Islam on the South-Asiansubcontinent was deep and far-reaching. Islam introduced not only a new religion, but a
new civilization, a new way of life and new set of values. Islamic traditions of art and
literature, of culture and refinement, of social and welfare institution, were established by
Muslim rulers throughout the subcontinent. A new language, Urdu, derived mainly from
Arabic and Persian vocabulary and adopting indigenous words and idioms, came to be
spoken and written by the Muslims and it gained currency among the rest of the Indian
population.
URDU AS THE NATIONAL LANGUAGE OF PAKISTAN
Apart from religion, Urdu also enabled the Muslim community during the period of itsascendancy to preserve its separate identity in the subcontinent.
Muslim Identity -- The question of Muslim identity, however assumed seriousness during the
decline of Muslim power in South Asia. The first person to realize its acuteness was the
scholar theologian, Shah Waliullah (1703-62). He laid the foundation of Islamic renaissance
in the subcontinent and became a source of inspiration for almost all the subsequent social
and religious reform movements of the nineteenth, and twentieth centuries. His immediate
successors, inspired by his teachings, tried to establish a modest Islamic state in the north-
west of India and they, under the leadership of Sayyed Ahmad Shaheed Barelvi (1786-
1831), persevered in this direction. British Expansionism and Muslim Resistance Meanwhile,
starting with the East India Company, the British had emerged as the dominant force inSouth Asia. Their rise to power was gradual extending over a period of nearly one hundred
years. They replaced the Shariah by what they termed as the Anglo-Muhammadan law
whereas Urdu was replaced by English as the official language. These and other
developments had great social, economic and political impact especially on the Muslims of
South Asia. The uprising of 1857, termed as the Indian Mutiny by the British and the War of
Independence by the Muslims, was a desperate attempt to reverse the adverse course of
events. Religious Institutions The failure of the 1857 War of Independence had disastrous
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consequences for the Muslims as the British placed all the responsibility for this event on
them. Determined to stop such a recurrence in future, the British followed deliberately a
repressive policy against the Muslims. Properties and estates of those even remotely
associated with the freedom fighters were confiscated and conscious efforts were made to
close all avenues of honest living for them. The Muslim response to this situation also
aggravated their plight. Their religious leaders, who had been quite active, withdrew fromthe mainstream of the community life and devoted themselves exclusively to imparting
religious education. Although the religious academies especially those of Deoband, Farangi
Mahal and Rai Bareilly, established by the Ulema, did help the Muslims to preserve their
identity, the training provided in these institutions hardly equipped them for the new
challenges. Educational Reform The Muslims kept themselves aloof from western education
as well as government service. But, their compatriots, the Hindus, did not do so and
accepted the new rulers without reservation. They acquired western education, imbibed the
new culture and captured positions hitherto filled in by the Muslims. If this situation had
prolonged, it would have done the Muslims an irreparable damage. The man to realise the
impending peril was Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (1817-1889), a witness to the tragic events of
1857. He exerted his utmost to harmonize British Muslim relations. His assessment was thatthe Muslims' safety lay in the acquisition of western education and knowledge. He took
several positive steps to achieve this objective. He founded a college at Aligarh to impart
education on western lines. Of equal importance was the Anglo-Muhammadan Educational
Conference, which he sponsored in 1886, to provide an intellectual forum to the Muslims for
the dissemination of views in support of western education and social reform. Similar were
the objectives of the Muhammadan Literary Society, founded by Nawab Adbul Latif (1828-
93), active in Bengal, Sir Syed Ahmad Khan's efforts transformed into a movement, known
as the Aligarh Movement, and it left its imprint on the Muslims of every part of the South-
Asian subcontinent. Under its inspiration, societies were founded throughout the
subcontinent which established educational institutions for imparting education to the
Muslims.
Sir Syed Ahmad Khan was averse to the idea of participation by the Muslims in any
organized political activity which, he feared, might revive British hostility towards them. He
also disliked Hindu Muslim collaboration in any joint venture. His disillusionment in this
regard stemmed basically from the Urdu Hindi controversy of the late 1860s when the Hindu
enthusiasts vehemently championed the cause of Hindi to replace Urdu. He, therefore,
opposed the Indian National Congress when it was founded in 1885 and advised the
Muslims to abstain from its activities. His contemporary and a great scholar of Islam, Syed
Ameer Ali (1849-1928), shared his views about the Congress, but, he was not opposed to
Muslims organizing themselves politically. In fact, he organised the first significant political
body of the Muslims, the Central National Muhammadan Association. Although, itsmembership was limited, it had more than 50 branches in different parts of the
subcontinent and it accomplished some solid work for the educational and political
advancement of the Muslims. But, its activities waned towards the end of the nineteenth
century. The Muslim League At the dawn of the twentieth century, a number of factors
convinced the Muslims of the need to have an effective political organization. Therefore, in
October 1906, a deputation comprising 35 Muslim leaders met the Viceroy of the British at
Simla and demanded separate electorates. Three months later, the All-India Muslim League
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was founded by Nawab Salimullah Khan at Dhaka, mainly with the objective of safeguarding
the political rights and interests of the Muslims. The British conceded separate electorates in
the Government of India Act of 1909 which confirmed the Muslim League's position as an
All-India party. Attempt for Hindu Muslim Unity The visible trend of the two major
communities progressing in opposite directions caused deep concern to leaders of All-India
stature. They struggled to bring the Congress and the Muslim League on one platform.Quaid-i-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah (1876-1948) was the leading figure among them. After
the annulment of the partition of Bengal and the European Powers' aggressive designs
against the Ottoman Empire and North Africa, the Muslims were receptive to the idea of
collaboration with the Hindus against the British rulers.
The Congress Muslim League rapprochement was achieved at the Lucknow sessions of the
two parties in 1916 and a joint scheme of reforms was adopted. In the Lucknow Pact. as the
scheme was commonly referred to, the Congress accepted the principle of separate
electorates, and the Muslims, in return for `weightage' to the Muslims of the Muslim
minority provinces, agreed to surrender their thin majorities in the Punjab and Bengal. The
post Lucknow Pact period witnessed Hindu Muslim amity and the two parties came to holdtheir annual sessions in the same city and passed resolutions of identical contents.
KHILAFAT MOVEMENT
The Hindu Muslim unity reached its climax during the Khilafat and the Non-cooperation
Movements. The Muslims of soothsayer, under the leadership of the Ali Brothers, Maulana
Muhammad Ali and Maulana Shaukat Ali, launched the historic Khilafat Movement after the
First World War to protect the Ottoman Empire from dismemberment. Mohandas
Karamchand Gandhi (1869-1948) linked the issue of Swaraj (self-government) with the
Khilafat issue to associate the Hindus with the Movement. the ensuing Movement was the
first countrywide popular movement.
Although the Movement failed in its objectives, it had a far-reaching impact on the Muslims
of South Asia. After a long time, they took united action on a purely Islamic issue which
momentarily forged solidarity among them. It also produced a class of Muslim leaders
experienced in organizing and mobilizing the public. This experience was of immense value
to the Muslims later during the Pakistan Movement The collapse of the Khilafat Movement
was followed by a period of bitter Hindu Muslim antagonism. The Hindus organized two
highly anti Muslim movements, the Shudhi and the Sangathan. The former movement was
designed to convert Muslims to Hinduism and the latter was meant to create solidarity
among the Hindus in the event of communal conflict. In retaliation, the Muslims sponsored
the Tabligh and Tanzim organizations to counter the impact of the Shudhi and theSangathan. In the 1920s, the frequency of communal riots was unprecedented. Several
Hindu-Muslim unity conferences were held to remove the causes of conflict, but, it seemed
nothing could mitigate the intensity of communalism. Muslim Demand Safeguards In the
light of this situation, the Muslims revised their constitutional demands. They now wanted
preservation of their numerical majorities in the Punjab and Bengal, separation of Sindh
from Bombay, constitution of Balochistan as a separate province and introduction of
constitutional reforms in the North-West Frontier Province. It was partly to press these
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demands that one section of the All-India Muslim League cooperated with the Statutory
commission sent by the British Government under the chairmanship of Sir John Simon in
1927.
SIMON COMMISSION
The other section of the League, which boycotted the Simon Commission for its all-White
character, cooperated with the Nehru Committee, appointed by the All-Parties Conference,
to draft a constitution for India. The Nehru Report had an extremely anti-Muslim bias and
the Congress leadership's refusal to amend it disillusioned even the moderate Muslims.
Allama Muhammad Iqbal Several leaders and thinkers, having insight into the Hindu-Muslim
question proposed separation of Muslim India. However, the most lucid exposition of the
inner feeling of the Muslim community was given by Allama Muhammad Iqbal(1877-1938)
in his Presidential Address at the All-India Muslim League Session at Allahabad in 1930. He
suggested that for the healthy development of Islam in South-Asia, it was essential to have
a separate Muslim state at least in the Muslim majority regions of the north-west. Later on,
in his correspondence with Quaid-i-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah, he included the Muslimmajority areas in the north-east also in his proposed Muslim state. Three years after his
Allahabad Address, a group of Muslim students at Cambridge, headed by Chaudhry Rehmat
Ali, issued a pamphlet, Now or Never, in which drawing letters from the names of the
Muslim majority regions, they gave the nomenclature of "Pakistan" to the proposed State.
Very few even among the Muslim welcomed the idea at the time. It was to take a decade
for the Muslims to embrace the demand for a separate Muslim state. Quaid-i-Azam
Muhammad Ali Jinnah Meanwhile, three Round Table Conferences were convened in London
during 1930-32, to resolve the Indian constitutional problem. The Hindu and Muslim
leaders, who were invited to these conferences, could not draw up an agreed formula and
the British Government had to announce a `Communal Award' which was incorporated in
the Government of India Act of 1935. Before the elections under this Act, the All-IndiaMuslim League, which had remained dormant for some time, was reorganized by Quaid-i-
Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah, who had returned to India in 1934,after an absence of nearly
five years in England. The Muslim League could not win a majority of Muslim seats since it
had not yet been effectively reorganized. However, it had the satisfaction that the
performance of the Indian National Congress in the Muslim constituencies was bad. After
the elections, the attitude of the Congress leadership was arrogant and domineering. The
classic example was its refusal to form a coalition government with the Muslim League in
the United Provinces. Instead, it asked the League leaders to dissolve their parliamentary
arty in the Provincial Assembly and join the Congress. Another important Congress move
after the 1937 elections was its Muslim mass contact movement to persuade the Muslims to
join the Congress and not the Muslim League. One of its leaders, Jawaharlal Nehru, evendeclared that there were only two forces in India, the British and the Congress. All this did
not go unchallenged.
Quaid-i-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah countered that there was a third force in South-Asia
constituting the Muslims. The All-India Muslim League, under his gifted leadership, gradually
and skillfully started organising the Muslims on one platform. Towards a Separate Muslim
Homeland The 1930s witnessed awareness among the Muslims of their separate identity
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and their anxiety to preserve it within separate territorial boundaries. An important element
that brought this simmering Muslim nationalism in the open was the character of the
Congress rule in the Muslim minority provinces during 1937-39. The Congress policies in
these provinces hurt Muslim susceptibilities. There were calculated aims to obliterate the
Muslims as a separate cultural unit. The Muslims now stopped thinking in terms of seeking
safeguards and began to consider seriously the demand for a separate Muslim state. During1937-39, several Muslim leaders and thinkers, inspired by Allama Iqbal's ideas, presented
elaborate schemes for partitioning the subcontinent according to two-nation theory.
Pakistan Resolution The All-India Muslim League soon took these schemes into
consideration and finally, on March 23, 1940, the All-India Muslim League, in a resolution,
at its historic Lahore Session, demanded a separate homeland for the Muslims in the Muslim
majority regions of the subcontinent. The resolution was commonly referred to as the
Pakistan Resolution. The Pakistan demand had a great appeal for the Muslims of every
persuasion. It revived memories of their past greatness and promised future glory. They,
therefore, responded to this demand immediately. Cripps Mission The British Government
recognized the genuineness of the Pakistan demand indirectly in the proposals for the
transfer of power after the Second World War which Sir Stafford Cripps brought to India in1942. Both the Congress and the All-India Muslim League rejected these proposals for
different reasons. The principles of secession of Muslim India as a separate Dominion was
however, conceded in these proposals. After this failure, a prominent Congress leader, C.
Rajgopalacharia, suggested a formula for a separate Muslim state in the Working Committee
of the Indian National Congress, which was rejected at the time, but later on, in 1944,
formed the basis of the Jinnah-Gandhi talks. Demand for Pakistan
PAKISTAN MOVEMENT
The Pakistan demand became popular during the Second World War Every section of the
Muslim community-men , women, students, Ulema and businessmen-were organized underthe banner of the All-India Muslim League. Branches of the party were opened even in the
remote corners of the subcontinent. Literature in the form of pamphlets, books, magazines
and newspapers was produced to explain the Pakistan demand and distributed widely. The
support gained by the All-India Muslim League and its demand for Pakistan was tested after
the failure of the Simla Conference, convened by the Viceroy, Lord Wavell, in 1945.
Elections were called to determine the respective strength of the political parties. The All-
India Muslim League election campaign was based on the Pakistan demand. The Muslim
community responded to this call in an unprecedented way. Numerous Muslim parties were
formed making united parliamentary board at the behest of the Congress to oppose the
Muslim League. But the All-India Muslim League swept all the thirty seats in the Central
Legislature and in the provincial elections also, its victory was outstanding. After theelections, on April 8-9,1946, the All-India Muslim League called a convention of the newly-
elected League members in the Central and Provincial Legislatures at Delhi. This convention,
which constituted virtually a representative assembly of the Muslims of South Asia, on a
motion by the Chief Minister of Bengal, Hussain Shaheed Suhrawardy, reiterated the
Pakistan demand in clearer terms. Cabinet Plan In early 1946, the British Government sent
a Cabinet Mission to the subcontinent to resolve the constitutional deadlock. The Mission
conducted negotiations with various political parties, but failed to evolve an agreed formula.
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spheres in accordance with the teachings and requirements of Islam as set out in the HolyQuran and Sunnah;
Wherein adequate provision shall be made for the minorities freely to profess and practisetheir religions and develop their cultures;
Wherein the territories now included in or in accession with Pakistan and such otherterritories as may hereafter be included in or accede to Pakistan shall form a Federationwherein the units will be autonomous with such boundaries and limitations on their powersand authority as may be prescribed;
Therein shall be guaranteed fundamental rights, including equality of status, of opportunityand before law, social, economic and political justice, and freedom of thought, expression,belief, faith, worship and association, subject to law and public morality;
Wherein adequate provision shall be made to safeguard the legitimate interests of minoritiesand backward and depressed classes;
Wherein the independence of the judiciary shall be fully secured;
Wherein the integrity of the territories of the Federation, its independence and all its rights,including its sovereign rights on land, sea and air, shall be safeguarded;
So that the people of Pakistan may prosper and attain their rightful and honoured place
amongst the nations of the World and make their full contribution towards internationalpeace and progress and happiness of humanity :
Now, therefore, we, the people of Pakistan,
Cognisant of our responsibility before Almighty Allah and men;
Congnisant of the sacrifices made by the people in the cause of Pakistan;
Faithful to the declaration made by the Founder of Pakistan, Quaid-i-Azam Mohammad AliJinnah, that Pakistan would be a democratic State based on Islamic principles of socialjustice;
Dedicated to the preservation of democracy achieved by the unremitting struggle of thepeople against oppression and tyranny;
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Inspired by the resolve to protect our national and political unity and solidarity by creatingan egalitarian society through a new order;
Do hereby, through our representatives in the National Assembly, adopt, enact and give toourselves, this Constitution.
It is consist of 280 articles which include amendments in several years
For further instance explore on following link :http://www.nrb.gov.pk/constitutional...ion/index.html
Creation of Pakistan
The Islamic Republic of Pakistan emerged as an independent state on 14 August 1947. Ithas its roots into the remote past. Its establishment was the culmination of the longstruggle by Muslims of the South-Asian subcontinent for a separate homeland of their own.
Its foundation was laid when Mohammad bin Qasim subdued Sindh in 711 AD as a reprisalagainst sea pirates that had taken refuge in Raja Dahirs kingdom. The advent of Islamfurther strengthened the historical individuality in the areas now constituting and furtherbeyond its boundaries.
The impact of Islam on the South-Asian subcontinent was deep and far-reaching. Islamintroduced not only a new religion, but also a new civilization, a new way of life and new setof values. Islamic traditions of art and literature, of culture and refinement, of social andwelfare institutions were established by Muslim rulers throughout the subcontinent. A newlanguage URDU, derived mainly from Arabic and Persian vocabulary and adaptingindigenous words and idioms, came into existence.
With the decline of Muslim power during 16th and 17th centuries the British (starting withthe East India Company) began to emerge as the dominant force in South Asia. Their rise topower was gradual, extending over a period of 100 years. They replaced the Shariah bywhat they termed as Anglo-Muhammadan law whereas Urdu was replaced by English as theofficial language. These and many other developments had great social, economic, andpolitical impact especially on the Muslims of subcontinent.
WAR OF INDEPENDENCEThe uprising of 1857, termed as the Indian Mutiny by the British and the War ofIndependence by the Muslims, was a desperate attempt to reverse the adverse course ofevents. The failure of the 1857 War of Independence had disastrous consequences for theMuslims as the British placed all the responsibility for this event on them. Determined tostop such a recurrence in future, the British followed a repressive policy against theMuslims. Properties and estates of those even remotely associated with the freedom fighterswere confiscated and efforts were made to close all avenues of honest living for them. TheMuslim response to these situations also aggravated their plight. While this repression was
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Musalmans are a nation by any definition The problem in India is not of inter-communalbut manifestly of an international character. The only course open to us all is to allow themajor nations separate homelands by dividing India into autonomous national states.
URDU-HINDI CONTROVERSYThe Urdu-Hindi Controversy arose when Hindus demanded implementation of theDevanagari script in government offices, law courts and schools. Muslims coming to India,spoke their own language and also learned the language spoken by the natives. Out of thisintermingling of languages, there arose a lingua franca, which came to be spoken by bothMuslims and Hindus. The official language continued to be Persian; Turkish was the mothertongue of Muslims from Turkey, and Arabic was the language of the religion, Islam. The
mixture of these languages with that spoken in India came to be known as Urdu. It soonbecame the language of society and of sublime poetry. It gradually supplanted Persian andbecame a language spoken and understood in most parts of India. It is a language whichhas risen as a result of the mixture of foreign and native languages. Urdu had powerfulappeal as its literature grew rapidly. During the eighteenth century Urdu spread to allcorners of India, and Urdu literary circles were established in every part of India.
Contrary to this, Hindi was written in Devanagri script, had a similarly high percentage ofSanskrit words, and was loosing its importance. When it came to poetry, differences wentmuch deeper. In Urdu, the forms, the thought and the imagery were borrowed from Iranand Central Asia, whereas in Hindi they were indigenous. Seeing the ever increasingsignificance of the Urdu language, it was introduced as a official language in 1825. Itspopularity was a source of annoyance to Hindus. They were out to destroy the cultural
heritage and religion of Muslims, and this they could do by causing harm to the Urdulanguage, as a good deal of Muslim cultural heritage was preserved in Urdu. Also theliterary, religious and intellectual works of Muslim scholars and poets were preserved inUrdu. Moreover, the exegesis of the Holy Quran, Hadith, Islamic jurisprudence and allreligious books had been produced in Urdu. Thus, to eliminate Urdu was to deprive Muslimsof their great cultural and religious heritage.
As part of a deliberate scheme to destroy Muslim culture in India, Hindus started an anti-Urdu movement in Benares in 1867, which gradually spread to Bihar, U.P. and other partsof India. The Hindus opposed the use of Urdu in courts, public offices and schools anddemanded its replacement by Hindi. This unjustified opposition to Urdu convinced Sir SyedAhmed Khan that Muslims and Hindus were two different nations. The entire Muslim
community in India also criticized this policy. Initially, the controversy caused no seriousharm, but in later years it developed into a formal movement. But when Sir AnthonyMcDonnel, Lt. Governor of United Provinces, issued a resolution on 19 April 1900 whichdecreed the use of Hindi in Devanagari script, and the seventy-five year history of Urdu asan official language came to on end, Muslims were deeply agitated. Considered from thepoint of view of their educational needs, legal and social business, literature and also fromthe point of view of Hindu-Muslim amity, this resolution was very harmful.
Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk, successor of Sir Syed in political and educational affairs of the
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Muslims, requested the governor to allow the Muslims to clarify their viewpoint in regard toUrdu, but no heed was paid. As a result a public meeting was held at Aligarh on May 13,1900 to protest against the language decree. In the meantime, the Urdu DefenceAssociation was formed on August 8, 1900 which unanimously adopted a resolutiondemnding withdrawl of the recognition accorded to Hindu. The Nawab declared that Muslimswho did not weild the pen, had the strength to wield the sword and expressed his
amazement that hte community was foresaken and ignored by the government. This wasthe first public demonstration of a political nature staged by Muslims. The lieutenantgovernor disliked demonstrations, which became routine throughout the country, collectedthe trustees of Aligarh College, expressed his disapproval, and alleged that Aligarh studentshad been made propagandists of this movement. He also threatened to stop thegovernment grant for the college if it continued. Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk resigned assecretary of Aligarh College in order to be free to carry on his campaign in defence of Urduso that his personal prestige should not stand in the way of progress and future of thecollege. However, he took up the pen in defence of Urdu and also took up the task which SirSyed had left. The Urdu Defence Association did great services to the Urdu language.
In 1902, Sir James La Touche replaced Lt. Governor McDonnel in U.P. He made it clear thatthe government did not restrict anyones freedom, and Urdu was restored to its former
position in offices and law courts. Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk secured a significant victory fromthe point of view of the political interests of the Muslim nation, thus paving the way for itseventual organization as a political force which could not be ignored.
SIMLA DEPUTATIONThe Simla Deputation occupies a very important place in the history of modern MuslimIndia. For the first time, Hindu-Muslim conflict was lifted to the constitutional plane. The riftin society was now to be translated into legal and political institutions. The Muslims hadmade it clear that they had no confidence in the Hindu majority, that they were notprepared to put their future in the hands of assemblies elected on the assumption of ahomogeneous Indian nation. By implication they rejected the idea of a single Indian nationon the ground that the minority could not trust the majority. From this it was but a shortstep to demanding a separate state for the Muslims of India It is in this sense that in thebeginnings of separate electorates may be seen the glimmerings of the two-nation theory.The significance of the Simla demand lay in the reservations which the Muslims had abouttheir Indian nationality.
Soon after the War of Independence of 1857, the British government realised that it wasnot safe to legislate for millions of people with few means of knowingexcept by a rebellionwhether the laws suit them or not. Undoubtedly, Syed Ahmad Khans pamphlet Causes ofthe Indian Revolt contributed to this realisation on part of the British. It asserted that theabsence of Indians from the councils of the country was mainly responsible for the troublesof 1857.
In 1861, the governor generals council was enlarged to include 50% non-officialsnominated by the governor general. Their appointment indicated a desire on the part of the
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ALL INDIA MUSLIMLEAGUE 1906Up to the end of nineteenth century, the Muslims had stayed away from organized polities.However, Hindu agitation against the partition of Bengal, and Hindu religious revivalism andhostility to the Muslims injected into the Congress by Bal Gangadhar Tilak, a fundamentalist
Hindu leader changed the situation. By 1906, Muslim leaders were convinced that theyshould form their own party to protect Muslim interests and speak for the community on allimportant occasions. The Simla Deputation strengthened this belief by demonstrating thepotency of united action.
In 1901, a meeting of Muslim leaders was held at Lucknow under the presidentship ofNawab Viqar-ul-Mulk for this purpose. This meeting decided to establish an organisation tolook after the social and political needs of the Muslims. But this organisation remainedconfined to one province of northern India.
Five years later, on December 30, 1906, at a conference of Muslim leaders (theMuhammadan Educational Conference) in Dhaka, the efforts of this deputation succeeded,
and the All India Muslim League was formed.
It was Sir Salimullah who initially sketched a plan for an all India Muslim organisation, whichwas seconded by Hakim Ajmal Khan. Other prominent Muslim leaders such as NawabMohsin-ul-Mulk, Nawab Viqar-ul-Mulk, Syed Nawab Ali Chaudary, Justice Shah Din, MaulanaZafar Ali Khan and Maulana Muhammad Ali Johar participated in the effort.
The League was intended to promote loyalty among Indian Muslims to the Britishgovernment and to remove any misconceptions about the intentions of the government.Second, it aimed to protect and advance the political rights and interests of Indian Muslimsand represent their needs and aspirations to the government. Finally, it hoped to preventthe rise of Muslim hostility towards other communities.
It was provided that the membership of the All-India Muslim League would not exceed fourhundred, which would be distributed among the different provinces according to fixedproportions. Every candidate was to be a Muslim, not less than 25 years of age, capable ofreading and writing in one of the languages and possessing an annual income of not lessthan Rs. 500. The League was to have a president, six vice-presidents, a secretary and twojoint secretaries, all elected for a term of three years.
In another resolution, a provisional committee consisting of sixty members includingmembers of the Simla Deputation was appointed to draft the constitution. The Leagueconstitution was written in English, by a graduate of Cambridge University, MaulanaMuhammad Ali Johar. The book was named The Green Book.
As the Indo-Pak history unfolds, the struggle of the Muslim League to safeguard theinterests of the Indian Muslims become more and more evident ultimately leading to thecreation of Pakistan in 1947.
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MORLEY MINTO REFORMS (1909)
Officially known as the Government of India Act, 1909, the Minto-Morley Reforms take their
name after their official sponsor, Minto, then Governor-General and John Morley (1838-
1923), Secretary of State for India. When Lord Minto came as viceroy to India, the wholecountry was in a state of political unrest. In collaboration with Lord Morley, secretary of
state for India, Minto appointed a committee to go into details and prepare a despatch
regarding constitutional reforms. This despatch was ready in 1907 and was sent to London
on March 19. It served as the basis of the reforms which were enacted into law by the
Indian Councils Act of 1909.
The important constitutional changes introduced by these reforms were several. Provincial
legislative councils were enlarged up to a maximum of 50 members in the larger provinces
and 30 in the smaller ones. The number of the unofficial members was raised equal to that
of the official members. The method of election was partly indirect and partly direct.
Second, Muslims were given separate representation in most provinces. In addition, thepower of legislative councils was increased. The Imperial Legislative Council was also
enlarged, but the officials would remain in majority. Finally, an Indian member was taken
into the executive council of the viceroy and in each of the provincial executive councils.
Despite many defects in this scheme, the Morley-Minto reforms were important in several
aspects. For Muslims, the most important change brought about by the reforms was the
establishment of separate electorates. The Simla deputation demand was met, and a
system of separate Muslim representation was introduced.
All Hindu and several British observers of the Indian scene criticised the creation of
communal electorates as a breach of democratic principle. But Morley saw the force of theMuslim argument that to make Muslim seats dependent on Hindu votes would embitter
communal relations. Mere reservation of seats would not have gone to a Muslim candidate
who identified himself wholeheartedly with the interests of his own community. Another
argument in support of this was that it was the unanimous demand of a large community.
But Hindu politicians and the Congress immediately began a campaign of criticism and
opposition. At the
1910 Congress session, it condemned the provision of separate representation for Muslims
and demanded withdrawal of the resolution. From then on up to the passing of the 1935
Act, the Congress made a habit of it to condemn separate electorates and to advocate their
removal.
The sober, well-reasoned and constitutional advocacy of the Muslim League thus did not fail
to achieve its objective. Within two years of its inception, the Muslim League scored a major
political victory against a more powerful political organisation. The day the demand for
separate electorate was conceded, the course for the Muslim freedom movement changed.
It laid down the foundation for the growth of the Muslim national consciousness which, after
a forty year struggle, was to achieve for the Muslims the culmination of their aspirations as
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a distinct nation.
IMPACT OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR ON INDIA
The impact of would war I created a minor revolution in Indias political and constitutionalposition. Unlike world war II, India remained loyal to the British Government during thewar. No large scale effort was mode to embarrass Britain in her hour of travail or to exploither weakness in order to gain political concessions. Thousands of Indians volunteered tofight for Britain. Legislative councils readily voted for all emergency powers to the executiveas well as full financial backing to war expenditure.
The most profound effects of the war were, that it brought the Congress and the muslimleague closer. The basic differences between the two were momentarily forgotten due to astrong foreign stimulus.It seemed that the political exigency had overcome deep rooted andsuspicions. For the first time a desire developed to arrive at some understanding betweenthe two otherwise apart communities.
On the other hand the British projected that they were fighting the war to further the causeof freedom and self determination. It was expected that due to the Indian complacenceduring the war, a set of reforms will be despatched once the war ended. These reforms wereexpected to make India a self governing member of the British common wealth. This notionin the Indian populace produced a vigour in the populace unseen and unheard of before.However the end of the war did not bring any such measures and the local Indian werefurther disillusioned with false British promises and vows.
LUCKNOW PACT 1916In 1913, the Muslim League adopted the principle of self-rule. This brought Congress andMuslim League closer to each other. The leaders of both parties decided that they shouldcooperate with each other to bring the government around to accept their demands.Therefore in 1916 Muslim League and Congress held sessions in Lucknow. The MuslimLeague session was presided over by Quaid-e-Azam, while Ambeka Choian Maujamdarpresided over the Congress session. There, Congress and the Muslim League reached anagreement on a scheme of constitutional reforms known as the Lucknow Pact. Theagreement inncluded separate electorates for Muslims and provided for elections of centraland provincial councils and responsibility of the executive to the legislature. They agreed tothe principle of a separate electorate and reservation of one-third of the seats in the centrallegislature for Muslims. The Muslim representation was fixed at: 33% of the electedmembers of the central government, 50% for Punjab, 40% for Bengal, 33% for Bombay,30% for U.P, 25% for Bihar, 15% for C.P and 15% for Madras
It was also decided that the members of assemblies should have the right to presentadjournment motions. In addition, provincial autonomy should be given to the provincesand the communal problems should be solved. The pact stated that seats should bereserved for Muslims in those provinces in which they were a minority, and that Hindus
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should be protected in Muslim majority provinces. Finally, no resolution or motion could bepresented in the assembly which would affect the interests of any of the two communitieswithout the approval of the concerned group. The Lucknow Pact was considered a greatachievement. For the first time, Hindus acknowledged Muslims as a separate nation andaccepted their right to a separate electorate.
MONTAGUE CHELMSFORD REFORMS 1919The reforms introduced by the act of 1909 failed to satisfy the people of India because theydid not give enough power to the Indians. The parliamentary form of government wasintroduced, but the executive was not made responsible to the legislature. The Muslimswere at first friendly to the government because they had been given a separate electorate,but with time they were dissatisfied. The annulment of the partition of Bengal came as a
shock, and they began to lose faith in the British government. Also, Britain did not helpTurkey against Italy during the Turco-Italian war, which Indian Muslims resented. DuringWorld War I, in spite of their grievances, Indians helped the British by providing both menand money. In return for their services Indians expected that they would be given self-rule.As the war went on, Indians began to suspect that the British were not planning to grantthem self-government. At this time Mrs. Annie Besant started the Home Rule Movement,which declared that self-government was the birthright of Indians.
In order to pacify the Indian youth who were getting restless, the British governmentdecided that something must be done. Therefore, on August 20, 1917, Lord Montague,Secretary of State for India, made a declaration in the British Parliament, that Indiansshould slowly be admitted to every branch of administration in order to introduce self-government gradually. It was further stated that his majestys government and the
government of India would be the judges of the time and measure for each advance.
Lord Montague visited India and in collaboration with the governor-general, LordChelmsford, drafted a scheme of reforms. It was submitted to the British Parliament, whichthen passed the act in 1919 known as the Montague-Chelmsford reforms. This actestablished legislative councils in the provinces with a system of dyarchy. Under this systemanything relating to law and order was to be administered by executive councilorsresponsible to the governors.
The act made numerous recommendations. India was to remain an integral part of theBritish empire and responsible government was to be given by stages. The Britishgovernment was to be the judge of the measure of each province. It also aimed at
introducing partial responsible government in the provinces, which necessitated the divisionof subjects. The central subjects included defence, foreign and political relations, customs,posts and telegraphs, currency, and communications. The provincial subjects included localself-government, public health, sanitation, education, public works, irrigation andagriculture.
In addition, the position of secretary of state for India and the Indian council was changed.Some of the powers of the secretary of state were transferred to the governor-general inthe council. The office of the high commission for India was created. A bicameral legislature
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was established in the centre; the upper house consisted of 60 members with a tenure of 5years. The lower house consisted of 145 members for the period of 3 years. Moreover,separate electorates were reserved for Muslims and Sikhs. In addition, out of the 103 seatsof the imperial legislative council 30 sets were reserved for Muslims.
A system of dyarchy was introduced in the provinces by which the law enforcing
departments and a few other departments were put under the direct control of the governorand the remaining came under the executive council. Under the system of dyarchy, thegovernor-general could interfere in provincial matters. Finally, the act stated that moreconstitutional reforms would be introduced after 10 years.
The various political circles in the country were not happy with these reforms. Congress wasdivided over the reforms, nor was the Muslim League very optimistic about them. However,Congress and the Muslim League ultimately approved the proposals.
KHILAFAT MOVEMENTAfter the end of the First World War, the victorious allied countries planned to demolish theOttoman Caliphate of Turkey because Turkey had chosen to fight on the side of Germanyagainst the allied powers. The Indian Muslims, because of their sentimental attachment tothe caliph, had always held the institution of the caliphate in the highest esteem. Since theydid not wish for the end of the caliphate, they presented the British colonial governmentwith the threat of an internal law and order situation. They asked the government to assurethat the caliphate would not be demolished and that due respect would be shown for thesacred places of the Muslims. The British promised to respect the institution of the caliphand the right of the Turks to their homeland. But when the war came to an end the IndianMuslims found, to their disappointment, that Turkey had been divided among the allies.Thus Muslims decided to launch a movement for the protection of the caliphate. A Khilafat
Committee was set up to organize the movement with Maulana Shaukat Ali as its secretary.Under the presidency of Maulana Fazlul Haq the first meeting of the committee was held on23 November, 1919.
Under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi, the Hindus came forward with their full supportfor the movement. Gandhi had planned to use the Khilafat agitation in order to pressurizethe government to come to terms with Indian independence. He therefore advocated fullsupport and outlined a programme of non-cooperation. The plan was to paralyse theadministration by a complete boycott of British institutions and goods. Indians were askedto give up government service, renounce titles, boycott courts of law, walk out of schoolsand colleges and take no part in elections.
The Khilafat Committee decided to send a delegation under the leadership of MaulanaMuhammad Ali Jauhar to England to put their views before the British government. TheKhilafat Delegation left for England in March, 1919 and met Prime Minister Lloyd George.But they returned without achieving their objectives.
The cooperation between Muslims and Hindus could not last long. In February of 1922 atthe village of Chauri Chaura, a fight erupted between the police and a demonstratingprocession. The hostile mob set fire to the police station where twenty-two policemen wereburnt alive. Gandhi immediately and unilaterally called off the non-cooperation movement,
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doing damage to the entire Khilafat movement. This sudden action dismayed the Muslimmasses and leaders. In the meantime in Turkey, the Turks under the leadership of MustafaKamal launched effective measures to protect their independence. In 1924 the Turkishgovernment under Kamal abolished the institution of the khilafat and established anationalist government. With this the Indian Khilafat movement also lost ground. Though itwas not fully successful, the Khilafat movement helped to create political consciousness in
the Muslim masses in India.
HIJJRAT MOVEMENTIn 1924 Maulana Muhammad Ali Jauhar was released from jail after his arrest during theKhilafat movement. He was deeply troubled to see the awful state of Indian society anddeclared India the Dar-ul-Harb, (House of War) and urged Muslims to migrate to a place
where their religion and national image would not be endangered. This declaration was dulyendorsed by the majority of ulema At his call, nearly 18,000 Muslims migrated toAfghanistan in protest against the British policy on the caliphate. The Afghan governmentwelcomed the migrants in the beginning but refused to accept them when their numbersincreased later. These immigrants faced many difficulties; many of them died on the way.Those who were not allowed to enter Afghanistan had to go back to India to find themselveshomeless. The migration to Afghanistan is known as the Hijrat Movement. Those who hadblindly responded to the call by their religious leaders disposed their belongings with thehope of a better future, but when they came back they found themselves homeless andhelpless.
DELHI PROPOSALSBy 1926, the Hindu Mahasbha (a Hindu organization) managed to become part of theCongress. The new leadership of Congress initiated a violent propaganda campaign againstthe Muslims demand for a separate electorate. Pandit Nehru in 1927 told Quaid-e-Azamthat if Muslim League surrendered its demand for a separate electorate, then Congresswould accept any other demand in its place. In reply to this, Quaid-e-Azam convened ameeting of Muslim leaders on March 20, 1927 in Delhi. The meeting discussed in detail the
offer made by the Congress and finally decided to surrender the demand for a separateelectorate. The meeting presented a set of proposals in place of the separate electorate,which are known as the Delhi Proposals.
These stated that Sindh should be separated from Bombay and that both Balochistan andNWFP should be given provincial status and reforms should be introduced. They furtherdemanded that Muslims should have one-third of the seats in the central legislature andshould be given representation in Bengal and Punjab in accordance with their strength.Congress and Hindu leaders in the beginning welcomed the Delhi proposals but afterwards
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began opposing them.
SIMON COMMISSIONWhen the Montague Chemlsford Reforms were introduced in 1919, the British governmentannounced that a commission would be sent to India to examine their effects and introducemore reforms. Therefore, the British in 1927 appointed a commission under thechairmanship of Sir John Simon to report on Indias constitutional progress and to makerecommendations for a new constitution. Since the commission had no Indian member, theCongress and a section of the Muslim League, who were working under the leadership of theQuaid-e-Azam, boycotted the commission. The other section of Muslim League was infavour of cooperating with the commission.
There was large scale agitation against the commission. Wherever it went, largedemonstrations occurred, with slogans like Simon go back, Simon go back. In spite of theagitation and hostile demonstrations, the commission prepared a detailed report forconstitutional reforms in India and sent it to the government for approval, who in turn madea plan for constitutional reforms, but Congress and the Muslim League refused to accept thecommissions recommendations.
FOURTEEN POINTS OF QUAID-E-AZAM
The Nehru Report submitted by Pandit Moti Lal Nehru turned down the Delhi Proposals and
the Muslims demand for separate representation. Quaid-e-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah
refused to accept the Nehru Report. He convened a meeting of the Muslim League in 1929
in Delhi and put forward the Muslim point of view in a document known as the Fourteen
Points. The meeting declared that the Muslims would reject any constitution which did not
include the Fourteen Points.
These demands were rejected by the Hindu leadership, creating a rift between the two
communities. Meanwhile, Congress demanded that a new constitution be presented by 31December 1929. The government turned down this demand and issued a two-fold
declaration. The first part related to the constitution. The second announced that a Round
Table Conference would be convened at which the British Government would meet the
representatives of British India and the princely states for the purpose of agreeing on
constitutional proposals.
Rejection of the Fourteen Points cost the Nehru Report its credibility among the Muslim
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Hidayatullah. The conference unanimously decided to create a federal system for India.Even the princely states agreed to join an All India Federation.
Eight subcommittees were established to work out agreement on major points of concern:the federal structure, the provincial constitution, franchise, the provinces of Sindh andNWFP, defence services, and minorities. Among the important decisions taken were the
following:
A federation would be established comprising the provinces of British India; dyarchy wouldbe abolished in the provinces and responsible government under Indian ministers would beintroduced; the separation of Sindh from Bombay was agreed in principle and a committeewas to be appointed to deal with the ensuing financial problems; North West FrontierProvince was to receive the status of a Governors province.
Differences arose concerning the distribution of subjects in the federal system, and thesubcommittee on minorities failed to reach agreement about their rights. At the end of theconference, the Muslims declared that no advance would be possible without sufficientsafeguards for the Muslims of India.
The First Round Table Conference ended on 19 January 1931. The British Prime Ministerexplained Government policy toward resolving the Indian constitutional problem andaccepted the proposal for responsible governments in the provinces and a federalgovernment at the centre. After the conclusion of the first session, it was generally felt thata second session would be of little use if Congress refused to participate again.
Gandhi-Irwin Pact
After the First Round Table Conference concluded, Congress felt very isolated. When thecivil disobedience movement failed, Congress began looking for ways to come to terms withthe government. For its part, the British government wanted Congress to attend the SecondRound Table Conference, because it would be difficult to implement any constitutional
reforms without the largest party in India.
When Lord Irwin invited Gandhi for talks, Gandhi agreed to end the civil disobediencemovement with no preconditions. Talks between Gandhi and Irwin continued from 17-19February 1931, culminating in the Gandhi-Irwin Pact, signed on 5 March 1931.
Under the Pact, Congress agreed to end the civil disobedience movement and to attend theSecond Round Table Conference. The government agreed to withdraw all ordinances curbingCongress, to withdraw all notifications and enactments relating to offenses not involvingviolence, and to release all persons detained during the civil disobedience movement.
Second Round Table Conference
The Second Round Table Conference opened on 7 September 1931 in London and lasteduntil 1 December 1931. Gandhi was there as the representative of Congress. MaulanaMuhammad Ali Jauhar died before the Second Round Table Conference. In his place, AllamaMuhammad Iqbal came as the Muslims representative.
Two committees were set up under the conference, one on federal structure and the otheron minorities. Gandhi was a member of both. The most important and sensitive issue beforethe conference was the Hindu-Muslim relationship. From the Muslim point of view, this wasbound to affect the shape of the proposed federation.
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The minorities subcommittee faced many difficulties, as Gandhi refused to accept minoritydemands and declared that it was difficult to reach agreement. He attributed this difficultyto the composition of the Indian delegation and demanded that the minority committee bedisbanded so that it should not block the progress of constitution making. Gandhi demandedthat the work of constitution making be started by putting aside the minorities issue.
Sir Muhammad Shafi, a Muslim representative, did not agree to Gandhis proposal andinsisted that minorities issue must be resolved before taking up constitution making. SirShafi also demanded that Jinnahs Fourteen Points be incorporated in the future constitutionof India. No settlement of the minorities issue was reached due to Gandhis refusal to acceptthe existence of the communal problem. Gandhi put forward his own scheme to solve thisproblem. His solution was based on proposals made in the Nehru Report.
Independently, the minority groups; Muslims, Anglo-Indians, a section of the IndianChristians, and members of the European business community reached an agreementamong themselves and endorsed the principle of separate electorates. This agreement waspresented by the Agha Khan to the tenth meeting of the minorities committee on 13November 1931, but it was rejected by Gandhi, who insisted that as Congress represented
85 to 95 percent of the entire Indian population, only Congress could speak for theminorities. Under these circumstances, further progress was impossible.
The communal problem also hampered the work of the federal structure committee. TheSecond Round Table Conference thus ended without reaching any concrete conclusion. TheBritish Government placed responsibility for reaching a solution upon the Indian delegatesand warned them that if the Indians were unable to solve the communal problem, then theBritish government would have to decide the problem of representation.
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT 1935The three Round Table Conferences which wore held in 1930, 1931, 1932 were unable toachieve anything despite efforts to solve the constitutional problem of India. In March 1933,the British government issued a White Paper containing their recom
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