appendix a conversion factors - springer978-0-387-95861-3/1.pdf · appendix a conversion factors...
Post on 04-Aug-2018
237 Views
Preview:
TRANSCRIPT
Appendix A
Conversion Factors
Table A.1 Conversion factors for commonly used quantities
Quantity SI to English English to SI
Area 1 m2 ¼ 10.764 ft2 ¼ 1,550.0 in.2 1 ft2 ¼ 0.00929 m2
1 in2 ¼ 6.452 � 10�4 m2
Density 1 kg/m3 ¼ 0.06243 lbm/ft3 1 lbm/ft
3 ¼ 16.018 kg/m3
1 slug/ft3 ¼ 515.379 kg/m3
Energy 1 J ¼ 9.4787 � 10�4 Btu 1 Btu ¼ 1,055.056 J
1 cal ¼ 4.1868 J
1 lbf ft ¼ 1.3558 J
1 hp h ¼ 2.685 � 106 J
Energy per unit mass 1 J/kg ¼ 4.2995 � 10�4 Btu/lbm 1 Btu/lbm ¼ 2,326 J/kg
Force 1 N ¼ 0.22481 lbf 1 lbf ¼ 4.448 N
1 pdl ¼ 0.1382 N
Gravitation g ¼ 9.80665 m/s2 g ¼ 32.17405 ft/s2
Heat flux 1 W/m2 ¼ 0.3171 Btu/h ft2 1 Btu/h ft2 ¼ 3.1525 W/m2
1 kcal/h m2 ¼ 1.163 W/m2
1 cal/s cm2 ¼ 41,870.0 W/m2
Heat generation
(volume)
1 W/m3 ¼ 0.09665 Btu/h ft3 1 Btu/h ft3 ¼ 10.343 W/m3
Heat transfer coefficient 1 W/m2 K ¼ 0.1761 Btu/h ft2�F 1 Btu/h ft2�F ¼ 5.678 W/m2 K
1 kcal/h m2�C ¼ 1.163 W/m2 K
1 cal/s m2�C ¼ 41,870.0 W/m2 K
Heat transfer rate 1 W ¼ 3.4123 Btu/h 1 Btu/h ¼ 0.2931 W
Length 1 m ¼ 3.2808 ft ¼ 39.370 in. 1 ft ¼ 0.3048 m
1 in. ¼ 2.54 cm ¼ 0.0254 m
1 km ¼ 0.621371 miles 1 miles ¼ 1.609344 km
1 yd ¼ 0.9144 m
Mass 1 kg ¼ 2.2046 lbm 1 lbm ¼ 0.4536 kg
1 ton (metric) ¼ 1,000 kg 1 slug ¼ 14.594 kg
1 grain ¼ 6.47989 � 10�5 kg
Mass flow rate 1 kg/s ¼ 7,936.6 lbm/h
¼ 2.2046 lbm/s
1 lbm/h ¼ 0.000126 kg/s
1 lbm/s ¼ 0.4536 kg/s
(continued)
I. Dincer and C. Zamfirescu, Sustainable Energy Systems and Applications,DOI 10.1007/978-0-387-95861-3, # Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2011
783
Table A.1 (continued)
Quantity SI to English English to SI
Power 1 W ¼ 1 J/s ¼ 3.4123 Btu/h
¼0.737562 Ibf ft/s
1 Btu/h ¼ 0.2931 W
1 Btu/s ¼ 1,055.1 W
1 hp (metric) ¼ 0.735499 kW 1 lbf ft/s ¼ 1.3558 W
1 ton of refrig. ¼ 3.516 85 kW 1 hpUK ¼ 745.7 W
Pressure and stress
(Pa ¼ N/m2)
1 Pa ¼ 0.020886 lbf/ft2
¼ 1.4504 � 10�4 lbf/in.2
¼ 4.015 � 10�3 in water
¼ 2.953 � 10�4 in Hg
1 lbf/ft2 ¼ 47.88 Pa
1 lbf/in.2 ¼ 1 psi ¼ 6,894.8 Pa
1 standard
atm. ¼ 1.0133 � 105 Pa
1 bar ¼ 1 � 105 Pa
Specific heat 1 J/kg K ¼ 2.3886 � 10�4
Btu/lbm�F
1 Btu/lbm�F ¼ 4,187 J/kg K
Surface tension 1 N/m ¼ 0.06852 lbf/ft 1 lbf/ft ¼ 14.594 N/m
1 dyn/cm ¼ 1 � 10�3 N/m
Temperature T(K) ¼ T(�C) + 273.15
¼ T(�R)/1.8 ¼ [T(�F) + 459.67]/1.8
T(�R) ¼ 1.8T(K)¼ T(�F) + 459.67
¼ 1.8T(�C) + 32
T(�C) ¼ [T(�F) � 32]/1.8 T(�R) ¼ 1.8[T(K) � 273.15] + 32
Temperature difference 1 K ¼ 1�C ¼ 1.8�R ¼ 1.8�F 1�R ¼ 1�F ¼ 1 K/1.8 ¼ 1�C/1.8Thermal conductivity 1 W/m K ¼ 0.57782 Btu/h ft�F 1 Btu/h ft�F ¼ 1.731 W/m K
1 kcal/h m�C ¼ 1.163 W/m K
1 cal/s cm�C ¼ 418.7 W/m K
Thermal diffusivity 1 m2/s ¼ 10.7639 ft2/s 1 ft2/s ¼ 0.0929 m2/s
1 ft2/h ¼ 2.581 � 10�5 m2/s
Thermal resistance 1 K/W ¼ 0.52750�F h/Btu 1�F h/Btu ¼ 1.8958 K/W
Velocity 1 m/s ¼ 3.2808 ft/s 1 ft/s ¼ 0.3048 m/s
1 km/s ¼ 0.62137 miles/h 1 ft/min ¼ 5.08 � 10�3 m/s
Viscosity (dynamic)
(kg/m s ¼ N s/m2)
1 kg/m s ¼ 0.672 lbm/ft s
¼ 2,419.1 lbm/fh h
1 lbm/ft s ¼ 1.4881 kg/m s
1 lbm/ft h ¼ 4.133 � 10�4 kg/m s
1 cP ¼ 10�2 P ¼ 1 � 10�3 kg/m s
Viscosity (kinematic) 1 m2/s ¼ 10.7639 ft2/s
¼ 1 � 104 stokes
1 ft2/s ¼ 0.0929 m2/s
1 ft2/h ¼ 2.581 � 10�5 m2/s
1 stoke ¼ 1 cm2/s
Volume 1 m3 ¼ 35.3134 ft3 1 ft3 ¼ 0.02832 m3
1 L ¼ 1 dm3 ¼ 0.001 m3 1 in.3 ¼ 1.6387 � 10�5 m3
1 galUS ¼ 0.003785 m3
1 galUK ¼ 0.004546 m3
Volumetric flow rate 1 m3/s ¼ 35.3134 ft3/s
¼ 1.2713 � 105 ft3/h
1 ft3/s ¼ 2.8317 � 10�2 m3/s
1 ft3/min ¼ 4.72 � 10�4 m3/s
1 ft3/h ¼ 7.8658 � 10�6 m3/s
1 galUS/min ¼ 6.309 � 10�5 m3/s
784 Appendix A
Appendix B
Thermophysical Properties
Table B.1 Thermophysical properties of pure water at atmospheric pressure
T (�C) r (kg/m3) m (Pa s) cp (J/kg K) k (W/mK) Pr b (K�1) c (m/s) s (N/m)
5 1,000 0.001519 4,200 0.5576 11.44 0.00001135 1,426 0.07494
10 999.7 0.001307 4,188 0.5674 9.642 0.00008743 1,448 0.07422
15 999.1 0.001138 4,184 0.5769 8.253 0.0001523 1,467 0.07348
20 998.2 0.001002 4,183 0.5861 7.152 0.000209 1,483 0.07273
25 997.1 0.0008905 4,183 0.5948 6.263 0.0002594 1,497 0.07197
30 995.7 0.0007977 4,183 0.603 5.534 0.0003051 1,509 0.07119
35 994 0.0007196 4,183 0.6107 4.929 0.000347 1,520 0.0704
40 992.2 0.0006533 4,182 0.6178 4.422 0.0003859 1,528 0.06959
45 990.2 0.0005963 4,182 0.6244 3.994 0.0004225 1,534 0.06877
50 988 0.0005471 4,181 0.6305 3.628 0.0004572 1,537 0.06794
55 985.7 0.0005042 4,182 0.636 3.315 0.0004903 1,538 0.0671
60 983.2 0.0004666 4,183 0.641 3.045 0.0005221 1,537 0.06624
65 980.6 0.0004334 4,184 0.6455 2.81 0.0005528 1,534 0.06536
70 977.8 0.000404 4,187 0.6495 2.605 0.0005827 1,529 0.06448
75 974.9 0.0003779 4,190 0.653 2.425 0.0006118 1,523 0.06358
80 971.8 0.0003545 4,194 0.6562 2.266 0.0006402 1,514 0.06267
85 968.6 0.0003335 4,199 0.6589 2.125 0.0006682 1,504 0.06175
90 965.3 0.0003145 4,204 0.6613 2 0.0006958 1,491 0.06081
95 961.9 0.0002974 4,210 0.6634 1.888 0.000723 1,475 0.05987
100 0.5896 0.00001227 2,042 0.02506 0.9996 0.002881 472.8 0.05891
T temperature; r density; m dynamic viscosity; cp specific heat; k thermal conductivity; Pr Prandtlnumber; b volume expansion coefficient; c sound speed; s superficial tension; o ¼ 0.3443 ¼accentric factor
Critical parameters: Tc ¼ 373.984�C, Pc ¼ 220.64 bar, vc ¼ 3.106 dm3/kg
Triple point parameters: Tt ¼ 0.01�C, Pt ¼ 611.732 Pa
785
Table B.2 Properties of air at atmospheric pressure
T (�C) r (g/dm3) m (mPa s) cp (J/kg K) k (mW/m K) Pr b (K�1) c (m/s) g
�200 47.61 5.201 1,002 6.667 0.7821 0.01367 171.6 1.401
�170 33.77 7.311 1,002 9.668 0.7581 0.009695 203.7 1.401
�140 26.16 9.296 1,002 12.53 0.7435 0.00751 231.4 1.401
�110 21.35 11.16 1,003 15.26 0.7332 0.006129 256.2 1.401
�80 18.03 12.93 1,003 17.87 0.7251 0.005177 278.8 1.401
�50 15.61 14.6 1,003 20.37 0.7186 0.004481 299.6 1.401
�20 13.76 16.19 1,003 22.77 0.7131 0.00395 319.1 1.401
10 12.3 17.7 1,004 25.09 0.7086 0.003532 337.4 1.4
40 11.12 19.15 1,006 27.32 0.7049 0.003193 354.7 1.4
70 10.15 20.54 1,008 29.49 0.702 0.002914 371.2 1.398
100 9.334 21.88 1,011 31.6 0.6999 0.00268 386.8 1.397
130 8.639 23.18 1,014 33.64 0.6985 0.00248 401.8 1.395
160 8.041 24.43 1,018 35.64 0.6978 0.002309 416.2 1.393
190 7.52 25.64 1,023 37.59 0.6977 0.002159 429.9 1.39
220 7.063 26.82 1,028 39.5 0.6982 0.002028 443.2 1.387
250 6.658 27.96 1,034 41.37 0.6991 0.001912 456 1.384
280 6.296 29.07 1,041 43.2 0.7004 0.001808 468.3 1.381
310 5.973 30.16 1,047 45.0 0.7019 0.001715 480.3 1.378
340 5.68 31.22 1,054 46.77 0.7038 0.001631 491.9 1.374
370 5.415 32.26 1,061 48.51 0.7058 0.001555 503.1 1.371
400 5.174 33.28 1,069 50.23 0.7079 0.001486 514.1 1.367
430 4.953 34.27 1,076 51.92 0.7101 0.001422 524.7 1.364
760 3.371 44.21 1,147 69.34 0.7314 0.0009679 629 1.334
790 3.276 45.04 1,153 70.84 0.7328 0.0009406 637.5 1.332
820 3.186 45.86 1,158 72.33 0.7341 0.0009148 646 1.33
850 3.101 46.67 1,163 73.82 0.7353 0.0008904 654.3 1.328
880 3.02 47.48 1,168 75.29 0.7364 0.0008672 662.6 1.326
910 2.944 48.28 1,172 76.75 0.7374 0.0008452 670.7 1.324
940 2.871 49.07 1,177 78.21 0.7383 0.0008243 678.8 1.323
970 2.802 49.85 1,181 79.65 0.7391 0.0008044 686.7 1.321
1,000 2.736 50.63 1,185 81.09 0.7398 0.0007855 694.5 1.32
T temperature; r density; m dynamic viscosity; cp specific heat; k thermal conductivity; Pr Prandtlnumber; b volume expansion coefficient; c sound speed; g adiabatic expansion coefficient;
o ¼ � 0.009278 ¼ accentric factor
Critical parameters: Tc ¼ 132.531 K, Pc ¼ 37.86 bar, vc ¼ 2.917 dm3/kg
Table B.3 Standard chemical exergy of some elements
Element B C Ca Cl2 Cu F2 Fe H2 I2 K Mg Mo
exch, kJ/
mol
628.1 410.27 729.1 123.7 132.6 505.8 374.3 236.12 175.7 336.7 626.9 731.3
Element N2 Na Ni O2 P Pb Pt Pu S Si Ti U
exch, kJ/
mol
0.67 336.7 242.6 3.92 861.3 249.2 141.2 1,100 609.3 855.0 907.2 1,196.6
Source: Rivero R., Garfias M., Standard chemical exergy of elements updated. Energy31:3310–3326
786 Appendix B
Table B.4 Formation enthalpy, entropy, Gibbs energy, and chemical exergy of some substances
Substance name
Chemical
formula M DfH0 DfS
0 DfG0 exch
Acetone C3H6O 59 �217.14 295.6 �152.69 1,788
Acetylene C2H2 26 228.19 200.9 210.67 1,267
Ammonia NH3 17 �46.14 99.5 �16.5 337.9
n-Butane C4H10 58 �125.78 309.90 �16.529 2,805
Calcium
carbonate
CaCO3 100.1 �1,207 91.7 �1,128 17.52
Carbon
monoxide
CO 28 �110.53 197.6 �137.17 275.06
Carbon dioxide CO2 44 �393.49 213.8 �394.35 198.38
Copper
oxychloride
Cu2OCl2 214 �384.65 154.35 �369.7 21.08
Cupric oxide CuO 79 �156.06 42.59 �128.29 6.27
Copper(II)
chloride
CuCl2 134 �218.0 108.07 �173.83 82.47
Cuprous
chloride
CuCl 100 �136.82 87.45 �119.44 75.00
Ethanol C2H5OH 47 �234.94 280.60 �167.71 1,363
Iron(III) oxide Fe2O3 159.7 �824.20 205.1 �742.22 12.26
Lithium
bromide
LiBr 86.85 �351.14 74.01 �341.83 101.37
Magnetite Fe3O4 231.5 �1,118 146.1 �1,015 115.61
Methane CH4 16 �74.60 186.40 �50.53 831.98
Nitrogen
dioxide
NO2 46 34.19 240.20 52.31 56.56
Nitrous oxide N2O 44 81.59 220.00 103.71 106.34
n-Octane C8H18 131 �208.74 5.734 16.25 7,549
Propane C3H2 44 �104.67 130.7 �24.29 2,151
Sodium
chloride
NaCl 58.44 �411.24 223.1 �384.20 14.353
Sulfur dioxide SO2 64 �296.79 248.2 �300.0 313.10
Uranium
hexafluoride
UF6 352 �2,198 227.8 �2,069 644.96
Water H2O 18 �285.81 69.94 �237.12 0.750
M molecular mass (kg/kmol)
DfH0 formation enthalpy (kJ/mol)
Formation entropy: DfS0 ¼ s0 � P
elements
ns0f;element (J/mol K), where n is the number of moles of the
element in chemical equation of formation of the substance
Gibbs free energy of formation: DfG0 ¼ DfH
0 � T0DfS0 (kJ/mol)
Chemical exergy: exch ¼ DfG0 þ P
elements
n� exchelement (kJ/mol)
Reference temperature: T0 ¼ 298.15 K
Reference pressure: P0 ¼ 1 bar; superscript 0 in above notations refers to standard pressure
Appendix B 787
Table
B.5
Somegeneral
thermodynam
icproperties
ofselected
substances
Substance
Rg
TPT
TPP
DHfus
NBP
DHboil
Pc
Tc
v cZc
oa
b
Hydrogen
4,124
13.96
73.59
454.5
20.37
448.7
12.96
33.15
0.0336
3.135
�0.2187
26,785
0.0165
Parahydrogen
4,124
13.8
70.41
432.5
20.27
446.6
12.86
32.94
0.0327
3.228
�0.2186
26,670
0.0165
Oxygen
259.8
54.36
1.463
243
90.19
213.2
50.43
154.6
0.00217
3.661
0.0222
149,769
0.0198
Nitrogen
296.8
63.15
125.2
215.5
77.36
199.2
33.96
126.2
0.00280
3.936
0.0372
148,225
0.0240
Helium
2,077
11
14.222
20.7
2.275
5.195
0.01196
3.967
�0.385
3,751
0.0147
Neon
412
24.56
432
88.16
27.11
85.77
26.8
44.49
0.00188
3.62
�0.037
23,345
0.0107
Argon
208.1
83.81
688.9
172.2
87.3
169.4
48.63
150.7
0.00161
4.002
�0.002
147,587
0.0200
xenon
63.32
161.4
827.6
96.72
164.9
95.87
58.4
289.7
0.001
3.142
0.0036
454,364
0.0320
Fluorine
218.8
53.48
2.413
196.3
85.03
175.2
52.4
144.4
0.00163
3.691
0.0504
125,813
0.0178
Ammonia
488.2
195.5
61.02
1,486
239.8
1,369
113.3
405.4
0.00516
3.381
0.2558
458,377
0.0231
Hydrogen
sulfide
244
187.7
231.9
574.7
212.9
546.6
89.63
373.4
0.00298
3.401
0.0961
491,620
0.0269
Krypton
99.21
115.8
732
108.8
119.8
107.5
55.1
209.4
0.00121
3.101
�0.002
251,616
0.0245
Methane
518.3
90.69
117
544.2
111.7
510.8
45.99
190.6
0.00734
2.923
0.0114
249,574
0.0268
Methanol
259.5
175.6
0.0018
1,314
338.2
1,103
81.04
513.4
0.00581
2.828
0.5646
1.028E+06
0.0409
Ethane
276.5
90.37
0.0114
595.7
184.6
489.4
48.72
305.3
0.00451
3.838
0.0995
604,771
0.0405
Ethanol
180.5
159.1
0.00002
1,017
351.4
848.8
61.48
513.9
0.00611
2.466
0.6442
1.358E+06
0.0540
n-O
ctane
72.79
216.4
0.01399
411.5
398.6
302.4
24.97
569.3
0.00390
4.249
0.3928
4.103E+06
0.1475
Isobutane
143
113.6
0.00021
482.9
261.5
365.5
36.4
407.8
0.0049
3.271
0.1853
1.444E+06
0.0724
Propane
188.6
85.48
N/A
1231.1
425.3
42.47
369.8
0.00505
3.245
0.1524
1.017E+06
0.0563
Isopentane
115.2
112.7
N/A
N/A
301
342.5
33.7
460.4
0.00446
3.524
0.2266
1.988E+06
0.0883
n-Butane
143
134.9
0.00693
494
272.6
384.7
37.96
425.1
0.00373
4.29
0.2
1.505E+06
0.0724
n-D
ecane
58.44
243.5
0.01452
392.6
447.4
276.3
21.03
617.7
0.00379
4.519
0.4903
5.735E+06
0.19
n-D
odecane
48.81
263.6
0.00631
381.5
489.5
256.3
18.17
658.1
0.00514
3.436
0.574
7.534E+06
0.2343
Isobutane
143
113.6
0.00021
482.9
261.5
365.5
36.4
407.8
0.0049
3.271
0.185
1.444E+06
0.0724
Isopropanol
138.4
0N/A
N/A
355.6
663.1
47.62
508.3
0.00363
4.062
0.668
1.715E+06
0.0690
Ethylene
296.4
104
1.226
568.2
169.3
482.2
50.4
282.3
0.00484
3.43
0.086
499,944
0.0362
Cyclohexane
98.79
279.5
52.49
402.4
353.9
356
40.75
553.6
0.00375
3.571
0.2091
2.378E+06
0.0878
n-H
eptane
82.98
182.6
0.00176
441.1
371.5
316.9
27.27
540.1
0.00556
2.956
0.3479
3.382E+06
0.1281
788 Appendix B
Table
B.5
(continued)
Substance
Rg
TPT
TPP
DHfus
NBP
DHboil
Pc
Tc
v cZc
oa
b
n-H
exane
96.49
177.8
0.0035
618.8
342.4
329.9
30.58
507.9
0.00400
3.998
0.3117
2.666E+06
0.1074
n-N
onane
64.83
219.7
0.0046
410.3
424.2
288.4
22.81
594.6
0.00482
3.5
0.4468
4.898E+06
0.1686
n-Pentane
115.2
143.5
0.00012
466.1
309
358
33.64
469.7
0.00540
2.977
0.2499
2.073E+06
0.0903
Propylene
197.6
87.95
N/A
N/A
225.4
439.2
46.65
365.6
0.00458
3.38
0.1407
905,579
0.0506
R22
96.15
115.7
0.004715
301.9
232.3
232.5
49.89
369.3
0.00203
3.503
0.2208
864,055
0.0478
R134a
81.49
168.9
3.545
263.7
247.1
217
40.59
374.2
0.00170
4.408
0.3269
1.09E+06
0.0596
R290
188.6
85.48
11
231.1
425.3
42.47
369.8
0.00505
3.245
0.1524
1.0E+06
0.0563
R404a
85.19
�555
11
226.6
199.7
37.35
345.3
0.00193
4.065
0.275
1.0E+06
0.0598
R218
44.22
125.5
0.02119
141.1
236.5
105.1
26.4
345
0.00169
3.417
0.3201
1.4E+06
0.0845
R245fa
62.03
171.1
0.1303
258.5
288.3
196
36.51
427.2
0.00203
3.561
0.379
1.5E+06
0.0756
R507a
84.1
�555
11
226.1
196.3
37.14
343.9
0.00199
3.903
0.2793
1.0E+06
0.0599
R508b
87.16
�555
11
184.9
163
39.25
287.1
0.0017
3.735
0.2272
664,053
0.047
Rgrealgas
constant(J/kgK);TPTtriplepointtemperature
(K);TPPtriplepointpressure
(bar);DHfusfusionheatattriplepoint(kJ/kg);NBPnorm
alboiling
point(K
);DHboilboilingenthalpyatnorm
alboilingpoint;Ppressure
(bar);Ttemperature
(K);vspecificvolume(m
3/kg);Zcompressibilityfactor;subscript
“c”
critical
point;o
accentric
factor;a,bconstantsin
Peng–Robinsonequationofstate
Appendix B 789
Table
B.6
Thermophysicalproperties
ofam
monia
atsaturation
TP
sr L
c pL
k Lm L
Pr L
b Lv V
c pV
k Vm V
Pr V
b Vg
�77.6
0.061
44.78
733.6
3.95
821.2
564.1
2.713
1.514
15.68
2.062
19.64
6.84
0.7182
5.23
1.325
�65
0.1563
41.51
719.3
4.162
774.8
430.6
2.312
1.586
6.478
2.102
19.82
7.162
0.7597
4.99
1.328
�55
0.3013
38.95
707.8
4.332
739.3
357.5
2.095
1.63
3.498
2.147
20.07
7.433
0.7951
4.86
1.331
�45
0.5447
36.42
696
4.387
704.6
303
1.887
1.717
2.008
2.205
20.43
7.715
0.8328
4.77
1.336
�35
0.9307
33.93
683.9
4.439
670.8
261.2
1.728
1.804
1.215
2.277
20.88
8.004
0.8729
4.72
1.343
�25
1.515
31.46
671.4
4.489
638
228.3
1.606
1.896
0.7695
2.365
21.44
8.3
0.9154
4.716
1.352
�15
2.362
29.04
658.6
4.538
605.9
201.7
1.511
1.995
0.5068
2.47
22.12
8.599
0.9603
4.757
1.364
�53.549
26.65
645.4
4.589
574.7
179.8
1.436
2.079
0.3452
2.595
22.92
8.902
1.008
4.846
1.379
55.16
24.29
631.8
4.643
544.3
161.4
1.377
2.199
0.2421
2.74
23.85
9.209
1.058
4.989
1.399
15
7.288
21.98
617.6
4.705
514.7
145.6
1.331
2.338
0.1741
2.908
24.92
9.519
1.111
5.193
1.424
25
10.03
19.71
602.9
4.781
485.7
131.8
1.297
2.499
0.1279
3.104
26.16
9.834
1.167
5.466
1.456
35
13.51
17.49
587.5
4.873
457.4
119.6
1.275
2.688
0.0956
3.333
27.58
10.16
1.228
5.826
1.497
45
17.82
15.32
571.3
4.993
429.6
108.8
1.264
3.006
0.0726
3.604
29.21
10.5
1.295
6.295
1.549
55
23.1
13.2
554.1
5.143
402.3
98.99
1.265
3.335
0.0557
3.93
31.11
10.86
1.372
6.912
1.615
65
29.48
11.14
535.8
5.34
375.4
90.06
1.281
3.768
0.0432
4.334
33.33
11.25
1.463
7.738
1.702
75
37.09
9.154
516.1
5.608
348.6
81.83
1.316
4.359
0.0336
4.851
35.97
11.7
1.578
8.876
1.819
85
46.09
7.24
494.5
5.987
322
74.18
1.379
5.21
0.0262
5.55
39.21
12.23
1.732
10.52
1.983
95
56.65
5.414
470.2
6.56
294.6
66.84
1.489
6.525
0.0203
6.56
43.31
12.9
1.954
13.05
2.227
105
68.95
3.695
442.1
7.52
266.1
59.7
1.687
8.801
0.0156
8.168
48.83
13.82
2.312
17.35
2.622
115
83.22
2.113
407.4
9.492
235
52.35
2.114
13.67
0.0116
11.14
56.96
15.22
2.977
26.03
3.358
125
99.7
0.7327
357.8
16.29
196.6
43.8
3.629
31.43
0.0082
18.25
71.25
17.84
4.57
50.81
5.121
127.5
104.2
0.437
338.7
21.71
183.4
40.94
4.848
46.11
0.0074
21.75
76.35
18.82
5.363
65.59
6.022
130
108.9
0.1754
310.5
34.41
165.1
37.05
7.72
81.46
0.0065
26.74
84.63
20.44
6.457
90.37
7.258
132.2
113.1
0.0017
248.5
64.71
129.5
29.55
14.77
168.7
0.0055
32.93
97.33
22.96
7.77
127.8
8.808
Ttemperature
(�C);Ppressure
(bar);ssurfacetension(m
N/m
);rdensity
(kg/m
3);c p
specificheat(kJ/kgK);kthermalconductivity(m
W/m
K);mdynam
ic
viscosity
(mPas);PrPrandtlnumber;bvolumetricexpansioncoefficient(m
K�1);vspecificvolume(m
3/kg);gisentropic
expansioncoefficientofsaturated
vapor;indices:Lliquid;Vvapor
790 Appendix B
Table
B.7
Thermophysicalproperties
ofwater
atsaturation
TP
sr L
c pL
k Lm L
Pr L
b Lv V
c pV
k Vm V
Pr V
b Vg
0.01
0.00612
75.64
1,000
4.23
547.5
1,792
13.84
N/A
206.0
1.87
17.07
9.216
1.008
3.672
1.33
10
0.0123
74.22
999.7
4.19
567.4
1,307
9.645
0.0872
106.3
1.87
17.62
9.461
1.006
3.548
1.33
20
0.0234
72.73
998.2
4.18
586
1,002
7.154
0.209
57.78
1.88
18.22
9.727
1.004
3.435
1.33
30
0.0425
71.19
995.6
4.18
602.9
797.7
5.535
0.305
32.9
1.89
18.88
10.01
1.003
3.332
1.33
40
0.0738
69.59
992.2
4.18
617.8
653.3
4.423
0.386
19.53
1.90
19.59
10.31
1.002
3.239
1.33
50
0.1234
67.94
988
4.18
630.4
547.1
3.629
0.457
12.04
1.92
20.36
10.62
1.001
3.156
1.33
60
0.1993
66.24
983.2
4.18
640.9
466.6
3.045
0.522
7.674
1.94
21.18
10.93
13.082
1.33
70
0.3118
64.48
977.7
4.19
649.5
404
2.605
0.583
5.045
1.96
22.06
11.26
0.9995
3.017
1.33
80
0.4737
62.67
971.8
4.19
656.2
354.5
2.266
0.64
3.409
1.98
23
11.59
0.9993
2.962
1.33
90
0.7012
60.81
965.3
4.20
661.3
314.5
20.696
2.362
2.01
24
11.93
0.9994
2.917
1.34
100
1.013
58.91
958.4
4.22
665.1
281.9
1.787
0.75
1.674
2.04
25.08
12.27
12.882
1.34
110
1.432
56.96
951
4.23
667.6
254.8
1.615
0.804
1.211
2.08
26.22
12.61
1.001
2.857
1.34
120
1.985
54.96
943.2
4.25
669.1
232.1
1.474
0.858
0.892
2.12
27.44
12.96
1.004
2.843
1.35
130
2.7
52.93
934.9
4.27
669.7
213
1.357
0.912
0.669
2.17
28.73
13.3
1.007
2.84
1.36
140
3.612
50.85
926.2
4.29
669.4
196.6
1.259
0.968
0.509
2.23
30.09
13.65
1.012
2.849
1.36
150
4.757
48.74
917.1
4.31
668.3
182.5
1.178
1.026
0.393
2.30
31.54
13.99
1.02
2.872
1.37
160
6.177
46.59
907.5
4.34
666.4
170.3
1.109
1.087
0.3071
2.37
33.06
14.34
1.029
2.908
1.39
170
7.915
44.4
897.5
4.37
663.7
159.6
1.051
1.152
0.243
2.46
34.66
14.68
1.042
2.959
1.40
180
10.02
42.19
887.1
4.40
660.2
150.2
1.002
1.221
0.194
2.56
36.34
15.03
1.057
3.027
1.42
190
12.54
39.94
876.1
4.44
655.9
141.8
0.9607
1.296
0.156
2.67
38.09
15.37
1.077
3.114
1.44
200
15.54
37.67
864.7
4.49
650.7
134.4
0.9269
1.377
0.127
2.80
39.93
15.71
1.1
3.221
1.46
210
19.06
35.38
852.8
4.54
644.7
127.7
0.8994
1.467
0.104
2.94
41.85
16.06
1.129
3.351
1.48
220
23.18
33.06
840.3
4.60
637.6
121.6
0.8777
1.567
0.086
3.11
43.86
16.41
1.162
3.508
1.52
230
27.95
30.73
827.3
4.67
629.5
116
0.8615
1.679
0.071
3.30
45.96
16.76
1.203
3.697
1.55
240
33.45
28.39
813.5
4.76
620.3
110.9
0.8508
1.807
0.06
3.51
48.15
17.12
1.25
3.923
1.59
250
39.74
26.04
799.1
4.86
609.8
106.2
0.8455
1.954
0.050
3.77
50.46
17.49
1.306
4.195
1.64
260
46.89
23.68
783.8
4.97
598
101.7
0.846
2.126
0.042
4.06
52.9
17.88
1.373
4.523
1.70
(continued)
Appendix B 791
Table
B.7
(continued)
TP
sr L
c pL
k Lm L
Pr L
b Lv V
c pV
k Vm V
Pr V
b Vg
270
55
21.33
767.7
5.11
584.5
97.55
0.853
2.33
0.036
4.41
55.49
18.28
1.453
4.923
1.77
280
64.13
18.99
750.5
5.28
569.4
93.56
0.8673
2.576
0.031
4.83
58.28
18.7
1.549
5.415
1.86
290
74.38
16.66
732.2
5.48
552.3
89.71
0.8908
2.88
0.026
5.33
61.31
19.15
1.666
6.032
1.97
300
85.84
14.35
712.4
5.74
533.1
85.95
0.9262
3.266
0.022
5.97
64.67
19.65
1.813
6.822
2.11
310
98.61
12.08
691
6.08
511.3
82.22
0.9782
3.773
0.018
6.78
68.45
20.21
2.001
7.861
2.29
320
112.8
9.858
667.4
6.54
486.8
78.46
1.054
4.47
0.015
7.87
72.84
20.84
2.251
9.278
2.54
330
128.5
7.697
641
7.2
458.8
74.57
1.17
5.489
0.013
9.41
78.1
21.6
2.603
11.31
2.91
340
145.9
5.62
610.8
8.24
426.9
70.45
1.359
7.116
0.011
11.8
84.68
22.55
3.137
14.43
3.47
350
165.2
3.66
574.7
10.1
389.7
65.88
1.711
10.1
0.0088
15.9
93.48
23.81
4.058
19.77
4.47
360
186.6
1.872
528.1
14.7
344.4
60.39
2.574
17.11
0.007
25.2
106.6
25.71
6.085
30.79
6.74
370
210.3
0.3846
453.1
41.7
280.7
52.25
7.765
45.88
0.0050
70.4
132.6
29.57
15.7
64.53
18.0
373.9
220.4
0.0004
349.4
N/A
210.8
41.95
277.1
87.51
0.0034
340.1
180
37
69.91
104.5
84.5
Ttemperature
(�C);Ppressure
(bar);ssurfacetension(m
N/m
);rdensity
(kg/m
3);c p
specificheat(kJ/kgK);kthermalconductivity(m
W/m
K);mdynam
ic
viscosity
(mPas);PrPrandtlnumber;bvolumetricexpansioncoefficient(m
K�1);vspecificvolume(m
3/kg);gisentropic
expansioncoefficientofsaturated
vapor;indices:Lliquid;Vvapor
792 Appendix B
Table
B.8
Thermophysicalproperties
ofcarbondioxideat
saturation
TP
sr L
c pL
k Lm L
Pr L
b Lv V
c pV
k Vm V
Pr V
b Vg
�56.6
5.18
15.7767
1,178.5
1.953
180.4
256.7
2.78
N/A
0.0727
0.90
10.97
10.95
0.90
6.11
1.44
�50
6.82
14.3248
1,154.6
14.29
171.8
229.3
19.07
3.27
0.0558
0.95
11.51
11.31
0.93
6.30
1.46
�45
8.32
13.2367
1,135.9
1.989
165.3
210.7
2.54
3.36
0.0460
0.98
11.94
11.58
0.95
6.50
1.48
�40
10.05
12.1654
1,116.5
2.011
158.9
193.8
2.45
N/A
0.0383
1.03
12.41
11.87
0.98
6.74
1.51
�35
12.02
11.1118
1,096.4
4.99
152.5
178.3
5.83
N/A
0.0320
1.07
12.90
12.16
1.01
7.04
1.54
�30
14.28
10.0769
1,075.7
2.377
146.3
164.2
2.67
3.93
0.0270
1.13
13.42
12.46
1.05
7.41
1.57
�25
16.83
9.0619
1,054.2
2.114
140
151.3
2.28
4.38
0.0228
1.19
13.99
12.78
1.09
7.87
1.62
�20
19.70
8.0682
1,031.7
2.165
133.8
139.3
2.25
4.74
0.0193
1.27
14.60
13.12
1.14
8.44
1.67
�15
22.91
7.0974
1,008.0
2.227
127.6
128.3
2.24
5.18
0.0165
1.36
15.27
13.47
1.20
9.15
1.73
�10
26.49
6.1514
982.9
2.306
121.4
118
2.24
5.73
0.0140
1.47
16.01
13.86
1.27
10.06
1.81
�530.46
5.2326
956.2
2.406
115.1
108.4
2.27
6.44
0.0120
1.61
16.84
14.30
1.37
11.23
1.92
034.85
4.3440
927.4
2.539
108.7
99.39
2.32
7.37
0.0102
1.79
17.77
14.79
1.49
12.79
2.05
539.69
3.4893
896.0
2.72
102.2
90.81
2.42
8.67
0.0087
2.03
18.86
15.36
1.65
14.95
2.23
10
45.02
2.6737
861.1
2.985
95.46
82.55
2.58
10.59
0.0074
2.37
20.14
16.06
1.89
18.12
2.49
15
50.87
1.9043
821.2
3.405
88.32
74.43
2.87
13.71
0.0062
2.89
21.74
16.95
2.25
23.17
2.88
20
57.29
1.1924
773.4
4.159
80.48
66.15
3.42
19.52
0.0051
3.77
23.83
18.19
2.87
32.32
3.51
25
64.34
0.5584
711.8
5.903
71.43
57.23
4.73
33.72
0.0041
5.54
26.94
20.16
4.14
53.05
4.69
30
72.14
0.0582
602.4
13.83
57.69
44.68
10.71
102.99
0.0029
10.16
33.86
25.03
7.51
128.22
6.80
30.9
73.64
0.0025
521.3
18.05
49.07
37.25
13.71
141.42
0.0024
11.77
39.21
29.16
8.75
163.45
5.80
Ttemperature
(�C);Ppressure
(bar);ssurfacetension(m
N/m
);rdensity
(kg/m
3);c p
specificheat(kJ/kgK);kthermalconductivity(m
W/m
K);mdynam
ic
viscosity
(mPas);PrPrandtlnumber;bvolumetricexpansioncoefficient(m
K�1);vspecificvolume(m
3/kg);gisentropic
expansioncoefficientofsaturated
vapor;indices:Lliquid;Vvapor
Appendix B 793
Table
B.9
Thermophysicalproperties
ofhydrogen
atsaturation
TP
sr L
c pL
k Lm L
Pr L
b Lv V
c pV
k Vm V
Pr V
b Vg
14
0.08
2.977
77.0
6.992
74.36
24.30
2.29
10.58
7.6332
10.56
14.51
1.24
0.90
74.32
1.69
15
0.13
2.819
76.1
7.335
81.62
21.68
1.95
11.26
4.7044
10.69
15.21
1.27
0.89
70.67
1.70
16
0.21
2.656
75.3
7.717
87.55
19.39
1.71
12.01
3.0742
10.85
15.94
1.31
0.89
67.82
1.72
17
0.32
2.490
74.3
8.132
92.26
17.40
1.53
12.87
2.1066
11.03
16.69
1.34
0.89
65.69
1.74
18
0.47
2.321
73.4
8.574
95.85
15.69
1.40
13.85
1.4996
11.25
17.49
1.37
0.88
64.23
1.77
15
0.13
2.819
76.1
7.335
81.62
21.68
1.95
11.26
4.7044
10.69
15.21
1.27
0.89
70.67
1.70
20
0.91
1.977
71.3
9.563
100.1
12.97
1.24
16.18
0.8288
11.85
19.21
1.44
0.89
63.20
1.84
21
1.22
1.804
70.1
10.13
101
11.92
1.20
17.60
0.6370
12.25
20.15
1.48
0.90
63.63
1.89
22
1.59
1.630
68.9
10.76
101.1
11.02
1.17
19.26
0.4981
12.75
21.16
1.51
0.91
64.74
1.95
23
2.04
1.458
67.6
11.48
100.7
10.26
1.17
21.23
0.3951
13.36
22.25
1.54
0.93
66.61
2.03
24
2.58
1.286
66.2
12.31
99.8
9.61
1.18
23.60
0.3171
14.12
23.43
1.68
1.01
69.39
2.12
25
3.21
1.117
64.7
13.28
98.51
9.03
1.22
26.55
0.2569
15.07
24.72
1.73
1.05
73.32
2.23
26
3.94
0.952
63.1
14.46
96.94
8.51
1.27
30.30
0.2098
16.29
26.14
1.78
1.11
78.77
2.37
27
4.78
0.790
61.3
15.95
95.2
8.00
1.34
35.28
0.1722
17.90
27.73
1.85
1.19
86.38
2.56
28
5.74
0.634
59.3
17.91
93.4
7.49
1.44
42.19
0.1418
20.09
29.53
1.92
1.31
97.27
2.82
29
6.82
0.484
57.1
20.69
91.64
6.95
1.57
52.50
0.1168
23.24
31.62
2.01
1.47
113.61
3.19
30
8.04
0.343
54.5
25.02
90.02
6.35
1.76
69.50
0.0957
28.15
34.11
2.11
1.74
140.12
3.76
31
9.42
0.213
51.4
32.99
88.65
5.65
2.10
102.69
0.0775
36.81
37.28
2.26
2.23
189.42
4.75
32
10.96
0.097
47.1
53.14
87.64
4.84
2.93
193.05
0.0606
55.68
42.11
2.50
3.31
308.86
6.89
33.1
12.88
0.0017
35.3
200
1,000
N/A
N/A
981.45
0.0367
131.74
59.93
3.41
7.50
1,036.71
15.44
Ttemperature
(K);Ppressure
(bar);ssurfacetension(m
N/m
);rdensity
(kg/m
3);c p
specificheat(kJ/kgK);kthermal
conductivity(m
W/m
K);mdynam
ic
viscosity
(mPas);PrPrandtlnumber;bvolumetricexpansioncoefficient(m
K�1);vspecificvolume(m
3/kg);gisentropic
expansioncoefficientofsaturated
vapor;indices:Lliquid;Vvapor
794 Appendix B
Table
B.10
Thermophysicalproperties
ofoxygen
atsaturation
TP
sr L
c pL
k Lm L
Pr L
b Ln V
c pV
k Vm V
Pr V
b Vg
55
N/A
22.30
1,303.5
1.455
201
747.53
5.41
N/A
80.029
0.93
4.48
4.15
0.86
18.28
1.39
60
0.01
20.98
1,283.1
126.4
194.3
582.46
379.02
3.49
21.463
0.95
4.98
4.55
0.86
16.87
1.39
65
0.02
19.66
1,260.7
1.65
187.2
460.77
4.06
3.58
7.2177
0.96
5.49
4.96
0.87
15.70
1.38
70
0.06
18.348
1,237.9
1.657
180.1
373.97
3.44
3.70
2.8933
0.97
5.99
5.36
0.87
14.70
1.38
75
0.15
17.039
1,214.9
9.855
172.9
310.37
17.69
3.83
1.3306
0.98
6.50
5.75
0.86
13.84
1.39
80
0.30
15.739
1,191.4
1.66
165.8
262.53
2.63
N/A
0.6819
0.97
7.03
6.15
0.85
13.13
1.40
85
0.57
14.450
1,167.5
1.669
158.6
225.61
2.37
4.15
0.3809
0.97
7.56
6.54
0.84
12.58
1.41
90
0.99
13.176
1,142.9
1.683
151.3
196.38
2.18
4.36
0.2281
0.97
8.12
6.94
0.83
12.22
1.43
95
1.63
11.919
1,117.7
1.704
144
172.66
2.04
4.59
0.1445
0.98
8.70
7.33
0.83
12.03
1.46
100
2.54
10.6829
1,091.5
1.731
136.7
152.96
1.94
4.88
0.0959
1.00
9.31
7.73
0.83
12.04
1.49
105
3.79
9.4707
1,064.4
1.765
129.3
136.23
1.86
5.21
0.0661
1.04
9.96
8.13
0.85
12.26
1.52
110
5.43
8.2861
1,035.9
1.808
121.9
121.74
1.81
5.62
0.0470
1.09
10.66
8.55
0.88
12.71
1.57
115
7.56
7.1328
1,006.0
1.861
114.4
108.97
1.77
6.13
0.0342
1.16
11.42
8.98
0.92
13.42
1.62
120
10.22
6.0154
974.2
1.927
106.9
97.53
1.76
6.76
0.0254
1.26
12.26
9.43
0.97
14.49
1.70
125
13.51
4.9387
939.7
2.013
99.43
87.09
1.76
N/A
0.0192
1.38
13.19
9.91
1.04
16.05
1.80
130
17.49
3.9088
902.6
2.152
92.02
77.59
1.81
9.52
0.0146
1.56
14.26
10.44
1.14
18.36
1.95
135
22.25
2.9333
861.0
2.35
84.54
68.69
1.91
11.69
0.0112
1.81
15.50
11.06
1.29
21.96
2.17
140
27.88
2.0224
813.1
2.682
76.97
60.20
2.10
15.40
0.0086
2.22
17.04
11.82
1.54
28.07
2.52
145
34.48
1.192
755.0
3.337
69.11
51.85
2.50
23.04
0.0065
3.00
19.09
12.88
2.02
40.28
3.17
150
42.19
0.472
675.5
5.225
60.16
42.90
3.73
46.63
0.0047
4.95
22.39
14.71
3.26
74.61
4.73
154
49.31
0.036
547.4
15.42
48.04
32.13
10.31
N/A
0.0031
10.63
29.63
19.14
6.86
218.2
8.44
Ttemperature
(K);Ppressure
(bar);ssurfacetension(m
N/m
);rdensity
(kg/m
3);c p
specificheat(kJ/kgK);kthermal
conductivity(m
W/m
K);mdynam
ic
viscosity
(mPas);PrPrandtlnumber;bvolumetricexpansioncoefficient(m
K�1);vspecificvolume(m
3/kg);gisentropic
expansioncoefficientofsaturated
vapor;indices:Lliquid;Vvapor
Appendix B 795
Table
B.11
Thermophysicalproperties
ofnitrogen
atsaturation
TP
sr L
c pL
k Lm L
Pr L
b Ln V
c pV
k Vm V
Pr V
b Vg
64
0.15
11.9581
863.7
2.002
171.5
297.50
3.47
4.78
1.2869
1.06
5.71
4.44
0.82
16.13
1.41
65
0.17
11.7169
859.6
1.994
169.5
282.08
3.32
4.82
1.0950
1.06
5.82
4.51
0.82
15.95
1.41
70
0.39
10.5262
838.5
2.005
159.5
220.26
2.77
5.11
0.5274
1.08
6.35
4.88
0.83
15.24
1.43
75
0.76
9.3624
816.7
27.05
149.5
176.75
31.99
N/A
0.2825
1.11
6.91
5.26
0.84
14.82
1.44
80
1.37
8.2276
793.9
2.054
139.5
145.11
2.14
N/A
0.1642
1.14
7.49
5.65
0.86
14.69
1.47
85
2.29
7.1240
770.1
2.094
129.6
121.31
1.96
N/A
0.1018
1.19
8.11
6.06
0.89
14.89
1.51
90
3.60
6.0544
745.0
2.147
119.6
102.83
1.85
6.94
0.0663
1.26
8.79
6.48
0.93
15.46
1.56
95
5.41
5.0222
718.3
7.073
109.7
88.02
5.68
N/A
0.0449
1.35
9.55
6.94
0.98
16.54
1.64
100
7.78
4.0318
689.4
2.301
99.71
75.77
1.75
9.15
0.0313
1.55
10.44
7.43
1.10
18.14
1.67
105
10.83
3.0892
659.0
2.432
90.15
65.72
1.77
10.21
0.0222
1.44
11.49
7.98
1.00
18.19
1.80
110
14.66
2.2025
625.6
2.736
80.72
56.96
1.93
12.90
0.0160
1.16
12.80
8.63
0.78
20.83
3.96
115
19.37
1.3844
583.8
3.211
70.45
48.23
2.20
18.78
0.0115
2.02
14.51
9.44
1.32
31.69
3.57
120
25.11
0.6578
527.5
4.351
59.19
39.02
2.87
33.00
0.0080
3.74
16.98
10.62
2.34
56.88
4.00
125
32.07
0.0829
430.2
11.79
44.96
27.35
7.17
136.45
0.0049
9.65
22.52
13.33
5.71
187.71
N/A
126
33.65
0.0083
378.6
20.16
38.93
22.77
11.79
266.83
0.0039
13.27
26.63
15.37
7.66
308.90
8.52
Ttemperature
(K);Ppressure
(bar);ssurfacetension(m
N/m
);rdensity
(kg/m
3);c p
specificheat(kJ/kgK);kthermal
conductivity(m
W/m
K);mdynam
ic
viscosity
(mPas);PrPrandtlnumber;bvolumetricexpansioncoefficient(m
K�1);vspecificvolume(m
3/kg);gisentropic
expansioncoefficientofsaturated
vapor;indices:Lliquid;Vvapor
796 Appendix B
−150000 −100000 −50000 0 50000 100000 150000 200000 25000010−1
100
101
102
103
Specific enthalpy, J/kg
Pre
ssur
e, b
ar
−160°C
−170°C
−180°C
−190°C
48205020
5220
5420
5620 J/kg-K
Air
Diagram B.1 Pressure–specific enthalpy diagram of air
−3000 −2500 −2000 −1500 −1000 −500 0−200
−175
−150
−125
−100
−75
−50
−25
0
25
50
Specific entropy, J/kgK
T, °C
35 bar
16.6 bar
6.49 bar
1.81 bar 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
0.00
18
0.00
89
0.01
9
0.04
4
0.09
8
0.21
m3/
kgArgon
Diagram B.2 Temperature–specific entropy diagram of argon
Appendix B 797
25 50 75 100 125 1500
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Solution temperature, °C
Ref
rige
rant
tem
pera
ture
(w
ater
vap
or), °
C
X=65%X=60%X=55%X=50%X=45%X=40%
Crystallizatio
n line
X=0%
X=70%
X=75%
Duhring Chart
0.0024 0.0028 0.0032 0.0036
103
102
101
100
10–1
10–2
1/Tsolution,1/K
Vap
or p
ress
ure,
kPa
X=45%X=50%X=55%X=60%
X=70%X=65%
X=75%
Van't Hoff chart
Diagram B.3 Durhing chart for lithium bromide/water solution
40 45 50 55 60 65 700
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
Concentration, %
Spec
ific
ent
halp
y, k
J/kg
10°C
30°C
50°C
70°C
90°C
110°C
130°C
150°C
170°C
Diagram B.4 Specific enthalpy–concentration diagram for LiBr–water
798 Appendix B
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
−500
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
Ammonia mass concentration, kg/kg
Spec
ific
ent
halp
y, k
J/kg
0.1 bar1 bar
10 bar
25 bar 50 bar
−40°C10°C
100°C
200°C
Ammonia-water
Vapour enthalpy lines (isobars)
Vapour-liquid equilibrium lines
0.1 bar
1 bar
50 bar
Diagram B.5 Specific enthalpy–concentration diagram of ammonia–water
–2500 0 2500 5000 7500 10000 125000
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
Specific entropy, J/kgK
Tem
pera
ture
, °C
110 bar
55 bar
25 bar
6.22 bar
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
0.0
076
0.2
3
1.2
5
6.8
8
40
205
m3/
kg
Water
Diagram B.6 Temperature–specific entropy diagram of water
Appendix B 799
100 135 170 205 240 275 310 345 380 415 450
600
900
1200
1500
1800
2100
2400
2700
s, kJ/molK
T, K
Melting Line, 703K
Boiling Line
1750.15K
10P
a
100P
a
1000
Pa
1000
0Pa
1000
00P
a
Uncertaintyregion
Chase (1989)
McBride et al.(2002)
Diagram B.7 Temperature–specific molar entropy diagram of CuCl
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0–100
–50
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Specific entropy, kJ/kgK
Tem
pera
ture
, °C
75 bar
30 bar
7.62 bar
1.19 bar 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
0.0
051
0.0
43
0.1
2
0.3
6
1.0
7
3.14
m3 /
kg
Ammonia
Diagram B.8 Temperature–specific entropy diagram of ammonia
800 Appendix B
–2.25 –2.00 –1.75 –1.50 –1.25 –1.00 –0.75 –0.50 –0.25 0.00–75
–50
–25
0
25
50
75
100
125
150
5700 kPa
3400 kPa
1800 kPa
910 kPa 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
0.0
017
0.0
057
0.0
1
0.0
19
0.0
34
0.0
63 m
3/kg
Carbon Dioxide
Specific entropy, kJ/kgK
Tem
pera
ture
, °C
Diagram B.9 Temperature–specific entropy diagram of carbon dioxide
2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0–225
–200
–175
–150
–125
–100
–75
–50
–25
2400 kPa
1100 kPa
420 kPa
100 kPa 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
0.0
033
0.0
17
0.0
4
0.0
93
0.2
1
0.4
9 m
3/kg
Carbon Monoxide
Specific entropy, kJ/kgK
Tem
pera
ture
, °C
Diagram B.10 Temperature–specific entropy diagram of carbon monoxide
Appendix B 801
–8.0 –7.0 –6.0 –5.0 –4.0 –3.0 –2.0 –1.0 0.0 1.0–200
–175
–150
–125
–100
–75
–50
–25
0
25
50
3200 kPa
1300 kPa
460 kPa
100 kPa 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
0.0
067
0.0
4
0.0
99
0.2
4
0.6
1.4
8 m
3/kg
Methane
Specific entropy, kJ/kgK
Tem
pera
ture
, °C
Diagram B.11 Temperature–specific entropy diagram of methane
–0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0–50
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
1400 kPa
340 kPa
45 kPa
1.13 kPa
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
0.0
1 0
.31
1.7
3 9
.53
55
290
m3/
kg
n-Octane
Specific entropy, kJ/kgK
Tem
pera
ture
, °C
Diagram B.12 Temperature–specific entropy diagram of n-octane
802 Appendix B
–1.0 –0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5–50
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
Specific entropy, kJ/kgK
Tem
pera
ture
, °C
2300 kPa
620 kPa
90 kPa
2.84 kPa
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
0.0
076
0.1
9 0
.98
4.9
7 2
5 1
30 m
3/kg
Toluene
Diagram B.13 Temperature–specific entropy diagram of toluene
Appendix B 803
Index
A
Abiotic depletion potential (ADP), 206, 584,
666, 667
Absorption, 26, 30, 96–98, 100, 102, 209,
240, 287–288, 303, 316, 317,
359, 390, 391, 393, 395, 397,
399, 410, 411, 415, 417–422,
428, 443–444, 446, 493, 496,
497, 505, 506, 508–514, 532,
537, 590, 649, 651–653, 657, 726
Acceleration, 3, 126, 246, 247, 335, 382,
402, 525, 529, 589, 668, 703, 753
Acidification, 81, 82, 665, 667, 668, 695, 696
Acid precipitations, 52, 53, 77, 78, 81–83, 400
ADP. See Abiotic depletion potential
Alkaline fuel cell, 218, 599, 609, 610
Alpha decay, 242, 243, 245
Alpha particle, 234, 243, 262, 264
Alternative fuels, viii, 169–198, 266, 598
Ammonia
borane, 209, 550, 592
decomposition, 187–189, 210, 216–221,
225, 323, 591, 600, 608, 678, 679
storage, 207–209, 226, 592, 608
synthesis, 185, 204–207, 212, 214, 216,
228, 325, 379, 445, 446, 706
water cycle, 358, 390, 512
Ammonium carbonate, 654, 655
AMU. See Atomic mass unit
Anaerobic digestion, 183, 366, 524, 583–585
Aperture, 288, 290, 309–313, 331, 502
Ash, 78, 84–85, 171–174, 179, 367–369
Assessment tools, 147, 148, 154
Atmospheric lifetime, 99, 100, 104, 177
Atom, 2–6, 9, 11, 15, 63, 170, 174, 176, 204,
216, 233–238, 240–242, 247, 248,
250, 251, 367, 439, 554, 578–581,
599, 633, 646
Atomic cross-section, 248, 250–251
Atomic mass, 236–238, 240–243
Atomic mass unit (AMU), 237, 238, 240,
241, 246
Auction, 754
Autoignition temperature, 177
Availability, 8, 9, 14, 32, 36–38, 40, 51–53,
59, 69, 84, 87, 105, 108, 109, 111,
113, 121–122, 125, 131, 139, 154,
175, 181, 209, 223, 230, 244–247,
253, 254, 257, 272, 274, 276, 283,
284, 301, 302, 324, 348, 350, 353,
357, 362, 364, 371, 395, 396, 399,
402, 405, 408, 417, 431, 432, 442,
455, 457, 461–462, 464, 499, 500,
503, 511, 519, 521, 525, 533–535,
568, 573, 596, 608, 614, 623, 624,
626, 634–635, 643, 653, 665
B
Barometric pressure, 7, 8
Beam radiation, 56–58, 95, 96, 243, 251, 284,
290, 291, 299–300, 313
Beta decay, 244, 245, 258
Beta particle, 234
Binding energy, 238–239, 241–242, 246, 247
Biodegradable wastes, 179
Biofuel, 109, 147, 169, 170, 178–184, 186,
198, 370–372, 400, 524, 533, 550,
765, 766
Biomass, 53, 57–58, 60, 73, 74, 84, 104, 122, 147,
169–171, 177–186, 253, 254, 283,
286, 365–377, 390, 395–396, 399,
404, 495, 505–506, 519–524, 533,
538–540, 544–547, 555, 567–571,
583–584, 592, 622, 664, 728, 745
energy, 53, 57, 59–60, 178, 180, 283,
365–377, 382, 519, 567, 571, 742
805
Bio-photolysis, 182, 183, 524, 576,
582–585, 625
Biorefinery, 376
Boiling water reactor (BWR), 256, 263
Boltzmann constant, 246, 288, 298
Brayton cycle, 321, 322, 375, 444, 481,
508, 574
Breeder reactor, 258, 261
BWR. See Boiling water reactor
C
CANadian Deuterium Uranium (CANDU)
reactor, 235, 253, 255, 260,
265–267, 270, 272, 447, 503–504,
553, 575–576
Capacity factor, 339–341, 534
Capital grant, 754
Capital investment efficiency factor, 83, 671,
672, 684, 690, 691
Carbon, 2, 52, 93, 120, 152, 169, 209, 237,
286, 439, 479, 524, 633, 668,
702, 727, 753
capture, 53, 115, 535, 549, 633, 646–653
cycle, 100, 169, 633, 704
dioxide absorption, 651, 652, 657
dioxide mitigation, 81, 178, 228, 229,
270, 272, 324, 332, 550, 551
dioxide sequestration, 53, 115, 198,
392, 397, 549, 554, 641, 648,
653–657, 660
dioxide technology, 72, 81,
633–660, 773
tax, 332, 333, 753, 759, 764, 765, 767,
773–774
Carbonic ice, 634, 647
Carnot factor, 249, 253, 254, 294, 330, 349,
377, 479, 480, 487, 491, 492, 504,
732, 745–747
Catalyst, 119, 181–184, 188, 204–205,
210, 216–218, 221, 484, 524,
529, 542, 545, 549, 576, 578–580,
589, 591, 597, 598, 600, 604,
675, 706, 710, 715
Catalytic bed reactor, 188, 217, 218
Catalytic membrane reactor, 217, 229
Celsius (ºC) temperature, 11–12, 733
Cetane number (CN), 214, 215, 226,
227, 593
Chemical
element, 170, 203, 236–238, 241, 247, 267,
268, 369, 520, 590, 708, 710
energy, 5, 35, 169, 206, 283–284, 286, 314,
325, 436, 445–446, 534, 777
equilibrium, 19, 217, 483, 543, 563, 604,
610–612
exergy, 45, 158, 173, 176, 180, 198, 368,
487, 502, 529, 545, 606, 616, 670,
689, 715, 718, 725, 726, 786, 787
potential, 6, 19, 294, 295
reaction, 1, 6, 138, 171, 210, 211, 213, 235,
266, 267, 436, 447, 482, 483, 504,
505, 524, 537, 538, 554, 556, 557,
576, 584, 596, 643, 654, 657
CHP plant. See Combined heat and power plant
Climate change, vii, 52, 53, 77, 79, 81, 93–115,
119, 128, 134, 403, 665–667
Climate sensitivity factor, 103, 104
Closed system, 8, 18, 19, 24, 31, 34, 35, 39,
270, 583, 702
CN. See Cetane number
CNG. See Compressed natural gas
Coal, 41, 52, 53, 58, 60–67, 69, 70, 72, 74, 76,
83, 84, 87–89, 107, 120, 122, 147,
169–175, 177, 178, 180, 185, 198,
206, 213–215, 253, 254, 283, 322,
366, 390, 393, 399, 400, 411, 415,
416, 428, 480, 521, 523, 535, 540,
549–550, 554, 585, 587, 593, 622,
623, 625, 633, 639, 653, 656, 657,
693, 706, 726, 730, 734, 739,
743–746, 773
rank, 170, 172, 175
Coefficient of performance (COP), 30, 31, 141,
142, 208, 223, 224, 268–270, 316,
317, 405, 415, 419–421, 428, 463,
504, 564, 574, 641, 732
Co-fuelling, 185–198, 592
Cogeneration, viii, 57, 83, 86–89, 109, 127, 158,
254, 300–302, 325, 327, 330–333,
389, 390, 392–396, 399, 401–403,
405, 416–422, 428, 457, 479–481,
483, 485, 487–492, 500–502, 512,
536, 599, 600, 607, 608
Combined heat and power (CHP) plant, 375,
390, 392, 394, 397, 404–407, 415,
416, 479, 500, 501
Combustion, 14, 20, 52, 60, 77, 82, 93, 138,
147, 153, 158, 160, 164, 171, 173,
177–180, 182, 187, 190, 193, 198,
210, 221, 227–228, 253, 254, 322,
332, 365–366, 368, 369, 372, 375,
376, 399–401, 444, 445, 479, 480,
483, 487, 491, 495, 501–502, 508,
510, 512, 519–522, 533–535, 538,
539, 551, 552, 554, 555, 567, 568,
571, 573, 591, 592, 594, 596, 598,
603–604, 606, 607, 609, 646–647,
658–660, 670, 673, 678, 682–683,
686, 690, 704, 706, 708, 715–718,
726, 738, 757
806 Index
Commercialization, 60, 85, 86, 112, 124,
127–129, 135, 136, 142, 149, 151,
230, 257, 260, 277, 324, 350, 365,
376, 389, 391–395, 399, 403,
434–435, 499, 538, 548–549, 553,
554, 573, 583, 588, 596, 626, 639,
723, 724, 726–733, 747, 755, 759
Comparative life cycle assessment (LCA),
663–696
Compressed natural gas (CNG), 226, 603,
606, 739
Compressibility factor, 22, 28, 789
Compression, 22, 23, 29, 184, 207, 214,
218–220, 267, 274, 348, 360, 390,
443–445, 482, 504, 508, 527, 557,
560, 563, 574, 588, 589, 607, 609,
640, 641, 645–649, 675, 685, 686,
715–717
Concentration ratio, 289, 291, 309–314,
319, 325
Constructal design, 53, 454, 468, 475
Constructal theory, 453, 468
Conversion, viii, 1, 4, 6, 28, 34–38, 42, 54,
138, 140, 153, 155, 180, 204, 209,
216–220, 227, 228, 260, 262, 269,
284, 286–302, 304–306, 314, 317,
318, 324–325, 333–344, 349–352,
362, 364–372, 375–380, 404, 424,
447, 455, 459, 481, 484, 485, 495,
503, 522, 540, 553–555, 560, 567,
575, 582, 599, 625, 626, 678, 693,
715–718, 723, 725, 732, 744, 765,
777, 778
COP. See Coefficient of performance
Copper-chlorine cycle, 274, 351, 557, 564
Cost of saved energy, 140, 776–778
Coulomb forces, 239, 246
Criticality, 16, 108, 112, 248, 255, 263,
633–636, 678, 683, 755, 785,
786, 789
Critical point, 16, 22, 27–28, 181,
633–636, 789
Critical reaction, 248
Cryogenic separation, 643, 647, 648, 657
Cryogenic technology, 643
D
DAF. See Dry coal ash free
Decay time, 242, 262
Density, 10, 170, 203, 298, 391, 436, 484, 520,
635, 692, 783
Depletion number, 157, 714, 715, 718, 719
Depletion of abiotic resources, 665–667, 696
Depreciation, 413, 416, 564, 565, 755, 763,
774, 776
DES. See District energy system
Desalination, viii, 235, 264, 265, 272–279, 379,
479, 486, 487, 494, 495, 741, 742
Deuterium, 235, 238, 246, 247, 253
Diffuse radiation, 284, 299
Digestion, 183, 366, 371, 524, 583–585
Dimethyl ether (DME), 185, 316, 651
Direct ammonia fuel cell, 225, 597, 600
Direct methanol fuel cell, 597, 600
Distributed energy systems, 393–400, 404,
410, 413
Distributed users, 389, 390, 399, 415, 418, 534
Distribution network, 214, 230, 361, 390, 391,
393, 399, 400, 406–409, 411, 415,
416, 423–425, 467, 603, 673
District energy system (DES), viii, 389–426,
755
DME. See Dimethyl ether
Dry coal ash free (DAF), 173, 174
Dry ice, 633, 634, 638–642, 648, 655–660
Drying process, 285, 315, 367
E
Ecological footprint (EF), 154
Ecology, viii, 32, 41, 85, 94, 123, 154, 183,
194, 216, 389, 403, 486, 664, 682,
701–719
Economic analysis, viii, 137, 410–416, 557,
753–778
Economic effectiveness (Ee), 486, 500, 682
Economic sector, 744
Economic sustainability, 123, 149–150
Ee. See Economic effectiveness
Effectiveness, vii, 93, 109, 115, 125, 137, 148,
223–225, 402, 461, 480, 486, 500,
501, 505, 514, 621, 669, 682–684,
690, 691, 696, 697, 719
Efficiency
sectoral processes, 726
standards, 149
EIA. See Environmental impact assessment
Electrical desorption, 651, 652
Electric charge, 237, 239, 243, 284, 293, 295,
318, 437, 612
Electrolysis, 178, 186, 211, 213, 214, 265,
270–272, 285, 286, 319, 334, 348,
378, 379, 495, 502, 503, 520,
523–530, 532–536, 555, 557,
565–569, 572, 585, 586, 592, 593,
607, 608, 622, 625, 626, 671, 683,
685, 686, 691
Index 807
Electron, 6, 183, 206, 207, 236–238, 243, 244,
247, 293–295, 318, 439, 483, 520,
526, 532, 576–582, 595, 596, 612,
613, 715
Emission, 42, 51, 93, 119, 147, 174, 331,
389, 457, 480, 521, 633, 665,
702, 727, 753
Energy
applications, vii, viii, 164, 165,
264–267, 359–360, 403,
460–474, 673, 690
conservation, vii, 19–21, 31, 35, 51, 77,
83, 112, 115, 119–143, 335, 362,
454, 468, 749
demand, 51, 52, 65, 71, 72, 89, 119,
122, 129, 150, 152, 165, 318,
431, 434–435, 451–453, 475,
499, 723, 744, 745, 773
grid system, 431, 433, 435
management, 119, 120, 123, 125,
128, 129, 131, 132, 136–138,
391, 755
policy, viii, 38, 53, 75, 79, 120, 121, 129,
131, 134, 135, 147–165, 754
recovery, 119, 120, 125, 205, 207, 273,
274, 364, 446, 459, 464, 521,
523, 529, 533, 537, 571–572
security, vii, 94, 109, 115, 126, 148,
152, 165, 392, 521
storage, viii, 11, 34, 42, 57, 60, 83,
135, 138, 169, 227, 228, 283,
295, 304, 319–321, 323, 334,
347, 379, 380, 390, 391, 399,
415, 431–475, 520, 600
storage method, 334, 434, 436–448, 474
strategy, 109, 123, 148–154,
158–165
sustainability, 113, 123, 131, 148, 158
Engine, 2, 53, 120, 178, 209, 262, 286, 395,
440, 479, 529, 673, 726, 767
Enrichment process, 260
Enthalpy, 20–22, 24, 26, 27, 30, 32, 34,
99, 170, 171, 189, 192, 205,
208, 216, 218, 220, 223, 224,
239, 301, 343, 350, 356, 358,
369, 398, 399, 409, 436, 455,
459, 460, 483, 487, 489, 490,
492, 525, 545, 560, 563, 568,
570, 600, 606–609, 612, 616,
617, 641, 643, 648, 651, 654,
657, 658, 787, 789, 797–799
Environment, 5, 51, 148, 287, 389, 442, 479,
520, 633, 663, 701, 754
Environmental impact, 51, 52, 67, 76–85, 89,
93, 105, 112, 119–124, 143, 148,
150, 151, 154, 157, 158, 169,
372–374, 400–404, 426, 465, 520,
521, 587, 622–625, 663, 664,
666–669, 673, 678, 681–684, 686,
691, 692, 695–697, 713, 723
Environmental impact assessment (EIA), 65,
70, 71, 73–76, 107, 111, 154
Environmental sustainability, 123, 147, 149,
157, 392, 425, 521, 673, 683
Enzyme, 206, 228, 367, 583, 584, 586, 706
Equation of state, 21–28, 634, 636, 638, 789
Eutrophication, 665, 667, 696
Exergetic life cycle analysis, 664, 669–672
Exergy
efficiency, 40, 120, 147, 253, 289, 392, 442,
483, 529, 670, 714, 724
fuels, 670, 689, 714, 726
Expansion, 30, 81, 84, 147, 219, 222–224, 265,
323, 341, 351, 353, 355, 375, 392,
397, 423, 443, 490, 506, 508, 509,
511, 576, 589, 590, 598, 603, 634,
642, 655, 785, 786, 790, 792–796
Extraction, 38, 76, 85, 122, 185, 186, 198, 216,
233, 235, 260, 264, 335, 336, 352,
446, 458, 459, 488, 510, 521,
546–549, 568–570, 591, 633, 637,
638, 643, 645, 646, 656, 657, 663,
664, 670, 673–675, 684, 696, 710,
712, 713, 742
F
Fahrenheit (ºF) temperature, 11, 12
Faraday constant, 295, 483, 526, 613
Fast breeding reactors (FBR), 258, 265
Fermentation, 177, 182–184, 366, 371, 377,
524, 582, 584
File-in tariff, 754
Financial capital, 755, 769
Financing, 149, 565, 755–775
Fischer–Tropsch synthesis, 178, 182, 184, 185,
285, 286, 376, 377, 445
Fission reaction, 62, 63, 238–242, 247
Fixed carbon, 170, 171, 175
Flash power plant, 354, 355, 357
Force, 3–6, 9, 10, 18, 20, 22, 27, 33, 34, 37,
41, 51, 53, 58, 101, 126, 188, 239,
240, 242, 246, 247, 327, 336, 345,
380, 383, 401, 439, 442, 599, 649,
664, 783
Formation enthalpy, 20, 170, 171, 189, 205,
239, 369, 525, 787
808 Index
Fossil fuel, vii, viii, 40, 41, 52, 53, 58, 60–62,
64–66, 69, 71, 73–76, 79, 81–83, 85,
89, 93, 106, 120, 122, 135, 147–149,
153, 156–162, 164, 165, 169–198,
203, 214, 228, 254, 283, 286, 322,
324, 332, 360, 366, 390, 395–396,
401–403, 415, 433, 434, 445, 457,
519–524, 535, 540, 541, 543, 549,
550, 552, 554–555, 572–573, 585,
587, 626, 666–668, 670, 677, 682,
684, 689, 691, 702, 704–706,
708–710, 713, 741, 742, 753, 755,
763, 771, 776, 777
Fossil fuel utilization ratio (Rffu), 156, 159,
160, 164
Fuel, 40, 52, 93, 119, 147, 169, 203, 233, 283,
390, 433, 479, 519, 702, 723, 753
blend, 169, 170, 176, 178, 185–186,
191–193, 198
cell
application, 601–606
model, 610–612, 615
stack, 481, 482, 484, 485, 601–604,
606, 610, 617–619, 679, 680
system, 210–212, 218, 221, 225, 226,
318–320, 375, 379, 519–626, 673
oil, 77, 85, 176, 183, 184, 371, 725, 730,
739, 741, 745, 767
reforming, 549, 550, 552, 554, 598,
600, 603–605
Fundamental energy source, 53–59, 283, 284
Fusion reaction, 238–242, 245–247, 789
G
Gamma rays, 234, 243, 245
Gasification, 178, 180–182, 213, 214, 366,
370–372, 375, 376, 480, 524, 533,
535, 537, 540–546, 549–550, 554,
593, 625, 734
Gas turbine (GT), 375, 443, 445, 479–482, 485,
492, 508, 510, 535, 546, 598, 603,
605, 606, 608, 609, 684, 686, 715,
717–719
GCV. See Gross calorific valueGeneration IV reactors, 257, 258, 267
Geopolitical region, 713, 723, 725, 727, 748
Geothermal energy, 53, 58, 59, 253, 283,
349–362, 390, 403, 408, 422, 496,
498, 519, 533, 566, 590, 768
Geothermal power plant, 349, 352–359, 411
GHGs. See Greenhouse gasesGlobal radiation, 264, 299, 321, 322, 327, 328
Global warming effect, 78–81, 702–703
Global warming potential (GWP), 104–107,
667–669, 681, 682, 695
Gravitational acceleration, 3
Green energy, 66, 67, 69–70, 73–75, 109,
148–165, 402
Green energy-based sustainability ratio (Rges),
156, 162–165
Green energy impact ratio (Rgei), 155, 156,
160, 162, 165
Greenhouse effect, 78–80, 94–99, 104, 177,
302, 706
Greenhouse gases (GHGs), 53, 56, 67, 71,
78–81, 93, 97–100, 104–106, 112,
119, 120, 126, 203, 205–206, 220,
228, 254, 270, 348, 349, 373–375,
392, 403, 457, 480, 486, 501,
505–506, 552, 590, 594, 623, 626,
633, 653, 665, 668, 669, 674–683,
686–689, 691, 710, 713
Gross calorific value (GCV), 171–173, 180,
368, 370
GT. See Gas turbineGWP. See Global warming potential
H
Haber-Bosch synthesis, 379, 446, 706
HAWT. See Horizontal axis wind turbine
Heat, 1, 51, 104, 120, 158, 169, 204, 233,
283, 389, 431, 479, 520, 633,
665, 706, 723, 754
engine, 28–31, 36, 38, 46, 53–57, 128,
178, 209, 262, 268–271, 286–294,
300, 306, 314, 318, 321–324,
330–333, 335, 348, 360, 366,
367, 399, 447, 479, 487–491,
493, 495, 503, 529, 531–532,
534, 536–537, 560, 561, 564,
566, 572, 767
pump, 26, 29, 31, 38, 120, 127, 134,
141–142, 267–270, 279, 348–349,
359, 360, 391, 410, 411, 413,
446–447, 458, 479, 487, 503, 504,
557, 560–564, 566, 567, 572,
574–576, 633, 639, 642–643, 732
recovery, 42, 188, 190, 194, 195, 197,
205, 214, 216, 219, 220, 222–223,
269, 304, 322, 325, 358, 362,
372–373, 376, 379, 399, 458,
461, 482–484, 489, 490, 493,
508, 513, 520, 533–535, 552,
555, 557, 560, 561, 566, 568,
571–574, 591, 602, 606–609,
621, 654, 679, 743
Index 809
Heat (cont.)transfer, 1, 14, 18, 19, 31, 33–36, 43, 45,
46, 54, 248, 251, 253–255, 287,
290–293, 303, 304, 308, 310, 313,
315, 320, 321, 326, 341, 343, 350,
470, 472, 473, 487, 491, 502, 527,
531, 533, 541, 561, 567, 610, 612,
633, 639, 642, 660, 783
transfer fluid, 235, 252–254, 301, 308,
321, 325, 326, 328, 331, 359, 397,
459–460, 463, 464, 467, 487, 491,
633, 639, 660
upgrading, 560, 566, 573, 574
Heavy water, 253, 254, 258, 691–694
Higher heating value (HHV), 171, 176, 177,
182–184, 191, 193, 198, 207, 209,
212, 216–218, 220, 227, 269, 348,
379, 484, 486, 529, 545, 550, 588,
659, 725
High level waste, 262
Horizontal axis wind turbine (HAWT),
344, 345
Hybridization, 322, 495–499, 502
Hybrid thermochemical cycle, 538,
555–564, 566
Hydrogen, 5, 54, 109, 147, 170, 203, 233,
286, 390, 436, 479, 519, 657,
664, 706, 739, 773
economy, 72, 74, 83, 114, 211, 212,
360, 519–522, 594, 773
production method, 360, 519–520,
522–587, 625, 626
storage, 213, 214, 318, 522, 530,
588–593, 616, 619, 678
Hydrogenase, 583, 584
Hydrogen sulfide (H2S), 82, 371, 520, 522,
546–549, 708, 788
Hydrolysis, 183, 186, 188–190, 192, 206,
377, 544, 557, 558, 560, 590
Hydropower, 58, 69–70, 84, 362, 365, 382,
411, 533, 534, 623, 745
I
Ideal gas, 9–11, 21–26, 246, 341, 525–526,
588, 612, 685, 717
constant, 343
Impact analysis, 676, 677, 723, 724
Improvement assessment, 665, 676–678,
692–697
Improvement factor, 125
Incomplete combustion, 77, 180, 683, 686
Industrial cycles, 702–711
Industrial ecology, viii, 701–719
Industrial metal life cycle, 710, 712
Inflation rate, 415, 759–764
Insolation, 134, 274, 287, 289, 300–301,
309, 314, 316
Insulated system, 18
Insulation, 18, 126–128, 133, 137, 138, 207,
218, 222, 305, 328, 330, 331, 391,
406–408, 410–412, 449, 451, 453,
456, 460, 491, 542, 545, 589, 601,
608, 616, 655, 728, 734
Integrated fuel cell system, 607–610
Integrated system, 481, 485, 494, 495, 607, 714
Intercept factor, 310, 312, 313
Internal energy, 5, 9, 14, 15, 17, 19–24, 26,
33, 34, 638
Internal rate of return, 776, 777
Inventory analysis, 665, 666, 669, 673–676,
679, 684–686, 692, 693, 695–697
Irradiation, 297, 298, 303, 327, 331, 498, 580
Isotope, 237–242, 244–245, 247, 260, 693
K
Kelvin temperature, 12, 269
Kinetic energy, 5, 6, 10, 11, 15, 18, 31, 33, 34,
249–250, 336, 343, 364, 380, 436,
440–442, 448, 534, 725, 726
Kinetic theory, 9–17, 246
L
Latent heat, 104, 208, 352, 397, 398, 455,
459, 468, 589
LCA. See Life cycle assessment
LCC. See Life cycle costLCS. See Life cycle savingsLevelizing, 322, 323, 330, 391, 452, 534, 535,
753–755, 767–772, 777
LHV. See Lower heating value
Life cycle assessment (LCA), viii, 154, 229,
663–697
Life cycle cost (LCC), 119, 120, 129, 130,
139, 140, 389, 392–393, 410–411,
414–416, 671, 679, 753–755, 772,
776–778
Life cycle efficiency, 228, 669, 671, 689,
691, 696, 697
Life cycle savings (LCS), 119, 141, 142,
392–393, 753, 776, 777
Line focus concentrator, 310, 331
Liquefaction, 185, 214, 366, 371, 379, 445,
588–590, 593
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), 176, 185,
226, 227, 727, 728, 730
Liquid nitrogen, 445, 588, 589
810 Index
Loan, 410, 412, 415, 416, 755, 759, 762,
767, 769, 775, 776
Lower heating value (LHV), 171, 176, 177,
185, 216, 221, 223, 224, 276, 445,
484, 520, 608, 613, 674, 686, 723,
725, 726, 743
Low-level waste, 262
LPG. See Liquefied petroleum gas
M
Macroscopic, 4–5, 15, 33
Mass, 2, 54, 99, 149, 169, 209, 236, 315,
398, 436, 483, 522, 640, 664, 702,
723, 783, 787
Material flow analysis (MFA), 711–713, 719
Material flux analysis (MFA), 154, 155
MCFCs. See Molten carbonate fuel cells
MEA. See Mono ethanol amine
Mechanical energy, 4, 5, 19, 36, 141, 284, 286,
288, 314, 317–318, 333–335, 339,
379–380, 436, 529, 689, 725, 743
Melting point (MP), 174, 188, 192, 251
Membrane separation, 218, 649, 651
Metal amines, 209, 227, 591
Metal hydrides (MH), 214, 226, 227, 504,
531, 590
MFA. See Material flow analysis; Material
flux analysis
MH. See Metal hydrides
Microscopic, 4, 5
Moisture content, 170–171, 173, 174, 179, 315,
356, 368–370, 374, 544, 570
Molecular mass, 3, 11, 22, 177, 179, 187,
193, 249, 367, 555
Molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs),
599–600, 603, 606
Mono ethanol amine (MEA), 652–653
MP. See Melting point
Multigeneration, viii, 325–333, 376,
479–514, 601
N
NAFION membrane, 525, 597, 602
Natural cycles, 99, 701, 702, 705, 707, 708
Natural gas, 52, 107, 120, 147, 169, 206, 283,
390, 432, 481, 521, 639, 667, 706,
723, 767
Natural gas liquids (NGLs), 87, 742, 743,
745, 746
NCV. See Net calorific valueNet calorific value (NCV), 171–175, 180,
367–370, 742, 743
Net zero energy building, 134–136
Neutrino, 243
Neutron radiation, 235, 243, 244, 257, 264
NGLs. See Natural gas liquidsNitrogenase, 206, 207, 584, 706
Nitrogen cycle, 705–707
Nitrogen oxides (NOx), 77–79, 81, 82, 85, 88,
158, 186, 188, 203, 209–210, 229,
366, 375, 400, 401, 592, 596, 598,
647, 652–653, 667–669, 683, 686,
687, 706
Non-concentrating solar collector, 303
Normal boiling point, 174, 177, 207, 588
Normalized indicator, 672, 681, 682,
696, 697
NOx. See Nitrogen oxides
Nuclear
energy, viii, 6, 62–63, 88, 115, 156,
233–279, 502–505, 521, 523, 529,
552, 553, 585, 681, 725, 742
fuel cycle, 85, 233, 260–262, 692, 695
heat, 233, 247–255, 257, 265,
267–279, 504, 538, 539, 557,
573–575, 694
hydrogen production, 266–267
reaction, 58, 169, 234, 235, 238–246, 249,
250, 504, 691, 708, 709
reactor, 63, 87, 233, 235, 247, 248, 251,
253–254, 256, 260, 263–265, 267,
273–276, 278, 279, 502–504, 535,
536, 552–555, 573–575, 633, 691,
692, 694
Number of Avogadro (NA), 2–3, 11, 245,
295, 526
Number of mols, 295, 545, 570–571, 604,
608, 613
O
Ocean currents energy, 55, 381
Ocean energy, 382
Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC), 57,
377–379
Octane number, 85, 177, 505, 787, 788, 802
Oil
peak, 76
sands, 62, 185, 198, 235, 264, 594, 656
shale, 185, 198
Open system, 19–20, 35, 702
Optical efficiency, 309–312
Optical error, 310, 312–314
OTEC. See Ocean thermal energy
conversion
Index 811
Oxygen, 5, 59, 77, 81, 170, 173, 176, 177,
179–183, 187, 203, 265–267,
269, 270, 272, 273, 319, 325,
367–369, 379, 479, 482–484, 493,
494, 500, 502–505, 512, 524–529,
536–540, 542, 543, 549, 554,
556–558, 560, 561, 563, 564, 567,
576–583, 586, 587, 594–599, 601,
602, 605–608, 613, 615–617, 633,
647, 648, 650, 651, 691, 715–717,
788, 795
Ozone depletion, 52, 77, 78, 119, 128, 400,
665, 667
P
Passive solar heating, 126, 302–304
Payback period, 125, 128, 133, 142, 333, 776,
778
PEM. See Proton exchange membrane
PEM fuel cell (PEMFC), 212, 218, 226,
597–599, 601–602, 607, 675, 676,
680, 689
Perfect gas, 22, 27, 568
Petroleum, 58, 60–63, 65, 66, 76, 78, 85, 87,
147, 169, 170, 174–177, 183–186,
198, 226, 235, 264, 390, 404,
521–523, 535, 540, 548, 554, 592,
594, 625, 639, 667, 680, 723, 724,
727, 734, 742, 747
PGM. See Platinum group material
Phosphoric acid fuel cell, 595, 599
Phosphorus, 366, 667, 702–704, 707–708
cycle, 707
Photo-biochemical processes, 286
Photo-bioreactor, 183, 582
Photo-catalysis, 524, 577
Photo-catalytic water splitting, 186,
576–582, 592
Photo-chemical ozone creation potential
(POCP), 667, 668, 698
Photoelectric effect, 286–287
Photoheterotrophic, 183
Photon, 243, 244, 251, 284, 286–288,
293–295, 302, 318, 325, 523, 524,
532, 597, 626
Photonic energy, 284, 286, 295, 302, 523, 524,
532, 576–583
Photo-oxidant formation, 665, 667, 668
indicator, 696, 698
Photosynthesis, 45, 57, 59, 60, 179, 183,
284, 286, 294–296, 325,
334–335, 365, 366, 524, 582,
586–587, 626
Photovoltaic cell (PV), 11, 20, 26, 40, 135,
140, 294, 295, 297, 318–321,
324–330, 384, 529–532, 587,
624–626, 689
Photovoltaic-thermal (PV/T), 301, 325–330
Plank constant, 37, 38
Platinum group material (PGM), 709–710
flow, 4, 374, 489, 600
Plutonium, 63, 244–245, 247, 258, 260, 264
POCP. See Photo-chemical ozone creation
potential
Point focus concentrator, 310, 312, 314
Policy, vii–viii, 38, 51–53, 66, 67, 71, 75,
77, 79, 94, 109, 111, 113, 114,
119–121, 124, 125, 129, 131–136,
139, 142, 143, 147–166, 392, 394,
395, 500, 501, 663, 664, 696, 697,
737, 754, 773
Pollutant, 76–78, 80–81, 85, 126, 143, 366,
375, 401, 403, 457, 486, 633, 666,
668, 669, 678, 682, 686–688,
691, 727
Pollution control, 84–85, 392, 400
Polytropic process, 24, 25
Positron, 243, 244
Potential energy, 4–6, 19, 20, 31, 33, 35, 47, 57,
137, 283–284, 295, 341, 362, 364,
436, 442–443, 533
Power density, 253, 298, 381, 382, 438, 599,
600, 614, 615, 617–622
Power generation, 57, 60, 71, 84, 106, 107,
120, 147, 158, 167, 181, 192, 198,
209–211, 218, 219, 228, 235, 253,
255, 265, 266, 298, 299, 309, 316,
320–324, 326, 329, 340, 346, 348,
350, 352, 353, 355, 356, 358, 365,
372–376, 380, 401, 405, 407, 446,
447, 479, 480, 484, 490, 504, 508,
519, 520, 529, 530, 532–535, 552,
553, 566–567, 572, 586, 595–599,
601, 602, 605, 607, 615, 619, 620,
633, 668, 669, 673, 684, 685, 689,
691, 715–718, 735, 741, 743, 753
Practical application impact ratio, 155–157,
159, 160, 514
Pressure, 4, 111, 120, 170, 204, 247, 295,
395, 443, 482, 525, 633, 678, 702,
734, 784
Pressurized water reactor (PWR), 255,
256, 262
Price escalation, 414, 415, 428, 755,
763–767, 769, 771, 776, 778,
779, 781
812 Index
Process heating, 57, 138, 204, 235, 254, 264,
279, 286, 306, 348, 359, 360, 370,
376, 389–391, 393, 479, 501, 506,
508, 510, 513, 515, 550, 553, 574,
606, 726, 733–735
Proton, 206, 207, 212, 236, 237, 239–240,
243, 244, 247, 525, 527, 577–582,
584, 590, 595–600, 603, 615, 676
Proton exchange membrane (PEM), 212, 527,
577, 578, 596, 597, 673, 676
Public procurement policy, 149
PV. See Photovoltaic cellPV/T. See Photovoltaic-thermal
PWR. See Pressurized water reactor
Pyrolysis, 171, 181–182, 186–190, 192,
366, 370, 543
Q
Quantum efficiency, 580
Quantum mechanics, 233
R
Radiation, 4, 37, 41, 44–45, 53–59, 65, 78,
79, 85, 88, 93–99, 101–103, 140,
234, 235, 238, 240, 243–246,
248–251, 253, 254, 257, 262–264,
283, 284, 286–311, 313–316,
318–322, 325, 327–330, 582, 668,
689, 696, 725, 726
dose, 263, 264
Radiative forcing, 101–104
Radioactive decay, 234, 235, 238, 243
Radionuclide, 85, 242, 262–264
Rankine cycle, 178, 204, 321, 322, 353,
356–359, 372, 377–379, 389, 397,
480, 504–508, 511–512, 533, 537,
550, 567–569, 575–576, 609, 610,
643, 660
Rankine temperature, 321, 322, 353,
357–359
Rate of discounting the future, 755–775
Rayleigh distribution, 338
Reaction heat, 1, 188, 192, 210, 447, 503, 554,
557, 568, 598, 611, 657
Reaction kinetics, 210, 540, 558, 598, 610–612
Real rate, 412, 761–763, 765, 769–771, 777
Recycling, 83, 114, 119, 120, 128, 136,
139, 204, 206–207, 260, 353,
520, 537, 540, 551, 555–556,
580, 582, 589, 590, 601–602,
604–606, 608, 609, 643, 644,
646, 652, 655, 658, 663, 673, 675,
701, 707, 710, 713
Reflection, 9, 55, 56, 58, 93, 304–305, 313
Refraction, 302, 309, 459
Refrigerant, viii, 26, 27, 29, 30, 188, 203,
209–210, 216, 220–224, 229,
321–322, 353, 401, 459, 496, 508,
633, 638–643, 660
Refrigerator, 30–32, 38, 83, 204, 207–209,
222, 223, 225, 230, 286, 314,
316–317, 321–322, 325, 356,
389–391, 394, 397, 399, 420,
459, 487, 493, 494, 505, 506,
508, 510–514, 588, 589, 608,
633, 639, 641–643, 655, 661,
726–727, 731, 732, 755
Renewable energy, viii, 52, 53, 57, 59, 81, 83,
84, 109, 112, 114, 120, 122, 124,
133, 135, 140, 147, 149, 152, 158,
169, 178, 186, 191, 283–384, 392,
402, 403, 445, 519–521, 523,
529, 533–535, 548, 585, 590, 592,
622–624, 626, 667, 681, 682, 684,
702, 726, 753–755, 769, 772,
776–778
Renewable obligations, 149, 754
Restructuring, 132, 149
Rffu. See Fossil fuel utilization ratio
Rgei. See Green energy impact ratio
Rges. See Green energy-based sustainability
ratio
Rim angle, 311, 312
Risk assessment, 154, 263
S
Sectoral
efficiency, 723–749
energy
analysis, 42, 137, 422, 462, 724, 748
utilization, viii, 76–85, 723–749
exergy utilization, viii, 723–749
impact ratio, 155–157, 159, 160,
162, 165
Separation, 27, 45, 86, 99, 182, 188, 189,
204–205, 214, 216–220, 222, 223,
260, 267, 376, 379, 397, 400, 422,
458, 460, 479, 522–523, 532, 535,
537–540, 544, 546, 549, 573, 585,
606, 607, 633–640, 643–652,
656–658, 660, 679, 706, 714, 715,
719, 720, 753
Shading factor, 310–313, 383
Sievert, 263, 264, 649
Social impact, vii, 76, 623, 624, 663
SOFC. See Solid oxide fuel cell
Index 813
Solar
collector, 254, 274, 287, 288, 291, 299,
306, 308–312, 315, 316, 322, 390,
489, 495, 498, 502, 754
concentrator, 287–290, 299, 302,
310–312, 314, 321, 331, 488–489,
531, 549, 754
dish, 309, 311, 313, 321, 323
driven heat engine, 57, 286, 300, 318,
321–323, 493
energy, 41, 45, 53–60, 65, 81, 94, 136, 158,
178, 183, 213–215, 274, 275,
283–306, 314, 317–318, 321–325,
327, 328, 330, 331, 335, 362, 379,
380, 389, 390, 431, 454, 458, 488,
492, 494, 496, 498, 514, 519, 530,
532, 534, 538, 549–551, 564, 565,
591, 593, 626, 672, 682, 683, 685,
688, 689, 691, 702
exergy, 44–46, 301, 320, 498
exergy maps, 298–302, 342–344
pond, 57, 302, 304–306, 458
through, 286, 519
tower, 308–309, 322, 323
Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC), 210, 372–375,
479–485, 505–508, 567, 596–600,
602–609, 615, 657, 658, 715–718
Specific heat, 21, 22, 189, 343, 455, 458, 463,
468, 491
Specific thermal load, 391
Specific volume, 10, 19–20, 22, 398, 638, 643
Spectral range, 99
SPI. See Sustainable process indexStoichiometric ratio, 180, 191, 206, 213, 216,
368, 370, 543, 551, 600, 613, 615,
618–622, 713
Subcritical reaction, 248, 553, 636
Sulfur, 77, 78, 81, 85, 105, 170, 171, 173, 174,
176, 177, 179, 180, 184, 206,
266–267, 323, 366–368, 538, 539,
548, 549, 708, 709
cycle, 702, 708, 709
Sulfur-iodine (S-I) cycle, 266–267, 538,
549, 553
Supercritical carbon dioxide (CO2), 633–634,
638, 641–646
extraction and separation, 638, 643,
645, 646
technology, 637, 639, 643, 644, 646
Supercritical fluid, 636, 645, 655
Supercritical reaction, 248
Surface tension, 5, 39, 636, 784, 790,
792–796
Sustainability, 67, 109, 113, 115, 121–123,
131, 148–149, 154, 156–160,
162–165, 392, 393, 402–404, 425,
479, 480, 500, 514, 520–525,
623–626, 663, 673, 678, 683
assessment, 147, 154, 158, 165, 520,
622–625
Sustainable development, viii, 42, 51, 52, 72,
86, 89, 94, 115, 120–124, 142,
147–165, 203, 233, 314, 402–404,
521, 586, 624, 660, 663, 701,
724, 773
Sustainable process index (SPI), 154
Synthetic fuel, 54, 60, 169, 178, 185–186, 198,
286, 304, 318, 321, 325, 382,
433–436, 445–446, 454, 485–487,
633, 670, 723, 739
System integration, 392, 479–485, 493
T
Tar, 174, 181, 182, 185, 542, 544, 545
Taxation, 129, 133, 142, 564, 755, 759,
772–774
Tax exemption, 136, 754
Tax on salvage, 774, 776
TCWS. See Thermo-chemical water splitting
Temperature, 7, 52, 93, 120, 169, 204, 246,
286, 395, 440, 479, 524, 633, 685,
702, 725, 784,
TES. See Thermal energy storage
Textile dyeing, 643, 644
Thermal conductivity, 251, 253, 468, 520, 542,
636, 637, 784–786, 790, 792–796
Thermal energy, 11, 19, 42, 44–45, 53, 83, 158,
178, 180, 182, 188, 190, 191, 205,
219, 220, 235, 253, 254, 270–274,
283–284, 286, 300–318, 321, 323,
327, 328, 330, 331, 348, 377–379,
390–392, 394–397, 399–401, 404,
407, 408, 432, 435, 436, 444, 447,
448, 454–460, 464, 479, 480, 491,
492, 494, 498, 500, 508–510,
512–514, 523–525, 527, 528, 537,
539, 556, 557, 561, 566, 574, 590,
591, 608, 642, 691, 743
Thermal energy storage (TES), 42, 83, 304,
379–380, 391, 399, 435, 443–444,
447, 454–465
Thermal radiation, 41, 44–45, 93, 94, 288, 294,
310, 325, 335, 491, 529, 725
Thermal reactors, 250, 265
Thermo-catalytic reaction, 204, 216–218, 229,
678, 679
814 Index
Thermo-chemical water splitting (TCWS),
213, 266–268, 447, 494, 495,
502, 524, 537–540, 549, 553,
555–564, 568–571, 573–576,
691–696
Thermodynamics, vii, 1–46, 53, 54, 128,
154, 165, 187, 191, 198, 267,
268, 286–302, 332, 335–344,
349–352, 359, 360, 362–364,
366–370, 375, 377, 382, 401,
403–410, 414, 415, 417, 420,
422, 425, 426, 434, 448, 453,
461, 462, 464, 470, 475, 479,
480, 482, 484, 489, 508, 510,
512, 527, 528, 560, 561, 563,
568, 574, 600, 610, 634, 639–640,
654, 663, 664, 678–679, 701–702,
714, 723–727, 734, 748–749, 788
equilibrium, 17–19, 32, 37, 39, 289, 291,
295, 639–640
law, vii, 18–21, 24, 31–39, 42, 128, 401,
403–404, 461, 462, 510, 568, 663,
734, 748–749
limit of conversion, 349–352
model, 25, 28–29, 191, 268, 287, 294, 335,
367, 405, 409, 482, 508, 512, 634,
678, 724–727
property, 6, 14, 15, 34
system, vii, 1, 2, 4, 18–20, 22, 24,
31–34, 37, 39, 42, 46, 53, 363,
401, 403, 404, 426, 434, 461,
462, 663
Thermolysis, 524, 537, 625
Thorium, 63, 245, 258, 260, 265, 283
Tidal energy, 58–59, 380, 534
Toxicity
indicator, 324, 668, 669
Transmission, 58, 98, 121, 138, 253, 284–285,
295, 302–305, 308, 310–313, 315,
321, 328, 334–335, 346, 353, 381,
390, 431, 433, 435, 436, 449, 450,
452, 483, 527, 575, 613–614,
685, 686
Transuranic waste, 262
Tri-generation, 479, 492, 493, 501, 502,
505–514, 583
Trilateral flash Rankine cycle, 358, 359
Triple point, 17, 634–636, 648, 785, 789
Tritium, 238, 241–242, 246, 247
Tungsten cycle, 710, 712
U
Uranium, 63, 85, 87–89, 122, 169, 233–235,
237, 238, 244–249, 253, 255,
257–262, 264, 283, 402, 521, 553,
667, 691–693, 787
fuel cycle, 233, 234, 244–245, 248–249,
258, 260, 262, 691–693
pellet, 233, 234, 260
Uranium dioxide (UO2), 248, 257, 258, 260
Urea, 185–198, 591, 592, 639, 655–656, 706
V
Vacuum, 3, 7, 8, 219, 240, 308, 310, 353, 496,
498, 543, 563, 589, 590, 726–727,
731, 732
Vapor quality, 17, 256, 562
VAWT. See Vertical axis wind turbine
Vertical axis wind turbine (VAWT), 344–346
Very high temperature gas cooled reactor
(VHTR), 256, 257, 267
VHTR. See Very high temperature gas cooled
reactor
Viscosity, 380–381, 520, 636, 644, 650,
784–786, 790, 792–796
VOCs. See Volatile organic compounds
Volatile matter, 170, 171, 181
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), 77, 78,
81, 85, 88, 297, 301, 320, 327, 613,
614, 668, 669, 683, 686, 687
Voltage-current density curve, 611, 614, 615
Volumetric heat generation rate, 250–253
Volumetric power density, 617
W
Waste disposal, 85, 154, 260–263
Waste incineration, 85, 254, 390, 399, 523,
557, 571–572
Water
electrolysis, 186, 213, 271–272,
285–286, 319, 348, 378, 379,
502, 523–530, 532, 533, 535,
536, 566, 572, 592, 593, 626,
671, 686
splitting, 186, 213, 266–268, 270–278,
447, 494, 495, 502–504, 524,
525, 532, 537–540, 544, 553,
555–571, 573–582, 592, 607,
691–696
thermolysis, 537
Wave energy, 284, 379–382, 534
Index 815
Wind
chill temperature, 341–343
exergy, 344, 689
exergy map, 342–344
power plant, 84, 346–348, 689, 691
speed, 93, 315, 337–341, 343,
345, 534
turbine, 57, 333–334, 336–347, 380–381,
534, 684–685
Work, 2, 55, 109, 123, 149, 169, 203, 235, 286,
399, 432, 479, 535, 633, 670, 714,
723, 755,
recovery, 209, 220, 222, 223, 225, 228, 480,
557, 574, 602, 645
Working fluid, viii, 26, 188, 203, 209–210,
218–220, 229, 267, 288, 308,
321–322, 353, 356–357, 360, 377,
399, 446–447, 487, 496, 505, 508,
561, 564, 568, 574, 633, 638–643, 660
X
X-rays, 234, 251, 262, 264
Y
Yukawa force, 239, 240
Z
Zircaloy, 248, 251–253, 255
816 Index
top related