altering cooking and eating habits during the romanian

EncountersinTheoryandHistoryofEducationVol.19,2018,141-162

ISSN2560-8371Dateofsubmission:2017-06-22http://doi.dx.org/10.24908/eoe-ese-rse.v19i0.6752Dateofacceptance:2018-11-15 ÓEncountersinTheoryandHistoryofEducation141

AlteringCookingandEatingHabitsduringtheRomanianCommunistRegimebyUsingCookbooks:ADigitalHistoryProject

InaGhitaDepartmentofEducation,UniversityofBarcelona,Spain

Abstract:Thisdigitalprojectexaminestheroleofacookbook,SandaMarin’sCartedeBucate,firstpublishedin1936,asavehicleforsocialeducationinCommunistRomania.ThebookwascensoredandtransformedduringtheCommunistregimeastwointerconnectedphenomenaweretakingplace:thereinforcingoftheideologyoftheCommunistmodelandanincreasingeconomiccrisisthatledtoscarcityoffood.Thepaperalsopaysattentiontohowthelanguageandtoneusedinthebookchangeddependingontheunderstandingofgenderrolesindifferentdecades.InspiteofCommunistclaimsofanequaldivisionofresponsibilities,procuringoffoodandcookingwasconsideredawoman’stask.Byaddressingequalresponsibilityinthepublicsphere,notathome,theprogresstowardgenderequityreachedaftertheWarwascompletelyerasedduringcommunismsincewomenhadtoworkandalsoberesponsibleforalldomesticdutiesathome,asituationthathasbeensimilarinothereasternEuropeancountriestothisday.

Keywords:cookbooks,Romania,communistregime,women,digitalhistory.

ModificationdelacuisineetdeshabitudesalimentairesenutilisantdeslivresderecettesdurantleRégimecommunisteenRoumanie:unprojetdigitald’histoire

Résumé:Cetexposéprésenteunprojetdigitalquiexplorelerôledeslivresderecettesalimentairescommevéhiculedel’éducationsocialeenRoumaniecommuniste.L’auteurexaminecommentl’undeslivresderecettesroumains:LaCartedeBucatedeSandaMarin,publiéoriginairementen1936,futédité,censuréettransformédurantlerégimecommuniste,alorsquedeuxphénomènesséparésbienquereliésavaientlieu:leparticommunistecherchantàrenforcerl’idéologiedumodèlecommuniste,etlapénuriecroissantedesdenréesalimentairescauséesparlacriseéconomiquegrandissante.L’auteurexamineaussilechangementdulangageetdutondulivreselonl’évolutionperçuedesrôlesdesgenresaucoursdesdifférentesdécades.Bienqueleparticommunisteprétendaitdiviserégalementlestâchesetlesresponsabilitésentrehommeetfemme,l’achatdelanourritureetlacuisineétaientencoreconsidéréscommeresponsabilitédesfemmes.Enabordantladivisiondestâchesdansledomainepublicseulement,etnonaufoyer,leprogrèsversl’égalitédesgenresaprèslesdeuxGrandesGuerresavaitétécomplétementoblitérédurantl’èrecommunistealorsquelesfemmesavaientunemploijournalieretassumaientlaresponsabilitécomplètedesdevoirsdomestiques.Cetteattentepersisteencoreaujourd’huidansmaintesfamillesroumainesetenEuropedel’Est.

Mots-clés:leslivresderecettes;laRoumanie;lerégimecommuniste;l'histoirenumérique.

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Alterandohábitosdecocinaycomidaduranteelrégimencomunistarumanopormediodeloslibrosdecocina:unProyectodehistoriadigital

Resumen:Esteproyectodigitalexaminaelpapeldeunlibrodecocina,CartedeBucatedeSandraMarín,publicadoporprimeravezen1936,comounvehículodeeducaciónsocialenlaRumaníacomunista.Ellibrofuecensurado,editado,ytransformadoduranteelrégimencomunistaalmismotiempoquedosfenómenosinterconectadosteníanlugar:elre-enforzamientodelmodelocomunistacomoideologíayunacrecientecrisiseconómicaquellevóalaescasezdealimentos.Eltrabajotambiénprestaatenciónacambiosenellenguajedellibroyeneltonousadodependiendodelcambiodelosrolesdegénerosendécadasdiferentes.Apesardelaretóricacomunistasobreladivisiónigualitariadelasresponsabilidades,lacompradecomidaylacocinaeranconsideradasresponsabilidaddelamujer.Dadoqueseproponíaigualresponsabilidadenlaesferapúblicaynoenlacasa,elprogresohaciaigualdaddegéneroquesehabíaalcanzadodespuésdelaguerrafuecompletamenteborradoduranteelcomunismo,lasmujeresteníanquetrabajarafueraysertambiénresponsablesdelastareasdomésticas,situaciónquehasidosimilarenotrospaísesdelestedeEuropahastaestosdías.

Palabrasclave:librosdecocina,Rumanía,régimencomunista,mujeres,historiadigital

Editor’snote:

Thisisapdfversionofadigitalnativework.Forafullerappreciationofthework,weencourageyoutoviewthehtmlversion,whichiscurrentlyhousedat:https://ojs.library.queensu.ca/public/journals/6/content/ghita/index.html.

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Cookbooksaregivenmodestattentionandvalueandareoftenoverlookedasinstructionalbooks.Theyareperceivedashavinglittleacademicvalue,andtheyarecategorizedashobbyorentertainmentpublications.Attheirbesttheyareperceivedasmanualsforteachingpracticalskills:prepping,cutting,boiling,mixingingredients,choosingthecorrectcookingtemperature.Yetcookbookshaveahiddenrole,thatofteachingtheirreaders,notonlyhowtocookandappreciatecertaindishes,butalsoteachingthemhowtobehaveandthinkinaspecificway.Asavehicleforsocialeducation,cookbooksteachcultureandhelpconservedoctrine.

Inrecentwork(Ghita,2016),whichculminatedinthecreationofadigitalprojectthatcanbeviewedathttps://thisfoodie.com/dhp,Iinvestigatedanddiscussedhowfoodconsumptionpatterns,aswellascookingandeatinghabitshavechangedinRomaniaduring

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thecommunistera.TheprojectlookedathowoneofthemostpopularRomaniancookbooks,SandaMarin’sCartedeBucate,publishedforthefirsttimein1936,hasbeenedited,censoredandtransformedduringthecommunistregime,astwoseparate,yetinterconnected,phenomenaweretakingplace:thecommunistpartyreinforcingtheideologyofthecommunistmodel,andtheincreasingeconomiccrisis,whichmadebasicfoodstuffsincreasinglyscarce.

Aprocessofeducationalization(Tröhler,2016)throughfoodandcookingoccurred,duringthecommunistregime,ascookbooks,likeallbooksoftheera,wereadaptedtothecommunistideology.Thecookbookchangedfromitsoriginalversionin1936to1969,whenitwaslastedited:recipeswereremovedcompletelywhentheyseemedtoocosmopolitanandthenamesofsomerecipeschanged,inanefforttomakethemsoundmoreRomanian(éclairbecameecler,charlottebecameșarlotă);quantitiesandingredientsintraditionalrecipeswerescaleddownastheingredientsnecessarytomakethembecamemoredifficulttoprocure(suchascozonacimoldovenești);recipesthatsoundedtooforeigndisappearedcompletely(Beignets,Chateaubriant,Kugelhupf);andnewrecipeswereintroduced,usingnewingredientstoreplace(atthattime)difficulttofindones(suchasateriniprăjiți)orsuggestingnewrecipevariationswithavailableingredients(replacingfreshfishinrecipeswithcannedtuna,usingamortadella-likesoysalamiinsteadofbeefandpork,usingwhitebeansinsteadoffishroe).

Thedigitalprojectpresentedinthispaperalsoaimstobecomeaneducationaltoolbypresentingculturalhistoryinawaythatsupportscriticalthinkingandencouragesideaexchange,whileatthesametimeengagingandmotivatingusers.

OneofthereasonsforwhichIchosetoexploreRomanianidentityandhistorybycreatingaprojectfocusedonfood,isthatthetopicoffoodmakesparticipationmoreaccessibletoavarietyofusers.Non-academicusersrarelycontributetoresearchinhighlyspecializedfields,yetinthefieldoffoodstudies,scholarscanbenefitfromtheknowledgeoftheirstudentsorthesocietyatlarge(Pilcher,2016).

Fromatheoreticalpointofview,Pilcher(2016)notedthattheconnectionbetweentasteandsocialdistinctionbecameacentralfocusinsociology,whenPierreBourdieuobservedthattastepreferencesinternalizegroupvalues,whichinturnexpressandhelpmaintainsocialhierarchies(p.863).

Inthecontextofthecommunistregime,wherethecommunistleadershipaimedtoreshapeandreorderthesocietalstructure,whereindividualismwassuppressedinfavourofcollectivism,yetatthesametime,whereCeaușescu’sregimeofnepotismandcorruptionwasinstalled(Hitchins,2014),anyparticularchangesinthewayofeatingandcooking,andthuschangesintastepreferences,canshedlightuponculturalchangesdifficulttoobserveinothercollectionsofnumbers,statisticsandfacts.

Themainhistoricalquestion,whichthisdigitalprojectaddresses,referstothosepartsoftheidentityofRomaniansthatmayhavebeensuppressedandlostduringthecommunistregime.OneofthewaysIamexploringthisquestionisbylookingindetailathowMarin’scookbookchangesduringthecommunistregime.Anotherisbyaddressingcookingandtastepreferencesduringcommunismandcomparingthemwithfoodpreferencesahundred,respectivelytwohundredyearspreviously.Finally,thedigitalprojectisopentobothscholars

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andnon-scholarstoshareanddiscusstheirownopinionsandideasregardingRomanianfoodandtasteandhowitmighthavechangedinthelastdecades.

ProjectMethodologyandTheoreticalFramework

Thedatausedinthisprojectwere:fiveeditionsofSandaMarin’scookbookpublishedin1943,1954,1966,1968and2005,andtwootherpopularRomaniancookbookspublishedin1749and1984,respectively.ThisdatawasoverlaidwithfoodproductionandconsumptiondatafromTheYearlyStatisticsVolumeoftheSocialistRepublicofRomania(AnuarulStatistical

RepubliciiSocialisteRomania),1985,Romaniannewspapersoftheera(Scînteia)andotherpubliclyavailablearchivaldatafurthermentionedinthischapter.Archivalinterviews,videofootageandphotographsarealsousedtoillustratethisdigitalhistoryproject.

Thedatahasbeenanalysedbyusingthehistoricalmethod,whereafactfromthepastistransformedthroughselection,analysis,andinterpretationintoafactofhistorythroughthefollowingsteps:1)identifyingtheproblemstoclarify,2)gatheringprimaryandsecondarysources,conductingarchivalresearch,and3)usingtheoreticalframeworksandconceptualtoolstobuildaninterpretation(Carr,1961).

ProjectLimitations

Thisdigitalhistoryprojecthadsomelimitationsintermsoftimeandresources.Digitalhistoryprojectsareusuallycomplexconstructsbuiltoveralongperiodoftime,usuallybyteamsofresearchersandspecialistswhosharetheirworkbetweencreatingcontent,representingdata,codinganddesign.Thisprojectisanapplicationoftheoreticalconceptsanddesignprinciplesdescribedinpreviouswork(Ghita,2016).Whiletheapplicationoftheseconceptstakesitsmoststraightforwardshapeinmyworktodate,theconceptscanbeappliedinsimilarwaysusingmoresophisticateddatavisualization,interactivityandstorytellingapplications.

AnotherlimitationofthisprojectisusinganeditionofMarin’scookbookpublishedin1943,whichhasbeendescribed(Marin,2005)asbeingverysimilartotheoriginal1936edition,astheoriginalisnotcurrentlyavailableinRomaniannationalpubliclibraryorarchives.

AsPotterandRomano(2012)suggested,investigatingcontemporaryhistorycanbemoredemandingandchallengingthanwritinghistoryabouttimesandpeoplelonggone.Suchchallengesincludeconstructingnarrativesintheabsenceofrealmomentsofclosure,workingwith,andinterpretingincontext,newkindsofsourcesthatwerenotavailableafewdecadesago,andensuringdataprivacywhencollectinginformation.

Inthefollowingsectionsofthispaper,IgiveanoverviewofthehistoricalandculturalcontextafterWorldWarII,andofsomeofthemostpopularRomaniancookbooksinthelastthreecenturies.Second,Igiveanoverviewofthedatausedinthisproject.Third,Idescribethedigitalhistoryproject,whichcanbeaccessedonlineathttps://thisfoodie.com/dhp,specificallydiscussingthewaysinwhichtheprojectwasdesignedtosupportcriticalthinkingandidea

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exchange,aswellasthewaysinwhichitwasdesignedforbeinginteractiveandmotivatinguserstoengagewiththecontent.

FoodinCommunistRomania

Romaniabefore,andRomaniaaftercommunism,aretwoverydifferentcountries(Hitchins,2014).AfterWorldWarI,RomaniahadaKinglinkedtothemajorhousesofEuropeandaQueenwhowasQueenVictoria’sofEnglandownniece,aswellasaforeignpolicythat“skilfullybalancedrelationswiththeAlliesandtheAxis”(King2007).

In1848,KarlMarxandFriedrichEngelswrote“TheCommunistManifesto”.Feelingthattheworkingclasswasbeingexploited,theyenvisionedaworldwheretheproletariatwouldriseagainstthebourgeoisieandestablishanewsociety.In1917theBolsheviksseizedpowerinRussia,changedtheirnametotheCommunistPartyandstartedpromotingtheiridealstoothersocialistpartiesinEurope.

Communistleaderswatchingthemilitaryparadein1966,imagesource:Fototecaonlinea

comunismuluiromânesc,271/1966

TheRomanianCommunistParty(RCP)wasformedin1921andwasatthetimeonlyaminorforcewithverylittleprospectofeverreachingmassrecruitment,yetafterWorldWarII,inthecontextoftheriseofpoweroftheUSSRandthedefeatofGermany,withsoviettroopspresentinthecountry,theRCPsawamassenrolment(Gilberg,1990).In1947theRCPtookpoweroverthecountrybyforcingthe26-year-oldKingMichaelIofRomaniatoabdicate,subsequentlycreatingadefamationcampaignagainstthe“cowardly”king(Boia,2014).In1965,afterthedeathofGheorgheGheorghiuDej,whowasRomania’sfirstcommunistleader,NicolaeCeaușescucametopower,institutingnationalcommunism,“ahybridformofMarxism-Leninismthatrepresentsablendoftraditionalvalues,elementsofMarxistclassicsandtheparticular(andpeculiar)personalaspectsthatCeaușescubroughttothedevelopmentofthetheory”(Gilberg,1990,p.49).King(2007)describesthecommunistregimeinRomaniaas:

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“atotalitariansystemfromitsfoundingtoitsfall,(…)onebasedonthecontinualviolationofhumanrights,onthesupremacyofanideologyhostiletoanopensociety,onthemonopolyof power exercised by a small group of individuals, and on repression, intimidation, andcorruption”(p.627).

Communistpropaganda–NicolaeandElena;Ceausescuplantingatree,imageby

Gabriel,sharedwithCCBY4.0

ThecommunistmodelinRomaniawasimposedbytheSovietUnion,anddidnottakeshapefromwithinthesociety,afactofwhichthemajorityofthepopulationwasaware.Romaniancommunistsaimedtofundamentallyreorderthesocietalstructure,thelifestyleandthespirituallifeofthepeasant.Individualismwassuppressedinfavourofcollectivism;individualfarmsweretransformedintofactoriesandpeasantsintofactoryworkers(Hitchins,2014).AsoneofthemaingoalsofthesocialrestructuringworkdonebytheCommunistPartyinRomaniawasthecreationofclasses,theemphasiswasputondevelopingtheworkingclass,onobedienceandconformity.Theschoolcurriculumwasselectedtorepresentthesocialistideologyandtheimportofwesternbooksorideaswasprohibited(Whitmarsh&Ritter,2007).

Ceaușescuruledthecountryuntiltherevolutionof1989,when,afterorderingthearmytocrushtherebellionusinganymeansnecessary,includingthekillingofnumerousdemonstrators,hewascaptured,quicklyjudgedinashamtrial,foundguiltyofgenocideagainsttheRomanianpeopleandswiftlycondemnedtodeathbyagroupofcommunistsledbyIonIliescu,whobecamethenextRomanianpresident(Hitchins,2014).

DuringCeausescu’sregime,nepotismandcorruption,togetherwithdespotismandthecultofpersonality,becameanewwayoflife(Hitchins,2014).After1989,thecountrywasstillruledbyformercommunists.Membersofthesecretservices(Securitatea)becamepowerfulbusinessmen,leavingbehindacommunistmentalityandalegacyofcorruption.“Romania’smisfortune”suggestsKing(2007),was“asystembuiltnotjustbyabandofmiscreantsbutbyanentirecountrythatspentthesecondhalfofthetwentiethcenturyatwarwithitself(p.723).”From1965to1989,CeaușescuimplementedaseriesofchangesinthedevelopmentstrategyofRomania,oneofwhichwastofocusontheindustrialisationandurbanisationofthecountry,tothedetrimentofagriculturalinvestment(Gilberg,1990).Asaresultofthispolicy,

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from1948to1984,27%ofthecountry’spopulationmovedfromruralcommunestocitiesandtowns(AnuarulStatisticalRepubliciiSocialisteRomania,1985),dependingonthegovernmenttomanagetheproductionandthesaleoffoodasopposedtoprocuringitthemselves.

Theperiodfrom1960to1975wasaperiodofrelativeconsumerabundancewhenRomaniansreportedthattheycouldbuyluxuryproductssuchasFrenchcognac,AmericanWhisky,andblackcaviar;andtheyhadaccesstonewelectro-domesticproducts,suchasvacuumcleanersandwashingmachines(Massino,2012).Yet,bytheendofthe1970s,theseproductsbecameunavailableandbasicfooditemshadstartedtobecomescarce(Massino,2012).

ThetraditionofstudyingfoodconsumptioninRomaniawasinterruptedandevenforbiddenduringthecommunistregime(PetroviciandRitson,2000).Consumptiondatawas“protected”andcounterfeited,withdataconsumptiononfoodstuffsoftenoverestimated.Therefore,thedataavailablefrom1944to1989isunreliableandsometimesnon-existent.

Theprolongedunderinvestmentinagriculturequicklyledtoadramaticloweringofproduction.Intheearly80’s,CeaușescudecidedtopayRomania’sforeigndebtbyexportinggasoline,clothingandfoodstuffs,whichhaddireconsequencesforRomanians,asqualityproduceandmeatwenttoexport,whileonlysecondandthirdqualityfoodstuffswereavailabletoRomanians(Hitchins,2014,Massino,2012,Gilberg,1990).

Fromthebeginningofthe1980s,meat,oilandsugarstartedtoberationed,asbasicfoodproductsbecameinsufficientforthepopulationconsumption.Onthe17thofNovember,1985,Ceaușescupublishedinthenationalnewspaper,Scînteia,thenew"scientificdiet",whichaimedatconvincingRomaniansthattheywereeatingtoomuch,anddrasticallyreducedtheirallowedconsumptionofbasicfoodproductssuchasmeat,wheatandflour,oilandfruit(seefig.3)(Scînteia,1985).

The"scientificdiet"describedthemaximumlimitsoffoodstuffspermittedtoeachcitizen,yet,inreality,notallthelistedfoodstuffswerealwaysavailable(Massino,2012).Peopleneededtoqueueforhoursinordertogettheirrationsofsugarandeggsorbuybread,milkandmeat,whichwereincreasinglydifficulttofind(Gilberg,1990).

The"scientificdiet"allowedeachindividualamaximumdailyintakeof150gramsofmeat(theequivalentofapieceofmeatthesizeofthepalmofahand),threegramsofmargarine(butterwasverydifficulttofind),orhalfateaspoon,fiveandahalfteaspoonsofoil,twocupsofflour,1mediumsizedpotato,asmallpieceoffruitthesizeofatennisball,andonceeverythreedays,anegg.Soapanddetergentwerealsorationed,allowingindividualstousearoundthreegramsasoapperdayandtengramsofdetergent,whichapproximatestowashingafullloadeverytendays.

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The“scientificdiet”,publishedin1985,delineatedthemaximumamountofeach

ingredientsanindividualwasallowedtoconsume,inoneyear.

Asindustriallaborerswereconsideredtodothemostproductiveworkinthecommunistsociety,theyweregivenpriorityintermsofhousinganddistributionoffood.Ontheblackmarket,highstatusworkershadaccesstoavarietyofgoodsthroughclosedstores(magazineleinchise),whileworkersinrestaurantsandfactories,whohadaccesstofood,wouldusethoseforpersonalandbarteringneeds.FortherestofRomanians,themostcommonmeansofprocuringfoodwasthequeue(Massino,2012).

Asfoodstuffsbecamemoreandmorescarce,thedailyexperienceofpreparingfoodbecameaburdenforwomen,whowereinchangeofcookingforthewholefamily(Massino,2012).Theyhadtomakedo,cookingusingseasoningsandinferiormeattrimmings,cannedfishandmeat,soysalamiandproduceofinferiorquality.Theeggrationturnedbakingintoanactivityreservedforfestivitiesorspecialdays.

Alocalnewspaperadportraysasmiling,perfectlycoiffedwoman,pointingatthevegetablesectionofafoodshopalongwithacopythatreads:"Freshvegetablesandlegumes:theycan

alwaysbefoundatBrailaFactory",imagebyGabriel,sharedwithCCBY4.0

AquotefromMasino’s(2012)interviewwithaRomanianwomanfromBrasov,Romania,illustrateshowchallengingcookingorfollowingarecipehadbecome:

“I’dcomehome,sitdownonthechairinthekitchen,andbegintoinventmeals…becauseIcouldn’tfollowacookbook…hmmm…Idon’thaveparsley…Ican’tmakethisbecauseIdon’thavecheese…sothenIpreparedfoodthatyouwouldn’tfindinanyrecipe…IwouldmakethefirstandsecondcourseandIonlyhadpotatoes…I’daddavegetable…someeggswithflour…andalsomakea(n.red:pretend)goulashsoup”(p.242)

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Inhisautobiography,Sandru(2013)remembersthefoodstuffsthatwereavailabletohiminhisdaytodaylife:

“BasicfoodstapleswereavailableincommunistRomania,someinmoreabundancethanothers,forwhichpeoplehadtowait longlines,comerain,comeshine.Vegetablesandfruitswereavailableonlyinseason.Thevarietyoffoodwaslimited,andmostofthedailydietwasaboutthesame.Irecallmydailydietbeingbreadandmilkinthemorning;asandwichwithlard,or butter, ormarmalade, for lunch and breadwith fried potatoes or cabbage, or soups, fordinner.OnSundays,myfamilyhadachickenorothermeat insoupsorstews.Andmymombakedacakeforsweets.Trythisdietforamonth.Onebenefitisthatyoumightloseweight”(p.87)

Bylookingattheinstitutedrations,theconsumptionpatternchanges,thepersonalinterviewsandhowthemostpopularcookbookatthetimewascensoredandedited,togetherwithothersocietalissueshappeningatthesametime,wecanseeaglimpseofwhatitmusthavemeanttoliveanormallifeduringthecommunistdictatorship.

DespiteCommunistclaimsofdividingworkandresponsibilityequally,procuringfoodandcookingwasconsideredtheresponsibilityofwomenduringcommunismandafter1989.Duringtheinterwarperiod,feminismandtheequalityofthegenderswereconceptsconsideredimportantinthemakingofpublicpolicy(Bucur,2008).Duringbothworldwars,womenexperienceaninitialperiodofeconomicandemotionalvulnerability,yetaswomentooktheroleofheadsofthehouseholdandbreadwinnerduringthistime,theybecamemoreindependentandself-reliantandhavestartedtoquestiontraditionalgenderrolesattheworkplaceandathome(Wingfield&Bucur-Deckard,2006).

By1945,thecommunistregimeinEasternEuropestoppedanykindofprogressinclosingthegapbetweentheCommunistrhetoricofgenderequalityandthereality,byonlyaddressinglabourdivisioninthepublicsphere,butnotathome(Bucur,2008).Womenheldaworkdayjobandwerealsoresponsibleforalldomesticdutiesathome,expectationthathascarriedoutinmanyfamilies,untiltoday.Themainargumentwasfollowingthelawsofnatureandhelpingwomenachievetheirmainfunctionsinthenewsociety:maternityandrunningthehousehold.(Wingfield&BucurDeckard,2006).TheCommunistPartyputagreatemphasisontheroleofwomenasMothersofthePeople,encouragingfamiliestohavemanychildren,evenwhentheresourceswerescarce.Mothersofmorethantenchildren,forinstance,wouldreceiveastatemedalandcalled“HeroMothers”.Itiswhy,Bucurargues,intheyearsafter1989,feminismfeltlikeyetanotherimportedforeign,capitalistconceptandnotasanationalphilosophy.

SomeofthemostImportantCookbooksinRomania

Calistru(2011)saweatingasoneofthemostinsightfulwaysoflookingintotheeverydaylifeofapeople.Acookbookisatoolcreatedtoofferlifestylesolutions,whichisthencrystalizedintoaformofculture(p.21).

TheoldestRomaniancookbookwasCarteîntrucaresăscriumâncăriledepeşteiraci,stridii,melci,legumi,erburişialtemâncăridesecşidedulce,despreorânduialalorathreehundredyearoldmanuscriptwritteninchirilicletters(Gaster,1749),volumelatertranscribed

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tothelatinalphabetbyIoanaCantacuzino,inhervolumeOlumeîntr-ocartedebucate:manuscrisdinepocabrâncovenească(Cantacuzino,1997).Thecookbookis

acollectionof293culinaryrecipes;sometranslatedfromItalian,FrenchandGermanandadaptedtotheingredientsavailabletotheRomaniancook(Calistru2011).

In1841,writersCostacheNegruzziandMihailKogălniceanupublishedthefirsteditionofanotherwell-knowncollectionofrecipes,200dereţete

cercatedebucate,prăjiturişialtetrebigospodăreşti(Negruzzi&Kogălniceanu,1942).Thecookbookfeatured200recipes,outofwhichonlyfourwerefish-basedandnineforfreshwaterlobster(rac).31recipeswereformeat-baseddishes,outofwhichthemajorityfeaturebeefandmuttonandonlyveryfewusingasamainingredientporkham.18recipesaskedforpoultryasthemainingredient,while27recipeswerededicatedtovegetable-basedrecipes.Abigportionofthiscookbook,80recipes,featuredpastryrecipes,suchaspies,cakesandjellies(zalatină).Thecookbookalsofeaturedsixrecipesforsoup.

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In1936SandaMarin(CeciliaMariaZapan,bornSimionescu)publishedherCartedebucate,acookbookthatwasgoingtobecomeoneofthemostpopularRomaniancookbooksinthenextdecadesuntiltoday.SandaMarinwasborninDecember1890intoarichfamilyofintellectuals,thedaughterofnaturalsciences,professorIonSimionescuandmusichigh-schoolteacherFloricaMusicescu.ShelatermarriedMihaiZapan,professoranddoctorinchemistry.ShehadstudiedliteratureandmusicinParisandfluentlyspokeFrench,EnglishandGerman.Inthe1930’sMarinmovedbacktoRomania,where,disappointedbythecookbooksshecouldfindonthemarketatthetime,decidedtowriteoneandtoprovethatcookingcanalsobeart(Boerescu,2017).

LiviaBodea,thecoordinatorofthelatesteditionofMarin’sCartedeBucate(Marin,2005)describedMarin’scookbookas“themostlastingRomaniancookbook”(SandaMarin,odoamnăcubungust,n.d.).BodeabelievedMarinwantedtoalsoteachgoodmannerswithherCookbook,suchasproperlysettingthetable,orpairwinewithfood.Thebookwaspresentineverykitchenanditspopularityturneditintoasortofmagicaltoolforfixinganyprobleminthekitchen.ThecookbookoriginallyhadacosmopolitandimensionwhichcanbeattributedtoMarin’sinternationaleducationandtravels.However,during1944and1989,whenThePeoplewereexpectedtoonlythinkandeatwiththedetaileddirectionandtheapprovaloftheParty,thebookwasdrasticallycensored:anythingthatsoundedforeignwasremovedorrenamedandthequantitiesusedintheoriginalrecipeswerehalvedorreplaced(SandaMarin,odoamnăcubungust,n.d.).

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Acomparisonofthethreecookbooks,showingthenumberofrecipesbasedonmeat&fish,crustaceans,vegetables,anddesserts.

Marin’sCookbook

Marin’sCookbookchangednumeroustimesduringthecommunistregimeandevenintheyearsaftertheregimeended.Thevolumewasfirstpublishedin1936attheeditorialCarteaRomânească[1]andcontainedmorethan1400recipes.Until1945ithadalreadybeenpublishedinatleast13editions[2],withaprefacewrittenbywriter,lawyerandgourmand

AlexandruOsvald“Păstorel”Teodoreanu[3].Teodoreanuwasrumoredtohaveauthoredthecookbook,ashewasalreadypublishingshortstoriesthatincludedrecipesinliterarymagazines,andhewasawell-knownintellectualoftheera.

From1950,whichcoincideswiththemomenttheRomanianCommunistPartytookfullpartycontroloverthecountry,thebookwaseditedbyaneweditorial,EdituraTehnică,whichpublishedfoureditionsinthe1950sandanotherthreeinthe1960s,withthelasteditionbeingpublishedin1969[4].The1954edition,calledbyBârnăintheprefaceofthe2005volume(Marin,2005),“theaustereedition”onlyfeatured855recipesandstartedwithanintroductionwrittenbyMirceaPetrescu.

The1966edition,publishedafterDej’sdeathandoneyearintoCeausescu’sruleoftheCommunistPartyandofthecountry,startedwithahighlyeditedversionofPetrescu’spreface,signedbyassistant-dieticianRodaVișinescu.Thiseditionfeatured1324recipes,somepublishedintheoriginaleditionandothernewrecipes.The2005editionfeatured1486recipes,includingtherecipesintheoriginaledition,butalsosomerecipesintroducedinthe60svolumes.

Thethreeprefaces,writtenbyTeodoreanu,PetrescuandVișinescu,areverydifferent:whilethefirstisrichandentertaining,includinganecdotesandanalmostliterarydescriptionoftheingredients(aswastheTeodoreanu’sstyle),thelasttwoareincreasinglyrigid,instructional

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andhaveanmarkededucationalpurpose:givingdetailedinstructionsaboutthequantityoffoodindividualsindifferentworksituationsshoulduseandhowtoavoiddiseasesthatappearasaconsequenceofbadeatinghabits.

Teodoreanu’sprefaceincludedlongdescriptions,suchas:

“Fromthemountains,totheDanubeandthesea,Romaniapresentsthemostvariedlandinsceniclandscapesandriches,amongothersgastronomical…Allkindsoflivestockandpoultry,game,fish,fruits,obtainedbythemercyoftheCreatorofthisblessedland,wherephraseslike‘butterandhoneyflowedinthestreets’symbolizeamythicalstateofaffairs.

TheBlackSea,withitsmackerel(whichisfromtheDanube,butalsoofsaltwater…)withits Pinchuk’s gobies, horse mackerels, red mullets, rays, OldWorld silversides, mussels andshrimpanditsriversandlakeswithfreshwaterlobsterofallsizes,fromtheCăldăruşanione,bigas a stagbeetle, to theBrateş,DorohoiorBrașovones, big as a lobster, then trouts, hucks,sterlets,carps,sturgeons,perch,northernpike,tench,dwarfcatfish;withitsgiantsmountainsandwoodedvalleys,teemingwithpeltgameandmovingwithfeatheredgame,withitsvineyardsand orchards filledwith themostwonderful kind of fruit, from the lemon of Balchik to thebramble-berries,raspberries,strawberries,andwildstrawberriesoftheCarpathians;itsflocksandherdsacross thewholecountry,not tocount thewheatandcorn ineternalabundance,couldsatisfyawholecontinent…”(Marin,1943)

Thepreface,poeticinitself,alsoincludedananecdoteaboutafriendwhowantedtoofferTeodoreanusixpheasants,ashewasunablecookthem,“becausehiscookwasstupidandhiswifelearned”,andaconfessionthat,asaresultofreadingthecookbook,thewriterwasgoingtoignorehisdoctor’sadvice,gotoarestaurantandorder“everythingIamnotallowedtoeat,startingwithfreshwaterlobster(strictlyforbidden!),tospitethedoctor”(Marin,1943).Morethanthreedecadeslater,Teodoreanupublishedhisowncookbook,Gastronomice,whererecipesaredescribedinhisusualstyle,throughamixofstories,poemsandlegends,volumeinwhichheagainmentionsandpraisesMarin’scookbook(Teodoreanu,1972).

Petrescu’sintroduction(Marin,1954),ontheotherhand,wascompletelydifferent.Itwasfocusedontheimportanceofhavingabalanceddiet,whichwasconsideredasbeingof“greatsocialimportance”(p.4).Petrescuaddressedthewomancook(gospodină)directlyandmentionedtheimportanceofcookingeconomicallyanddescribedindetailthe“rationalandbalanced”diet.Petrescucomparesthehumanorganismtoamachineneedingfuel:

“Fromanenergeticpointofview, thehumanorganismcanbecompared toa thermicmachine,becausetheenergyproducedbytheorganismresultsfromtheoxidationofthefoodsubstances, which can be compared with the fuel necessary for amachine. But, unlike thethermicmachine,thehumanorganismcanfunctionforalimitedtimeevenwithoutfood,usingitsownsubstancesforproducingtheenergynecessaryforitsnormalfunctioning”(p.4-5)

Vișinescu’sintroduction(Marin,1966)wasevenmoreeducational,theinstructionfeaturingmorethantenpagesdescribinginpainstakingdetailthenutritivespecificsofdifferentfoodstuffs,theidealamountoffoodeachindividualshouldeatdependingontheir

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ageandlifestyle.Herprefaceusesstrict,cumbersome,medicallanguageanditcouldhavebeeneasilyconfusedwithachapterinamedicalnutritionbook:

“Thequantityofproteinnecessaryfor24hours,foranadultwhoperformsmoderateworkis1-1.5gforeachkilogramofbodyweight.Forexample,foramanof1.70m,70-105gramsofproteinarenecessary.Ofcourse,theproteinrationvariesfromanindividualtoanother.Thus,forexample,children,teenagersandpregnantwomenneed1.5-2gofproteineachforkilogramofbodyweight,thesameasthosewhoworkinatoxicorcontaminatedenvironment”(p.7)

ThisprecisioninVișinescu’sintroductionisstriking,sincebytradition,Romaniancookbookspublishedbeforethesecondhalfofthe20thcenturycontainvagueindicationsinthetermsofquantitiesused(Neț,2017),volume,dimensions,lengthsofcookingtime,addressingreaderswhoalreadyknowhowtocookandusingdescriptionssuchas“addalittlebitofsugar,asmuchasitneeds”(NegruzziandKogălniceanu,1842)or“addcornmealasitrequires”(Marin1943,1954).

Apartfromteachingwomenhowtocook,Marin’scookbook,beingthemostpopularRomaniancookbookandtheonebookeveryonehadintheirpersonallibrary,becameaneducationaltoolintherepertoireofcommunistideologyduringthecommunistdictatorship,suggestingthatcookingandtheprocurementoffoodwastheresponsibilityofwomen.

Romaniancookbookshaveoftenbeenavehicleforneologismstomaketheirwayintothelanguage,manyofthemusingthenewwordsmuchbeforethewordswereformallyintroducedintheRomanianDictionary(Chivu,2012).FollowingtheTurkishandGreekneologisms,acquiredduringthesecondhalfofthe19thcentury,thechangingpoliticalenvironmentofthe20thcenturybroughtnewwordsborrowedfromFrenchandGerman.

From1936to1969thecookbookhasgonethroughmanychanges.Somerecipeswereremovedcompletelyastheingredientsnecessarytomakethembecamemoredifficulttoprocure.Atthesametime,recipesthatsoundedtooforeigndisappearedcompletely,suchasBeignets,Chateaubriand,Kugelhupf,Bouiabesse.The1954editionlistsfourrecipesforcookingeggs,whiletheothereditionslistover20,forexample.Awholesectiononflavouredbutterspublishedinthe1943editiondisappearedfromthe1954,1966and2005editions.The1943editionfeatured70recipesforfish,whilethe1954editiononlylisted30.The1966editionfeaturedonly67recipes.

IllustrationofthecaketinusedtomakeBlancmangerandBavarois(Marin,1943)This

illustrationdisappearsfromthenexteditionspublishedinthe50sand60s

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Someofthenamesofrecipeschanged,inanefforttomakethemsoundmoreRomanian(éclair became ecler, charlotte became șarlotă and quantities and ingredients in traditionalrecipeswerescaleddownorhalved.TherecipeforMoldovanCakes(cozonacimoldovenești)publishedinthe’43editionandpresumablyintheoriginaledition,askedfor100eggyolksand3-4eggsand5kilogramsofflour.Thisrecipedisappearedinthe1954and1966editions.Thereasonforitsremovalfromthelistofrecipesissimple:theeggrationsmadeitimpossibleforanyonetocookit.Inthe1954edition,therecipewasreplacedwithanewonecalledCozonacieconomici(economicalcakes),whichonlyaskedforthreeeggsforeachkilogramofflourandreplacedtheoriginal250gramsofbutterwithonly100gramsofporklard(untură).

Apartfromrecipesdisappearedcompletely,newrecipeswereintroduced,usingnewingredients(aterini[5]prăjiți),orsuggestingnewrecipevariationsforavailableingredients(suchaspotatoes).Manyrecipesintroducedinthe1954editionuselessingredientsandarecalled“economical”,suchasomletăeconomică(economicalomelette),whichonlyaskedforfoureggsandalittlebitofbakingyeast,asopposedtotheoriginalrecipewithsixeggs[6].Othernewaustererecipesweresalatădeicreimitate(imitationcaviarsalad)orpateuimitat(imitationpâté),whichtaughtnewwaystocreate“caviar”fromsemolinaandpâtéfromeggsandonions.

The2005volume,describedbytheeditorsasthe“completeedition”,featuredrecipesinitiallypublishedinthe1936edition,butalsosomeofthemoreeconomicalrecipesintroducedinthe1966edition.The1943editionthushasmorethan1400recipeslistedinitsindexofrecipes,whilethe2005editionlistsalmost1500recipes.The1954editiononlylistsabout800recipes,whilethe1966editionlists1324recipes,wheremanyoftheoriginalrecipeswereremovedandnewones,morefittotheeconomicallandscapeoftheRomaniancook,wereintroduced.

Intheprefaceofthe2005edition,OanaBârnănotedthedisappearanceofthoserecipesthatcouldseem“tooopulent,toocosmopolitan,ormaybeboth”(p.7),andtheintroductionofnewrecipes,someverysimple,suchasmashedbeans(salatădepiuredefasole)orRussianrecipeslikepiroștiorvatrușchi.Bărnănotedthatinthelatereditionssomeoftheingredientsandquantitieshadbeenchanged:tunawaslaterchangedtofishinoil,gooseliverbecamepoultryliveroranykindofliver,hamisreplacedwithsoybasedsausage(parizer),whitepepperisreplacedwithjustanykindofpepper(p.7).

DesigningtheDigitalProject

Thedesignofthisdigitalprojecthadtwoconsiderations:first,tocreateaspacewherecriticalthinkingandideaexchangewouldbesupported,andsecond,todesignforinteractivityandmotivation.

Criticalthinkingisdefinedas“theprocessbywhichthethinkerimprovesthequalityofhisorherthinkingbyskillfullytakingchargeofthestructuresinherentinthinkingandimposingintellectualstandardsuponthem”(Paul&Elder,2004).

CriticalthinkingislinkedtocriticalinquiryasDewey(2004)seesit:atoolwhichindividualswithinademocraticsocietyuseastheyworktogethertosolveeachother’s

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problems.(Bruno-Jofré&Johnston,2014,p.4).Throughtheuseofcriticalinquiry,asDeweyseesit,individualsextracttheidealtraitsofexistingsocietiesandusethemtocriticizetheundesirablefeaturesoftheirownsocietyandfindwaystoimprovethem(p.47).Dewey’sphilosophyispartofthepragmatistschoolofthought.

InanefforttorecreateHabermas’publicsphere,withinthisdigitalhistoryproject,theprojectispubliclyaccessibleandoffersuserstheabilitytocommentandsharetheirideasinthesamespacewherethedigitalhistoryprojectishosted,viaanembedded,moderatedcommentsystem.Tocreateaspacethatsupportscriticalthinking,thedatapresentedislinkedtotheirsources,sothatuserscanaccesstheoriginalsources(whentheycannotbepresentedonthewebsiteduetocopyrightissues).Throughouttheproject,usersareinvitedtosharetheirownpointofview,theirowninterpretationsandmemories.Asectionoftheprojectinvitesuserstosharetheirpersonalhistoriesrelatedtofood,identityandcultureincommunistRomania.

Asecondimportantconsiderationforthedesignofthisprojectwastocreateavirtualenvironmentthatwouldbeinteractiveandthat,thoughitsexperiencedesignwouldmotivateuserstoexploreit.Thewholeprojectisinteractive,inthesensethatthecommunicationisalwaystwo-way,madepossiblebythecommentsystemembeddedintheproject,butitalsoallowsuserstointeractwiththedatapresented.Onthe“Educationalizationofcooking”pagesomeofthetextisonlyreadablewhentheaccordion-likestructureisopened.Theactofmakingachoiceclosesanotherpartofthetext,inanefforttosuggestuserstodecideaboutwhattheywanttoread.andinwhichorder.

Thewholeprojectisbuiltwithintheconceptoflearnerhero,havingsomeofthesecondarysectionsofthedigitalprojectavailableonlythroughfurtherexplorationofthemicrosite.An“abouttheauthor”pageisonlyavailablewhenhoveringwiththemouseoverthe“Aboutthisproject”sectionandsomeoftherecipesmentionedherearehiddenthroughoutthemicrosite.

Userscaninteractwiththedatausedtocreatetheinfo-graphicsthroughwhichthenarrativeoftheprojectisconstructed.

Immersionisbuiltthroughstorytelling,photographyandvideofootageoftheera,andwherephotographywasnotavailable,withillustrationsfromthecommunistera.Lastbutnotleast,theprojectincludesanautobiographicalsignature,describingtheauthor’spointofview,purposeandassumptions.

Anotherconsiderationinthisprojectwastoengageusersandpullthemintoanindividualexperience.Forthisreason,theprojectdoesnotuseaclassicaldrop-downtopmenuandinsteadhasanon-lineardesign,whichallowsuserstochoosewhichsectionstoexploreandtheorderinwhichtoexplorethem,whileallthesectionsareconnectedthroughvariousintralinks.Usersareinvitedtosharetheirownstoryandtheyareaskedquestionssuchas“HowdoyouthinkthewayyoucooktodaywasinfluencedbythecommunistregimeinRomania?”and“Istherearecipeyourgrandmotherorgrand-grandmotherusedtomakeyouorusedtotalkaboutthatnobodyelseistalkingabout?Haveyouaskedthem?”

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Descriptionoftheproject

Thedigitalprojecthas6mainsections:a)AbouttheProject,b)WhydoesFoodMatter,c)TheEducationalizationofCooking,d)FoodinCommunistRomania,e)SandaMarin’sCookbookandf)ShareYourownStory.

The“AbouttheProject”sectiongivesanoverviewoftheprojectgoalandresearchquestions.

Inthesectionentitled“WhydoesFoodMatter”IdescribehowcookingandfoodconsumptioncouldberelevanttounderstandingidentityandcultureandIincludethreeinteractivevisualizationsofthetypesofrecipes,organizedbyingredient.Astheusersscrollsdownthroughthepagetodiscovernewcontent,theinfo-graphics,startmoving,populatingthespacewithdata.Thissectionalsoincludesaphotooftheoriginal1749manuscript,aswellasalinktoanarchivewherethemanuscriptcanbereaditsentirety.

Thesectionfocusedon“TheEducationalizationofCooking”describestheconceptofeducationalizationandpresentsapartofthestorythroughtheinteractive“accordion”describedabove.

“FoodinCommunistRomania”aimsatrecreatingtheatmosphereofthesocio-culturalcontextthroughtext,archivalphotography,propagandistillustrationandavideocreatedbyRomanianTVstationRealitateaTV,showingarchivalfootageofemptyfoodshops(alimentara)andcommentaryfromRomaniansrememberingthenever-endingquestforfoodduringcommunism.Thisvideoisembeddedfromthestation’sYouTubeChannel,whichallowsusersofthedigitalhistoryprojecttowatchthevideoonthesameplatformtheyareon,whilestillrespectingcopyrightlaws.Theintervieweesoftheprogramlistedthekindoffoodyoucouldfindintheshops:piglegs(informallycalledsportsshoes),chickenwings,clawsandnecks,rice,semolinaandtomatosauceandcannedshrimp.Thecannedshrimpwasmanytimestheonlyfooddisplayedinfood-shops,describedbyoneintervieweeas“shuttersofcannedshrimp”.Oneintervieweerememberedthatsincetheshopsweremostlyempty,theshopsseemedtobemadeonlyoutofglass.Thevideoalsoincludesashortcommunistpropagandavideo,wherethefoodshopslookedfullandanoffvoicepraisedtheplentyandrichlifestyleoftheRomanians.ClickingonthevideoleadstousertotheYouTubechannelwherethevideo,anepisodeofalargerseries,wasoriginallypublished.Thissectionalsooffersavisualizationofthe“scientificdiet”proposedbytheCommunistPartyin1985,aswellasjokesfromtheeraandsomeofthequotesincludedinthischapter.

Thesectioncalled“ShareYourownStory”includesanautobiographicalsignatureandinvitesuserstocontributetheirownstoriesandideas,aswellastoasktheirmothers,grandmothersandgrand-grandmothersaboutfoodtheyusedtocookwhentheywereyounger.

Asperitsscope,theprojectincludesonlyafewsections,butthewayitwasbuilt,affordsittogrow,becomingvisibletonewreadersandenrichingtheconversationaboutfoodinRomania.Inthefuture,ablogsectionwillbecreatedandtheprojectwillincludeaversioninRomanian.

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Discussion

Intheworldofdigitalhumanities,andspecificallydigitalhistory,thereisaneedformovingbeyondusingtechnologytoplotdataandshowcontent.Thereisaneedtogobeyondofferingread-onlyexperiences.Itisimportanttousedigitaltechnologyinwaysthataffordatwo-wayconversationbetweentheuserorthedigitalhistoryprojectandthehistorian.

Ibelievehistory,likemanyotherhumanisticdisciplines,suchasphilosophy,canbenefitgreatlyfromdebate,conversationandsharingofideas.Itisonlythroughdialoguethatproblemswithinacontent,beitadigitalhistoryproject,oranentiresociety,canbeidentified(Habermas,1989)anditisthroughdialogueandsharingofideasthatsolutionsforsolvingthecanbeidentified(Dewey,2004).

Thereareotherbenefitsthatemergefromcreatingdigitalhistoryprojectsandvirtualenvironmentsthataffordatwo-waycommunicationandinviteuserstosharetheiropinions.Ibelieveeveryonecouldbenefitfromknowing,understandingandrememberingmorehistoryandthat,inpart,itisthejobofthehistoriantonotonlywritehistory,butalsowriteitinawaythatisaccessibleforavarietyofreaders.Bycreatingahabitofhavingatwo-wayconversationwithreaders,historianscanidentifyandaddressanyareasoftheirspeechthataredifficulttounderstandorfrequentlymisunderstood.

AsPilcher(2016)writes,itisuncommonfornon-specialisttoparticipateinthecreationofthesciences,yetinthecaseofhistoryingeneral,andculturalhistoryinparticular,invitingnon-specialiststoparticipateintheprocessofwritinghistorycanactbothasawaytoverifythethesisofthehistorian,butalsoasawaycontinuouslybuildhistory,includingnew,relevantdata.

“Everythingisrepeated,inacircle.Historyisamasterbecauseitteachesusthatitdoesn’texist.It’sthepermutationsthatmatter”saysUmbertoEcoinhisvolume,Foucault’sPendulum.Manyareawareofandevenagreewiththeformulaof“historyrepeatingitself”,yetmaybemoreconversationsshouldbestartedonthetopicofthefluidityofhistory;howittransformsthroughtime,asmoreevidenceisdiscoveredandnewinterpretationsaregiventothealreadyexistingevidence.Allowingforamultitudeofvoicesandperspectivestohelpbringmeaningtohistoricalevidencecanonlyenrichhistory.

Implementinghabitsofdialogueandcontinuouslycreatingnewpointsofcontactbetweenindividualsandgroupsinasocietycanhelpusgetclosertotheidealofanintentionaldemocracy,asDewey(2004)understoodit.

Yetintoday’swesternsocietiesthereisverylittlethattheindividualcansayordoregardingthewayrealityisunderstood,problemsareidentified,andpoliciesareimplemented.Groupsofinteresthavereplacedindividualexpression(Habermas,1989)and,eventhoughmoderndemocraciesarebuiltwiththeideaofintegratingavarietyofopinionswhenmakingdecisionsforthewholesociety,theactualparticipationoftheindividualislimitedtoavoteeveryfouryears.Pollsandsurveys,andthewholenotionof“thepublicopinion”areconstructedpiecesofinformation,designedtotellthestorytheorganizersareinterestedin

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hearing.Pollsandsurveysareanillusionofindividualrepresentation,astheyareorganizedinaccordancetoaspecificagenda,ofaspecificgroup.Anothercharacteristicofthiswayofintegrating“publicopinion”isthatthefocusisputonthevoiceoftheloudest(orthevoiceofthemany),notneccesarilyonthenuancesinthevoiceoftheindividual.

Theresultisapassivesociety,whereindividualsarerathertoldwhattheythink,thaninvitedtocontribute,buildanargument,andsharetheirpointsofview.

Futurestudy

Inregardtothedatausedinthedigitalhistoryproject,thefactthatnoneofthecontentinthecookbookshadbeendigitized,madeprocessingitmuchslowerandcumbersome.Itwasbeyondthescopeofthisprojecttodigitizethecontentinthesevaluablecookbooks,yetIbelievesuchaworkwouldbebeneficialforcomparingandvisualizingthedifferencesandsimilaritiesbetween,notonlyMarin’sedition,buttheoldercookbooks.

OneparticulardirectionforfutureresearchcouldbeinvestigatinghowtheuseoffreshherbsandcondimentschangethroughoutthecenturiesinRomaniancuisine.IhavefoundmanyherbsIhadnotpreviouslyheardofintheoldercookbookspresentedinthisprojectandInoticedhowcertaincondiments,specificallydriedspices,onlystartappearingincookbooks,laterinthehistoryofRomania.

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Bucur,M.(2008).Anarchipelagoofstories:GenderhistoryinEasternEurope,TheAmericanHistoricalReview,no5:1375-1389

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Footnotes

[1] OanaBârnadatedthisfirsteditionofMarin’scookbookintheprefacetothe2005edition(Marin,2005).

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[2] Theauthorofthisthesishasdeducedthenumberofeditionbyconsultingboththe2005volume,whereBârnămentioned„atleast12editiondbefore(probably)1945”andconsultingtheexemplariesthatwerelistedinRomania’sNationalandMetropolitanlibraries,aswellasforsale,secondhand,inRomanianonlinebookshops.

[3] Teodoreanupublishedin1972hisowncookbookGastronomice,whererecipesweredescribedthroughamixofstories,poemsandlegends(Teodoreanu,1972).

[4] Boththeauthor’sindividualresearchandBârnăinthe2005editionprefacesuggestthenumberofeditionsandthecorrespondingyearsofpublishingmentionedhere.

[5] Oldworldsilversideisatypeofsmallsaltwaterfish,thatappearsinMarin’scookbookinthe1960s,atthe“EdituraTechnică”editorial,butnotintheearliereditionspublishedatthe“CarteaRomânească”editorial

[6] Alltheeditionsmentionthattherecipesarecalculatedforsixpeople.