aphg review book in a nutshell

BY ALEX COLEMAN

APHG REVIEW BOOK IN A NUTSHELL

ARITHMETIC DENSITYNumber of things per square unit of

distance.

DIFFUSION PATTERNSExpansion

Originates in a central places and expands outward.Hierarchal

Originates in a first-order location then moves down to second-order locations and then locally.

RelocationBegins at a point of origin then crosses physical

barrier.Contagious

Begins at point of origin then moves outward to nearby locations

StimulusUnderlying principle diffuses

MAP TYPESTopographic

Contour lines of elevationThematic

Expresses particular subject with no land formsChloropleth

Uses color to show different geography Isoline

Calculate data values between two pointsDot Density

Uses dots to show volume and density Flow Line

Uses lines of different thickness to show movementCartograms

Uses simple geometric shapes to represent places

DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION MODELTheory of how population changes over

time (has predictive capability)Stage 1

Subsistence farming, migration for food, livestock

High BR and DRSierra Leone, Liberia, Botswana

Stage 2Agricultural base for tradeRNI goes up significantlyBR high DR downGhana and Nepal

DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION MODEL (CNT’D) Stage 2 ½

New industrial countryManufacturing beginsBR down DR downMexico and Malaysia

Stage 3Transition to full manufacturingMost First World CountriesBR down DR down because of servicesChina and Brazil

Stage 4Service basedBR and DR as low as possibleZero population growthCanada, the United Kingdom, and the United States

POPULATION PYRAMIDSPopulation structures based on agesShapes

TriangleFast growing

Extended TriangleModerate growth

ColumnSlow growth

Reduced pentagonShrinking

GapsWar

Older on top

BIRTH RATETotal number of infants born living counted

in a year Live births/ (Population/1000)

Higher birth rates in LDCsLower birth rates in MDCs

DEATH RATEThe number of deaths per year divided by

1000.Deaths/(Population/1000)

High death rates in LDCsLow death rates in MDCsAdvances in technology have increased life

expectancy

DOUBLING TIMEHow long it would take for a country to

double in size70/RNI

RATE OF NATURAL INCREASE (RNI)Difference in the amount of population

changeBR-DR/10

Possible to be negative

NET MIGRATION RATETotal migration(Number of Immigrants/(Population/1000))-

(Number of Emigrants/(Population/1000))Can be negative

MIGRATION Inter-regional or internal

One region of a country to another Transnational

One country to another Step migration

People move up in hierarchy of location for work or other reasons Chain migration

Pioneers establish a new place which is a foothold for more migration Periodic movement

Annual or seasonal movement Push factors

War Environmental hazards High cost of land

Pull factors Employment Services

THE DEMOGRAPHIC EQUATION((BR-DR)+NMR)/10= Percentage Rate

TOTAL FERTILITY RATEAverage number of children born to each

woman age 15 to 45Number of children/Number of women

VON THUNEN’S MODEL OF THE ISOLATED STATE

LAND RENT CURVE

CENTRAL PLACE THEORYDeveloped by Walter Christaller Saw the economic world as a spatial modelCity location and the level of economic

exchange could be analyzed using central places within hexagons which overlapped

CENTRAL PLACE THEORY

CONCENTRIC ZONE MODEL

SECTOR MODEL

MULTIPLE-NUCLEI MODEL

GALATIC CITY MODEL

LATIN AMERICAN CITY MODEL

GRAVITY MODELMathematical model that is used in a

number of different types of spatial analysis.

Used to calculate transportation flow between two points.

Determine the area of influence of a city’s business

Estimate the flow of migrants to a particular place

Location1 Population x Location 2 Population/Distance²

GIS, GPS, AND REMOTE SENSINGGIS

Data layers that show different geographic features

GPSUses satellites to show your position on Earth

Remote SensingArial photography used for GIS.

CENTROIDGeographic center of a country

LANGUAGELinguistic region

A place where a language is spokenCan have different dialects within the region

Lingua francaBridge language like English or French

ANATOLIAN VS. KURGAN THEORYAnatolian

Group of Indians migrated from India to Turkey and brought their language and then to Europe

KurganGroup of Indians went from India to Central

Asia then across the Eurasian steppe to Western Europe.

RELIGION Universalizing religions accept

Accept followers from everywhere Ethnic religions

Only from specific ethnic groups Animist

Voodoo, Native American Worship nature Migration

Hindu-Buddhist Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism

Reincarnation Hindus: caste system, Buddhists: oppose the caste

Abrahamic Judaism, Christianity, and Islam

Believe in God to a certain degree Common ancestors of Abraham Jesus Christ was a figurehead Islam: Five Pillars got them to Heaven

NATION AND ETHNICITYNation

Population represented by a single characteristicCulture group is another name

EthnicityGenetic heritage and political allegiance

RaceGenetic heritage and physical characteristics

ENVIRONMENTAL DETERMINISMFriedrich RatzelThe physical geography shapes the culture

POSSIBILISMCarl SaurCultures were partially shaped by the

environment

INTERNAL VS. EXTERNAL INDENTITYInternal

Expressing cultural heritage within the area it originated

ExternalExpressing culture where they do not share

the common culture or geographic background

CULTURAL REGIONSHomogeneous characteristics of culture in

an area

CULTURAL HEARTHSOrigin of a given culture

Nile RiverMesopotamiaThe Indus ValleyMesoamericaThe Andean HighlandNortheast ChileWest Africa

SEQUENT OCCUPANCEReplacing dominant cultures over timeLagos, Nigeria going from British control to

Nigerian

ACCULTURATIONFully adopting the culture of the dominant

population

CULTURAL GLOBALIZATIONMedia has combined cultures so much that

the cultures have lost their connection to their heritage and to nature

ETHNIC AND RELIGIOUS CONFLICTSEthnic cleansing

People of one ethnic group are eliminated by anotherYugoslavian Croats and Serbs

GenocideLarge scale systematic killing of people of

one ethnic groupHolocaustDarfurRwanda

UNITS OF POLITICAL ORGANIZATIONCountry

An identifiable land areaNation

A population with a single cultureState

A population under a single governmentNation-state

Single culture under a single governmentJapan, Iceland, Ireland

NATIONALISMExisting culture group that desires political

representation or independence

STATELESS NATIONCulture group is not included or allowed to

share in the state political processKurds in Iraq, Iran, and SyriaBasques in northern SpainHmong in Laos, Vietnam, Thailand, and

southern China

CONFEDERATIONSeveral smaller states make up a federal

governmentUS, Australia, Brazil, Russia

MICROSTATESSovereign states that are smaller but hold

the same position of larger statesDominica, Luxembourg, Malta, Singapore

MULTI-STATE NATIONSSupernationalism

Two or more states align together for a common purposeUN, WTO, WHO, EU, NATO, OPEC, NAFTA

THE EUROPEAN UNIONFree trade unionOpen bordersUniform currencyOne court for international issuesOne parliamentWorld’s largest economyConstitution is not yet ratified

ENCLAVES AND EXCLAVESEnclave

The minority group concentrated inside another countryEthnic neighborhood in Quebec

ExclaveFragmented piece of sovereign territory

separated by land from the main part of the countryAlaska

WATER BORDERS AT SEATerritorial sea:

12 nautical-mile limit to sovereigntyExclusive Economic Zone:

Given country only allowed to exploit economically within 200 miles

High SeasOutside of 12 mile limit

BORDER TYPESPhysical

Natural borders like rivers or mountainsCultural

Estimated boundaries between people groups

GeometricSurveyed along lines of latitude and

longitude

BORDER CONFLICTSFrontier

Open and undefined territoryPeaceful Resolutions

1846 Oregon Treaty, Louisiana Purchase 1804Post-colonial boundary conflicts

Conference of Berlin 1884 making international borders for Africa

Created the “Tyranny of the Map” because they did not consider cultural boundaries genocides in Rwanda were because of these issues

TERRITORIAL MORPHOLOGY Compact

Shape without irregularity Nigeria

Fragmented Broken into pieces Philippines

Elongated Stretched out, long Chile

Prorupt Panhandle Italy

Perforated Has a country inside of it South Africa

Landlocked Has no oceans or seas Switzerland

ANNEXATIONTerritory is added as a result of the land

purchase or when it is claimed through incorporation

GERRYMANDERINGAttempt to try to stack votes to guarantee

congressional support for one particular party and “fix” elections

ABSOLUTE MONARCHYSupreme ruler runs the country

Present day Saudi Arabia, Brunei, UAE

CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHYMonarch can dismiss parliament, appoints

judges, is commander in chief, holds the monarchal estates.Great Britain, Belgium, Japan

COMMONWEALTH COUNTRIESRetain the British monarch as their head of

stateCanada, Jamaica, Australia

FREE-MARKET DEMOCRACY VS. SOCIALISMFree-market does not try to put barriers on

the economy (US and UK)Republics

Free of aristocratic or monarchal controlNeed separation of powers and flexible

constitutionSocialism tries to distribute everything and

centrally run the economy (USSR)Lacked incentive to produce and surplus of

goods

GEOPOLITICSGlobal-scale relationships between

sovereign states.Exam likes to ask about Cold War and

relationships between democracies and Communist countries

CENTRIPETAL AND CENTRIFUGAL FORCES

CentripetalFactors that hold together social and political

fabric of the stateNationalism, well-liked leader, productive economy,

effective social welfare programs

Centrifugal forcesFactors that tear apart the social and political

fabric of the stateCultural differences or conflicts, political corruption,

failing economy, natural disastersYugoslavia had a good leader who identfied with

everyone and he died and left a power vacuum

BALKANIZATION AND IRREDENTISMBalkanization

When the political landscape goes from a larger state to several smaller statesYugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Austro- Hungarian

Empire, USSR

IrredentismWhen a minority group desires to break away

from a multi-ethnic stateOr align itself with another state

Chechnya, Timor, Ossetia

REUNIFICATIONWhen nations were torn apart, but then

come back togetherEast and West Germany, return of the canal

zone to Panama, Yemen

HEARTLAND-RIMLAND MODELHalford MackinderEffort to define the global geopolitical

landscape and determine areas of potential future conflictLargest was Eastern European steppe in Russia

at the time this was called the HeartlandRimland was rest of the continents of Europe

and Asia and parts of Northern AfricaLandwolves

Eager to grab the area from the land (France)Seawolves

Eager to grab the area from the sea (UK and Japan)

SHATTERBELT THEORYSaul CohenChanged the Heartland to “Pivot Area”Changed the Rimland into the “Inner

Crescent”Rest of the world was the “Outer Crescent”

(US)

CONTAINMENT THEORYGeorge KennanSoviet Union would try to capture buffer

statesUS would try to build a containment wallWorked out well at first Communism died in

Greece and IranUS feared domino effect that if one state

fell then many would follow

FARMING PRACTICESIntensive

Lots of labor or small plot of landExtensive

Limited labor or large plot of landPastoralism

Agriculture based on the seasonal movement of animals (nomadic herding)

Plant domesticationPlant cultivatars used plants for food and used it to

make clothingSubsistence farming

Feeding only the producer’s householdExtensive subsistence

Low amounts of labor in less populated areas (South America)

FARMING PRACTICES (CNT’D)Non subsistence agriculture

Cash-cropping to sell goods at marketsPlantation

Domestic consumption and exporting cropsBananas in Brazil, Sugar in Florida, Coffee in

EthiopiaCommunism and agriculture

Communes resulted made of several families

HUMAN ECOLOGYHow humans interact with nature

TYPES OF CROPPINGCrop rotation

One crop is planted on a plot of land and then switched to another plot later

Multi-croppingPlanting one or more than one crop on the same land

Sustainable yieldAmount of crops or animals that can be raised

without endangering environment or too many expenses

Non-food cropsTextiles, animal feed, ethanol, biodiesel

Shifting cultivationSlash and burn in rainforests

NEGATIVES OF CROPPINGExtensive pastoralism

Shifting animal herds between grazing pasturesOvergrazing

Too much grazing has led to dry grassland being eaten away

DesertificationAny human process that turns a vegetated

environment into a desert-like landscapeSoil salinization

Evaporation of water trapping salt on the surface

AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTIONSFirstVegetative planting

Plants grown togetherSeed agriculture

Fertilized seeds were planted togetherAnimal domestication

Breeding of animals for specific purposesSize of farms

Small, mainly subsistenceColumbian Exchange (popular on AP exams)

Maize, peppers, potatoes, tomatoes, yucca, tobacco, rubber, peanuts, chocolate, and turkeys to Old World

Wheat, rice, coffee, apples, citrus, horses, cattle, hogs, chickens, sheep, goats, and diseases to the New World

AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTIONS SecondMid- 1800s to early 1900sDeveloped

Hybrid plantsFertilizersPesticidesMachines such as trucks, tractors, pumps,

and trailers

AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTIONS ThirdImprovements

Genetic engineeringDevelopment of vaccines, antibiotics, and

growth hormonesFactory farming

AgribusinessCorporate agriculture

Large scale extensive farms controlled by one company

Seeing the end of the family farm in America

MALTHUSIAN THEORYGlobal population would exceed food

productionDidn’t happen because of agricultural

revolutionsNeo- Malthusians

Sustainability: may be problems keeping up in the long-run

Increasing per capita demand: the amount of food per person has gone of greatly

Natural resource depletion: nonrenewables will run out like wood, minerals, and energy

AGRICULTURAL DENSITYNumber of people per square unit of land

actively under cultivation.

SPECIALIZED AGRICULTURENatural foods emerging Non genetically modified foods (GMOs)OrganicsHormone-freeGrass-fed beefAlternative livestock

Lamb, bison, llamas, goose, and duckFish FarmingWineries

SECTORS OF PRODUCTIONPrimary

Agriculture, mining, energy, forestry, fisheriesSecondary

Processing of raw materials (manufacturing)Tertiary (services)

Transportation, wholesaling, retailing of the finished goodsQuaternary

Wholesaling, finance, banking, insurance, real estate, advertising, and marketing

Quinary productionRetailing, tourism, entertainment, and

communication, government, or education, and utilities

LEVELS OF DEVELOPMENT First World

Industrialized and service basedFree marketsHigh level of productivityHigh quality of life

Second WorldCommunist countriesCentrally planned economies

Third WorldMainly agricultural Low levels of productivityLow quality of life

Fourth WorldThird World with economic crisis

Fifth WorldThird World with no government

NEWLY INDUSTRIALIZED COUNTRIESThird world states that have made a shift

from agriculture to manufacturingMexico, Brazil, Dominican Republic, Nigeria,

China, Vietnam, India

COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGECountry has the ability to produce a good

or service at less cost than other states

ASIAN TIGERSOld Asian Tigers

Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, SingaporeDeveloped because of foreign aid during the 50s,

60s, and 70sNew Asian Tigers

China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Vietnam

Developed because of foreign direct investment during the 80s and 90s

Growth possible because of cheap land, labor, and resources; and a lack of environmental regulations

ECONOMIC MEASURES OF DEVELOPMENTGDP: total volume of a country’s economy

Good+ ServicesGNI: dollar value of all goods and services

produced in a country plus the value of exports minus importsGoods+ Services+(Exports-Imports)

Trade surplusExports>Imports

Trade deficitExports<Imports

GDP per capitaGDP/Population

GNI per capitaGNI/Population

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEXDesigned by the UN to measure the level of

development of states based onGDP per capita, the adult literacy rate,

average level of education, and total life expectancy

Score is indexed from .0-1.0Intent is to provide a more balanced

measure of development

OTHER MEASUREMENTSThe Gini coefficient

Measures the difference between the rich and the poor population groups on a scale of 0-100

The Gender-Related Development IndexCompares men and women much of the way

that HDI is calculated

ROSTOW’S STAGES OF GROWTHWalter Rostow5 stages of growth

Traditional society: focused on primary productionPreconditions for takeoff: leadership invests in

infrastructure more technology is usedTakeoff: begins to shift focus to industryDrive to maturity: technology advances, industry

grows rapidly, workers become skilledAge of mass consumption: highly specialized

production like cars or energy, technology knowledge high, education levels are high, agriculture mechanized

DEPENDENCY THEORYMost LDCs are dependent on MDCs to

provide employmentPrebisch Thesis

Detailed the dependency of the Third World economy on First World loans and investments to pay for their infrastructure

Claimed that LDCs could never break the bonds of their dependence because they could never manufacture for themselves or make any extra money

BREAKING THE CYCLE OF DEPENDENCYLDC programs that try to break free from MDC

controlInternalization of economic capital

Requires companies to deposit profits from the factories in LDC banks and reinvest locally

Import substitution Instead of buying First World produced consumer-

products, they would buy from LDC factoriesNationalization of natural resource-based industries

Instead of allowing foreign companies to own resources, local governments would

Profit-sharing agreementsForeign companies agree to share part of the profits they

get with the governmentsTechnology development programs

Use limited funds to invest in technological advances and worker training

OTHER DEVELOPMENT APPROACHESTourism

Brings in a good deal of money from foreigners

Ecotourism has become very popular through rain forests, reefs, and savannahs

Free trade agreementsImprove international trade and boost

economiesFree-market reforms

Allowing people to trade freely from a country, abolishing Communism

THEORY OF LOCATIONAlfred WeberDetermines the optimal factory locations

Bulk-reducing manufacturing: close to the inputs (limestone, coal, and water)

Bulk-gaining manufacturing: close to the consumers (cars)

FORDIST VS. POST-FORDIST PRODUCTIONFordist

Relied on a single company owning all the aspects of production

Post-FordistCompanies now dependent on many different

manufacturers to build parts of cars

RETAIL LOCATION THEORYThreshold

Minimum number of people required to support a business

RangeMaximum distance people are willing to

travel to gain access to the serviceSpatial margin of profitability

Area where local demand for the service maximizes profit

AGGLOMERATION AND DEGLOMERATIONAgglomeration

Concentration of human activities in a cluster or around a central place

Agglomeration economiesFind firms with related or similar products

together and share in the advantages of skilled labor, specialized suppliers, and service providers

DeglomerationWhen a location is overloaded with similar

firms or services

SUBURBAN SPRAWLSprawl

Expansion of housing, transportation, and commercial development to undeveloped land on the urban periphery

Anti-growth movementsPush land laws to limit the growth in

suburban areasGrowth boundaries

Set minimums for lot sizes of homes so they do not become packed in by the growth

EDGE CITIESCBDs that have grown in the suburbs

CITY TYPES Colonial cities

Originated in colonial trade retained their European-style archetecture

Fall-line citiesPorts that were upstream to the point where ocan ships could no

longer navigate (break-in-bulk point): Boston, Albany, Baltamore Medieval Cities

Urban centers that date back to the Renaissance: Rome, Paris, London, Kyoto, Beijing

Gateway citiesPlaces where immigrants have made their way into a country:

New York, Miami, Toronto Entrepot

Port city in which goods are shipped in at one price and shipped out for another

MegacitiesMore than 10 million people: Tokyo, New York, Mexico City

MegalopolisUrbanized area of two or more cities that merge together:

Northeastern US

CITY TYPES (CNT’D)World City

Global center of financeFirst-order: New York, London, TokyoSecond-order: Los Angeles, Washington DC,

Chicago, Frankfort, ParisThird-order: San Francisco, Miami, Sydney

Primate cityLargest city is more than twice the size of the

second largest

RANK SIZE RULEThe nth largest city is 1/n the size of the

country’s largest city

UBRAN SOCIETYSegregation

Ethnic neighborhoods have sprung up: Chinatown

RedliningDesigning homes so that African Americans cannot

buy in that areaRestrictive covenants

Putting “whites only” clauses in home agreementsRacial steering

Real estate agents encouraging African Americans to only buy in certain areas

GENTRIFICATIONThe economic reinvestment in existing real

estateHistorical renovationHas had the negative effect of driving lower-

class citizens out because of higher prices

URBAN SUSTAINABILITYMany problems to address

Balancing taxes and maintaining municipal services

Expensive schoolsTraffic congestionPollution

Mass transit can fix some of these problemsNew downtown housing

Mixed-use buildingsBoth hosing and commercial space (New

Urbanization)